Introduction To Psychology PDF

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Lesson 1.1: Nature and History of Psychology, Schools of Thoughts in Psychology Nature of Psychology The word "psychology" is derived from the ancient Greek words "psyche," meaning soul or mind, and "logos," mea...

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Lesson 1.1: Nature and History of Psychology, Schools of Thoughts in Psychology Nature of Psychology The word "psychology" is derived from the ancient Greek words "psyche," meaning soul or mind, and "logos," meaning discourse or study "Soul" or "mind" refers to the essence of a person's inner being or consciousness, including mental processes, emotions, thoughts, and all intangible aspects of human experience that psychology seeks to study. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The phrase “mental processes and behavior” includes not only what people do but also their thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological processes that sustain bodily functions (Feldman, 2011). Goals of Psychology 1. To describe behaviors and mental processes. This requires observing and documenting the details to systematically describe how people behave and respond 2. To explain why behaviors and mental processes occur and develop. This involves identifying the underlying factors behind various psychological phenomena. 3. To predict how individuals will think, feel, and act in certain situations and in response to given stimuli, based on processed data from conducted observations and explanatory research. 4. To change or control behaviors and mental processes in ways that would benefit targeted individuals or groups. This necessitates employing psychological knowledge to help individuals or groups manage their behavior and mental state, improve their quality of life, and handle practical problems (Coon et al., 2022; Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2011; Feldman, 2011). Here’s how the goals of psychology are employed. A psychologist is dealing with a college student who is reportedly experiencing symptoms of depression. Let’s see how the goals of psychology is employed: 1. Describe: The attending psychologist begins by assessing whether the symptoms related to depression are evidently manifested. This assessment involves administering psychological tests, conducting interviews, making observations, gathering self-reports, performing a mental status examination, and using behavioral checklists. These procedures are recorded for data analysis, aiming to specifically describe the behavior and mental state of the student. 2. Explain: After analyzing the collected information, the psychologist explains the possible underlying causes of the student’s depression and identifies the negative thought patterns and behaviors contributing to the condition. 3. Predict: Using the analyzed data and research-based information, the psychologist predicts that if the student’s depression is not addressed, it may lead to a worsening condition that could further affect other areas of the student’s life, as well as their overall mental and physical health. 4. Control: The psychologist designs a comprehensive treatment plan to help the student manage depression and improve their mental and physical health. Psychology employs scientific methods to acquire answers that are well-founded, reliable, and valid, in contrast to the often inaccurate conclusions derived from intuition and speculation. These methods serve as the basis and guide for all scholarly psychological research in the pursuit of answers (Coon et al., 2022; Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2011; Feldman, 2011). Brief History of Psychology The history of psychology can be traced through centuries. It started at least during the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in ancient Greece. These philosophers have debated psychological topics as where human knowledge comes from, the nature of mind and soul, the relationship of the mind and the body, and have explored topics such as perception, memory, and personality. Hippocrates, known as the “Father of Medicine,” suggested that mental disorders had natural causes and could be treated like physical illnesses. In the 17th and 18th centuries, René Descartes proposed the concept of dualism, the idea that the mind and body are separate entities that interact. John Locke, emphasized empiricism, the belief that knowledge comes from experiences and observations, which influenced later psychological thought (Feldman, 2011). Psychology, thus, has its roots in philosophy, especially in the philosophical view called empiricism. However, the birth of modern scientific psychology was in 1879. It was Wilhem Wundt who established the first formal psychology research laboratory, at the University of Leipzig, Germany. Wundt established psychology as independent science and distinct from philosophy. Wundt was a physiologist, he had been studying vision, hearing, feelings, and other sensory perceptual systems. Wundt’s contribution regarded him as the “Father of Modern Psychology”, marking psychology’s emergence as a distinct scientific discipline (Feldman, 2011) Schools of Thought in Psychology Shortly after its inception, the new science of psychology began to organize into various schools of thought, each championed by pioneering thinkers. The term "early schools of thought" refers to the foundational theoretical viewpoints that emerged during the early evolution of psychology as a scientific discipline. These early schools of thought provided distinct frameworks for studying and understanding human behavior and mental processes. Although there were conflicting frameworks in terms of their focus, all of them fundamentally and meaningfully influenced the direction and methodologies of psychological research. The early schools of thought are as follows in chronological order: 1. Structuralism (Late 19th century) The journey began with Structuralism in the late 19th century, pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, who sought to focus on analyzing the basic elements of consciousness (e.g sensations, images, feelings) and how they combine to form complex mental experiences. Sensations are the basic sensory experiences such as sights, sounds, and smells. Images are the memories or mental representations of sensory experiences, while feelings are the affective states or emotional responses. Structuralists believed that by analyzing these elements, they could understand the structure of the mind and how these elements combine to form complex conscious experiences. The method they used was Introspection, a process used to report conscious experiences into individual sensations, feelings, and images in response to stimuli (Coon et al., 2022; Myers & DeWall, 2021; Feldman, 2011) For example, A structuralist might study the sensation of taste by asking individuals to describe the different qualities and intensities of taste they experience when consuming various foods. Introspection has several shortcomings. It heavily relies on subjective self-reports, which makes it difficult to verify the consistency and accuracy of the data, and poses challenges for scientific measurement. Additionally, this method focuses solely on conscious experiences and overlooks unconscious processes. These limitations contributed to the decline of structuralism and highlighted the need for more objective psychological approaches (Coon et al., 2022; Myers & DeWall, 2021; Feldman, 2011). 2. Functionalism (Late 19th Century - Early 20th Century) Not long after, Functionalism arose, advocated by William James, where he set up the first psychology laboratory in the United States in the late 1870s. Functionalism was formed as a reaction to the principles of the structuralist school of thought. Instead of focusing on what made-up consciousness or the structure itself, functionalist thinkers were interested in the role that these processes play. James’s interest in how the mind functions in adapting to the environment developed into functionalism, a school of psychology that views behaviors as active adaptations. For functionalists, what is more important to study is how the mind affects what an individual does. Hence, it emphasized on understanding the purpose and practical consequences of mental process and behavior. It focused on how mental and behavioral processes function to help individuals enable adaptation and survival to their environment. The methods they used were practical applications, observation of behavior in natural settings. (Coon et al., 2022; Myers & DeWall, 2021; Feldman, 2011).  For example, A functionalist might study the purpose of anxiety by exploring how it helps individuals anticipate and respond to potential threats in their environment. Another example, how does the sense of taste contribute to identifying nutritious versus harmful foods? Basically, a functionalist would focus on the purpose and practical implications of the sense of taste in everyday life. 3. Psychoanalytic (20th century) At the turn of the 20th century, Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalysis explored the influence of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences on behavior, and the interplay between the conscious and unconscious mind on behavior. It focused on the role of unconscious desires, conflicts, and motivations. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, ego, and superego. The id consists of primal urges, the ego is the component of personality charged with dealing with reality, and the superego is the part of the personality that holds all the ideals and values we internalize from our parents and culture. Freud believed that the interaction of these three elements was what led to all of the complex human behaviors. Psychoanalysis employed techniques such as free association and dream analysis to uncover unconscious thoughts and emotions and unresolved issues, and analysis of defense mechanisms (Coon et al., 2022; Myers & DeWall, 2021; Feldman, 2011). For example, a psychoanalyst might explore how repressed childhood memories and unresolved conflicts contribute to the development of certain psychological disorders. 4. Behaviorism (Early to Mid-20th Century) Behaviorism was founded by John B. Watson, who strongly opposed the study of the “mind” or conscious experience. Watson shifted his direction of studying human complexity to observable behaviors and the ways they are learned and modified through interactions with the environment rather than internal mental processes. For Watson, to make psychology a science, its method must be scientific; hence, should be observable and measurable. Behaviorist practitioners basically observed the relationship between stimuli (events in the environment) and an animal’s or individual’s response (any muscular action, glandular activity, or other identifiable aspect of behavior). These observations were objective, as they were based solely on external behaviors rather than introspection or subjective experiences. Additionally, it emphasizes the role of conditioning in shaping behavior, with major concepts including classical conditioning of Ivan Pavlov (associating stimuli with responses) and operant conditioning of B.F Skinner (using reinforcement and punishment) Further, it also explores how environmental factors impact and shape behaviors, through controlled experiments and conditioning techniques as their methods of studying behavior. Although behaviorism has earned recognition for its significant contributions to psychology, it also has shortcomings. Its exclusion of internal states and cognitive processes, coupled with its exclusive focus on observable behaviors and environmental influences, overlooks the important role of thoughts, emotions, and cognitive functions, which are crucial for explaining human behavior. As a result, behaviorism can condense human responses as overly mechanical rather than recognizing the complexity of rational thought (Coon et al., 2022; Myers & DeWall, 2021; Feldman, 2011). For example, on rewards and punishment, a behavioral psychologist might study how rewards and punishments affect the learning and performance of certain behaviors. 5. Gestalt Psychology (20th Century) Psychologist Max Wertheimer was the first to advance the Gestalt perspective, along with Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler. Wertheimer argued that it is imprecise to introspectively analyze psychological events in pieces, or elements, as the structuralist attempted to do. Gestalt psychology's main perspective adheres to the belief that psychological phenomena should be viewed as organized, structured wholes rather than as isolated parts. It highlights that the mind perceives objects and events as unified and coherent configurations, rather than as a collection of individual components. This school of thought is known for their slogan such as “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” In fact, the German word Gestalt means form, pattern, or whole. Key aspects of their contributions are on holistic perception, principle of organization (e.g. figure-ground, proximity, similarity, closure, continuity), and insight and problem-solving (Coon et al., 2022; Myers & DeWall, 2021; Feldman, 2011). For instance, a Gestalt psychologist is studying how people perceive complex visual patterns. The psychologist presents participants with an image that contains several overlapping shapes and figures, such as a series of lines and curves forming a seemingly ambiguous pattern. This situation shows that individuals perceive the overlapping shapes or patterns as a coherent object or figure, representing Gestalt principle that we tend to organize visual stimuli into meaningful wholes rather than focusing solely on individual elements. This method stresses out how human perception is guided by the overall structure and organization of sensory information. Figure 1 and Figure 2 illustrate the principles of visual perception on Figure-Ground and Proximity principles. Figure 1. Figure-Ground is a visual principle in Figure 2. Proximity is a visual principle in which an which an individual organizes an image by individual perceives a stimulus that is close together as separating a figure from the ground. a whole image 6. Humanistic Psychology The main proponents of humanistic psychology were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. The evolution of the humanistic approach probed the approach of psychoanalytic and behaviorism approaches. This school of thought is distinct from other schools of thoughts of psychology, which highlights the inherent goodness and potential for growth within every individual and underscores the importance of personal choice and free will, contrasting with deterministic views found in other psychological approaches. Humanistic psychology adopts a holistic perspective, viewing people as complex beings whose thoughts, feelings, and experiences are interconnected, rather than simply focusing on unobservable and secluded behaviors or mental processes. From the viewpoint of Abraham Maslow, he is known for creating the hierarchy of needs, emphasizing the phases of human motivation and the quest for self- actualization. Maslow believed that individuals strive to achieve and satisfy basic needs before advancing to higher levels of psychological growth and self-fulfillment. On the other hand, Carl Rogers is known for his person-centered approach, emphasizing the importance of providing a non-judgmental, emphatic environment to facilitate individuals achieve self-actualization and personal growth. Rogers pays attention to the subjective experience of the individuals or clients and establishes a therapeutic relationship (Coon et al., 2022; Myers & DeWall, 2021; Feldman, 2011). To illustrate further, a 26-year-old professional who struggles with low self-esteem and feels unsatisfied and unfulfilled in her career. She feels not living up to her potential and is unhappy with her personal and professional life. In this situation, a therapist using a humanistic approach would create a supportive and empathetic therapeutic environment where she can explore her self-concept and core values. The therapist would help her identify and pursue goals that align with her desires and potential, empowering her to achieve personal growth and fulfillment while maintaining her authentic self. 7. Cognitive Psychology (Late 1950s) Cognitive psychology emerged in the mid-20th century as a reaction to behaviorism, which dominated psychology at the time. Cognitive perspective began to advance in the late 1950s and focuses their study on mental processes, such as information processing, thinking, reasoning, perceiving, learning and problem-solving. However, 1967 was often cited as their remarkable year due to the publication of Ulric Neisser’s book “Cognitive Psychology,” which helped gain fame for this psychological thought. Although cognitive psychology focuses heavily on studying mental processes, it primarily relies on objective observation rather than subjective introspection. Meanwhile, the method of studying objectively the subjective mental events is through operational definition. This operational definition is defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it (Coon et al., 2022; Myers & DeWall, 2021; Feldman, 2011).  For example, memory retention can be defined by the number of words accurately recalled from a list after 24 hours. Similarly, problem-solving ability might be defined by the time it takes for an individual to correctly solve a standard set of puzzles or tasks Integrating the three perspectives in Psychology’s level of analysis In the early days of psychology, several viewpoints were presented to study the human mind and behavior. However, contemporary psychology embraces a more holistic approach known as the Biopsychosocial Model. This integrated model combines biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis, offering a more comprehensive understanding of human mental processes and behaviors. Here’s how this model is applied in the current practice of psychology: 1. Biological perspective examines the influences of physiological and genetic predispositions of behavior. This includes studying the brain mechanisms, neurotransmitters, hormones, and genetic factors. These biological influences can be integrated with psychological processes by examining how the brain chemistry affects thoughts, emotions, and behaviors; 2. Psychological perspective highlights mental processes and how they influence behavior. This includes the study of cognition, emotion, learning, and motivation. These psychological processes are connected to biological factors by examining their relationship with brain activity, genetic predispositions, and similar influences; and, 3. Social-Cultural perspective considers how thinking and behaviors differ across situations and cultures. It examines the influence of the presence of others, cultural norms, family and societal expectations, peer and group influences, and even social media (Coon et al., 2022; Myers, 2014). For instance, a person with a family history of depression may have a genetic predisposition to the disorder, potentially involving imbalances in brain chemicals like serotonin. This person might also experience negative thought patterns and coping difficulties that intensify the person’s feelings of sadness. Additionally, social factors such as stressful situations at work, lack of social support, financial problems, and marital or relational issues can further contribute to the person’s depression. The Biopsychosocial Model integrates these factors by viewing how the person’s genetic predisposition (biological), negative thinking patterns (psychological), and stressful environment (social) all interrelate to influence the overall mental health problem of a person. Exploring and analyzing these factors (biological, psychological, and social-cultural), human experiences are better understood and aided with appropriate help and support.