Psych Final Exam PDF

- Early methodology focused on the structure of thought rather than the function of thought. - John B Watson stole methodology from neurology Intuition: A gut feeling, may or may not be right but intuition can be built on Common Sense: Suggestion that an action, belief, or thought is...

- Early methodology focused on the structure of thought rather than the function of thought. - John B Watson stole methodology from neurology Intuition: A gut feeling, may or may not be right but intuition can be built on Common Sense: Suggestion that an action, belief, or thought is innate. Nothing to base it on. - Based on experiences - Psy greek letter (trident) an abbreviation for the word psychology Common Sense Psychology: The non scientific gathering of data - Influences your behavior, beliefs, and expectations - Can be controlled this way - We listen to popular people, attractive people, people of higher status, confident people, and those who are “seemingly” experts Confirmation Bias: We tend to look for information that supports our beliefs. We reject things that we don’t think are true. Overconfidence Bias: Where our own guesses, ideas, and our own predictions tend to feel more correct than they actually are. Goals of Science 1. Description: Systematic and unbiased (consistency) a. Operational Definitions: A precise definition of what you’re measuring or observing. As specific terms as possible. You need these definitions in your description. 2. Prediction: Outcomes to be predicted. a. Knowing in advance when a behavior will occur. b. You can only predict if you’re able to explain 3. Explanation: Knowledge of how a prediction (behavior) can be reproduced. 4. Control: Being able to control behavior. Can you manipulate these variables to better someone’s life. Apply in a therapeutic context. Research Methods 1. Descriptive: Focus and goal is description a. Naturalistic Observation: Observations made in that environment are unchanged and left as is. You have to define variables. You have to place yourself in the same environment as the subject. Try to minimize your influence on the subject although there will sometimes be some. The problem is that you will create variables. b. Surveys: Asking a series of questions to elicit a response. Exams are surveys. Can ask multiple questions on the same topic to view what is known. Negations in language slows people down. Wording of questions can influence results. c. Case Studies: Where one person is observed and their behaviors are monitored and measured. Looking for change or behavioral change/patterns. We do this  often for things that are unethical. Used for testing therapeutic techniques. Using framework that already exists to try something new. - There is no cause and effect with these approaches. You cannot be sure that your method is what caused change. 2. Correlation: Find a statistical relationship between or among variables. Between= 2 variables. Among= 3 or more in the variables. - Represented by the letter R which is usually equal to anything from -1.00-0-1.00 - Will be telling you the strength of the strength of the correlation - The closer to 1, regardless of the symbol, the stronger the correlation - The closer to 0, the weaker the correlation - The symbol negative or positive indicates the direction of the relationship - When the values on the x and y axis are increasing this is a positive correlation - When the x value increases and the y value decreases, this is a negative correlation - 1.00 or -1.00 means that this correlates 100% of the time and it is a perfect correlation - 0.00 means there is no statistical correlation but it depends what you are testing a. Non-Linear Trend: When the x and y increase until a point where the y begins to decrease. When there is no statistical correlation and you get 0.00 but there is a relationship. - Correlation models also have no cause and effect. Even at a perfect correlation there is no causation. 3. Experimental Design: Establishes cause and effect - Independent and Dependent Variables - Independent variable is the one being manipulated while the other dependent variable is being measured for possible changes - Experimental and control group is needed - The experimental group is exposed to the experimental treatment - Control group dealing with what is normal in that event. No experimental treatment. Sex-Linked Traits: (x or y) only found on the sex chromosomes Sex-Limited Traits: autosomal chromosomes - Recessive traits that are sex-linked are more likely to show up in men than in women. - Sex-limited traits are in both men and women but are more common in men than in women. - Example: Facial hair on men but can show up in women sometimes (hormonal) - Women show breast growth but this can happen in men too (hormonal) - Color blindness is a sex-linked trait commonly found in men - Dna found in the nucleus or nuclear area Epigenetics: Changes or differences in the expression of the phenotype but no change in the DNA genetic code. Histones: Proteins that bind DNA into a ball - The histone tail loosens up and the DNA unravels slightly and now the unraveled DNA can be expressed (promotes expression) - When the histone tail tightens, the expression of certain DNA is suppressed (ceases expression) - These epigenetics patterns can be inherited by offspring - Traits do not just disappear, the DNA must remove them. Lack of use does not remove a particular trait. - Have not found a genetic component linked to religious affiliation. Nervous System - Divided into two groups, the central and peripheral - CNS: Composed of the brain and the spinal cord - PNS: Composed of the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous system (Gastrointestinal, can function independently or with the autonomic sometimes) - Somatic Nervous System: Soma is the Greek word for body. This is the body of the nervous system. All the information is collected here. - Afferent Neurons: Sensory, brings information into the system - Efferent Neurons: Motor, sends the signals out - Autonomic Nervous System: Used for involuntary tasks like breathing and our heart beating. - Also uses afferent neurons to pick up info from our organs - Efferent neurons used to carry info to the organs to perform a certain task (telling your heart to beat) - Subdivision that stems from efferent neurons (Sympathetic and Parasympathetic NS) - Fight or flight is a response to stress which the sympathetic and parasympathetic are involved in. - Sympathetic communicates to the organs to react. Pupils dilate, heart rate increases (Stress, Anxiety) - Parasympathetic NS slows down and helps end the sympathetic response. Heart rate decreases, sweating decreases, and the digestion resumes (psychological relaxation) - You can control the sympathetic and parasympathetic responses to a degree and with practice. - Parasympathetic NS is involved in sexual arousal - Sympathetic NS is involved in orgasm - These two systems can work simultaneously, however, the one that is the strongest will outshine the other. Neurons - Soma is the body of the neuron and it is filled with cytoplasm (organelle) - Cell membrane is a protective barrier with fat layers (lipid bilayer). It is semi-permeable meaning it lets some things out but not others. - Dendrites (word for trees) are short processes that come off the soma and they receive most of the sympathetic contact from other neurons. Communication is getting picked up by the dendrites. - The axon is a long narrow process coming off the soma. - Terminal buttons are where the release of neurotransmitters occurs. Dendrites then can pick up the neurotransmitters. - Neurotransmitters are molecules that influence the functioning of other cells. - Myelin sheath is on most axons but not all. It is a fatty insulation along the axon. - The space between the myelin sheath are the nodes of ranvier Organelles - Inside the nucleus of the cell is where you will find the DNA - Mitochondria is where the energy for the cell is made. It has its own mitochondrial DNA. This DNA will match that of your mother, it is not the same as your DNA. - Ribonucleic acid (RNA) interacts with DNA to synthesize proteins and help with genetic expression. - Ribosomes synthesize protein and are found on the endoplasmic reticulum which has two subsections, one rough, and the other smooth. - The ribosomes are on the rough e.r. - Lipid manufacturing occurs in the smooth e.r. - Anything that needs to be disposed of in the cell and breaking down proteins is all done by the lysosomes. Neural Function - On average the neuron is at -70mV, this is the resting potential. The negativity is mostly within the neuron. Much more positive charge on the outside. - Ions are involved in this neural charge - K+ - Na+ - Ca++ - There is more K+ internally than there is externally. But the concentration of Na+ is higher outside than it is internally. Also much more Ca++ outside than inside. The semipermeable membrane allows the ions in and out. - Sodium-potassium pump helps regulate these ions in the cell - The ions are attracted to the opposite charge which adds pressure to the membrane. This is called electrostatic pressure. - Diffusion is when the ions want to go to an area of lower concentration. Adds pressure because the ions want to get in.  - As the neuron gets signals, the voltage can change by decreasing or increasing, depending on the neurotransmitter, - If the neuron gets to -65mV, you have an action potential, which is a complete reversal of the membrane ions. Na+ will rush in causing a voltage of 50mV. Meaning the neuron is firing. - If you hit -65mV the sodium channels letting the Na+ in starts causing a wave through the axon. Opening and closing all the way down the axon (action potential) - When the wave reaches the terminal buttons, calcium goes into the terminal buttons, causing calcium to be released. - The terminal buttons release these neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft which is the space between the terminal buttons and the other cell. - If the axon is myelinated, the only space you will get Na+ entering will be at the nodes of Ranvier. - Instead of a wave, it's a pop instead down the axon which increases the speed of the action potential traveling down the axon. - 1m per second unmyelinated - 60m per second myelinated - The myelination process starts in infancy and takes 10 years for the nervous system to fully myelinate. Neurotransmitters - When the neurotransmitter is sent from the terminal buttons 3 things can happen: 1. They can actually transmit 2. Enzymatic Degradation: As they enter into the synapse, the enzymes in there can break down the neurotransmitters. (MAO or COMT) 3. Reuptake, where the neurotransmitters are drawn back into the sending neuron - SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor), typically used to treat certain types of depression, can inhibit reuptake of certain serotonin molecules. Over time it helps balance and stabilize mood. Excitatory Neurotransmitters - SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) typically used to treat certain types of depression and it inhibits certain reuptake of certain serotonin molecules. Over time it helps balance and stabilize mood. - Serotonin (5-HT) (5-Hydroxytryptophan) - Can be excitatory or inhibitory, can slow down or increase firing - Linked to depression, if a person is isolating this can cause a drop in serotonin causing aggressive and angry behavior. - Can transmit, degrade, reuptake - 5-HT5 and 5-HT2a are linked to hallucinations and schizophrenia - 5-HT2a is usually most influenced by hallucinogens  - Diet can affect neurotransmitters such as adding a large amount of amino acids to diet will lower serotonin sometimes - 5-HT3 receptor sites are involved in vomit responses. This can be triggered during pregnancy. - Sexual activity reduces when serotonin levels go high. Both in interest and ability. - Cocaine blocks reuptake - MDMA (ecstasy) can cause a spontaneous burst of release of serotonin but as it does it destroys the axon thus destroying the neuron and leaving holes in the brain. - Alcohol short term increases serotonin but long term chronic use can cause a drop over time. - Glutamate: The most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain - Involved in memory specifically long term potentiation - Makes dendrites more receptive to transmitters - Involved in your ability to focus (arousal) - Also involved in pain (mild and low level). If just glutamate is there without substance p the pain is considered mild. If it isn’t present at all there is no pain. - Alcohol blocks the effects of glutamate - Too much glutamate in the brain is toxic and kills neurons (MAO and COMT breaking this down) Inhibitory Neurotransmitters - Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): The most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter which makes neurons less likely to fire. - Responsible for hunger - Crucial for sleep and keeps the systems running at a low level - Can be involved in reducing anxiety. Meds that increase GABA cause relaxation. Reducing it will cause a panic attack. (Xanax increases GABA) (Marijuana can inhibit GABA) - Alcohol can slow down your whole system and can facilitate GABA. Amplifying it too much can be fatal - Dopamine (DA): Feel good neurotransmitter - GABA can inhibit this - Typically the pleasure dopamine is D2 active when happy or enjoying yourself - D1 and D5 are involved in specific actions in sex. Can facilitate erection in males and in females it is involved in sexual receptive posturing. - Alcohol will release a bit of D2 but can inhibit D1 and D5 - Involved in your ability to move smoothly, you see dopamine inhibited in diseases like dopamine. - High levels of dopamine can cause psychosis and hallucinations - Endorphins will block the effect of pain HindBrain - Medulla: Involved in controlling vital reflexes like, heart rate, breathing, sweating (classical conditioning) - Damage to the medulla frequently ends in death - Any substances that have an effect on this are potentially fatal - Located at the base of the brain - Cerebellum: Involved in balance and guided movement. Also involved in processing some perceptual information (classical conditioning) - Some language function here - Damage can cause issues with balance, coordination, and learning - Some malformation of this structure in people who are on the spectrum (struggle to learn abstract ideas) MidBrain - Reticular Formation: Involved in regulating arousal aka overall alertness of the system (fight or flight) - Alerts you to things in the environment you should pay attention to in the environment (danger) - Internal alarm clock that wakes you up - This is where the information from the afferent neurons is checked - Scans the environment and programs itself to look for certain things and draws your attention to things - Damage to this structure can put you into a coma - People with ADHD their RF focuses on everything instead of one thing - Also somewhat part of medulla ForeBrain - Thalamus: Where most sensory information is processed first - Thalamus sends the information to different parts of the brain - Damage to this structure can lead to schizophrenia particularly hallucinations - Limbic System: System of structures in the forebrain and are involved in motivative behavior, aspects of memory, strong emotions - Hypothalamus: Below the thalamus. Controls body temperature. Also involved in basic motivators aka the 4 F’s. - Fight - Flight - Food - Fucking - Fornix: Attached to the hypothalamus - Hypothalamus alerts and communicates directly to the pituitary gland - Hormones take a while to leave the blood that is why you could still feel a certain way for a while  - Fornix is a bridge that connects the hypothalamus and the hippocampus. - Hippocampus: Involved in the consolidation of memory. Called this because of its shape. Meaning seahorse. Involved in the cognitive aspect of memory. - Olfactory Bulb: Processes smell and desensitizes very quickly. Sensory Desensitization: A reduction of afferent signaling. They reduce their firing. (Afferent) Habituation: If things in the environment remain constant, the brain will ignore it. (Perceptual) - We don’t ignore things that are moving - Things that are new or novel we don’t ignore Amygdala: Part of the limbic system. Involved in regulating what we call strong emotions. - Typically fear and aggression Basal Ganglia: Also part of the limbic system. Kind of a system within a system. Involved in pleasure. - A lot of dopamine tracks here - Substances will influence this structure - Involved in sequencing movements - If this gets damaged, tremors can occur Cingulate Cortex: Very active in emotion processing - Processing our emotions and others - Will have some influence on the A.N.S - Placebo’s influence this part of the brain Tylenol can reduce emotional pain Placebo: When you start feeling better without any pharmacological intervention Nocebo: When you start feeling pain at the suggestion of pain Cerebral Cortex - Divides into two hemispheres (right and left) - Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes - Frontal Lobe: behind the forehead - Prefrontal cortex is the most anterior part of the frontal lobe - Where your thoughts are, where you are essentially - Gets all sensory information - The ability to predict certain scenarios - Motor cortex is also part of the frontal lobe and controls movement. It is contralateral meaning the right side controls the left and vice versa. - Broca’s area is here which regulates speech production and language. For most people it is left hemisphere only. Near the motor cortex. Left handed people have a 50/50 chance of having it on the right. - If you damage this you can have aphasia, where the sentences fall apart. The words don’t form. Sounds come out but are not organized. Slurring. You know what to say and how to say it you just can’t. Can write it down.  - Parietal Lobe - Somatosensory cortex: Where your body sensations are felt. This is also contralateral. - Mild damage will cause clumsiness - Proprioception: Your ability to know where your limbs are and what they are doing without looking at it. Damage would cause you to have issues with this. May not know what limbs are doing. - Hemispatial Neglect: If there is damage in the somatosensory cortex, the person is able to use both sides of the body but they will neglect one whole side. - Occipital Lobe - Primary visual cortex (V1): where your visual experience is located - Temporal Lobe - Primary auditory cortex (A1): Where your hearing experience is located - Complex aspects of vision - Damage here can cause motion blindness as well as ringing in the ear - Prosopagnosia: Lost or are losing the ability to perceive faces - Wernicke’s Area (Left-side typically): Involved in comprehending words. Related to the dominant hand. - Can develop aphasia if damaged. This type is different, you can form words but it doesn’t make any sense. Person has no idea what they are trying to say. Words have no meaning. Reflex: Involuntary response to stimulation. Unlearnedand is constant in the species. Stimulus: Something in the environment that affects an organism. Some stimuli can cause a reflex Learning: Relatively permanent changes in the potential for behavior caused by an event Unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response Stimulus Generalization: When a response that has been associated with one stimulus occurs with another High Order Conditioning: When a neutral stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus, already associated with an unconditioned stimulus. Extinction: Process of gradually weakening or eliminating a learned behavior by taking away consequences that had reinforced it. Spontaneous Recovery: The unexpected reappearance of a previously extinguished behavior. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) - Focused on the relationship between response and consequence. Thinks the stimulus is irrelevant. His idea is more about response rather than stimulus.  - His learning style is called operant conditioning, meaning when a reinforcer follows a response, regardless of the conditions that may have led to its emission, the probability that the response will be repeated under similar conditions increases. Reinforcer: Any stimulus that increases the probability of a response. (2 types) (Always encourage behavior) - Positive reinforcer: Something added to a situation to increase the probability of a response - Negative reinforcer: Something removed from a situation to increase the probability of a response. Punishment: Unlike reinforcers are designed to reduce suppress a behavior (2 types) - Positive punishment: Something added to the situation to reduce or suppress a behavior - Negative punishment: The removal of something to reduce or suppress a behavior. Removing a positive reinforcement. - You cannot use operant conditioning without conditioning yourself Primary Reinforcers - Positive: Reinforcing without learning, innately born into us (food, water,sex) - Negative: ( extreme noise, extreme temperatures, bright lights, electric shock) Secondary Reinforcers - Anything else that is reinforcing (money etc.) - Can create other reinforcers - Generalized secondaries: These tend to be as powerful or as motivational as primary reinforcers (Attention, praise, approval, money) As reinforcement is withheld you see an increase in frequency and in aggression. Punishment suppresses behavior but it does not change it. You become more aware of the punisher but it doesn’t lead to extinction - Needs to be done in the presence of a discriminative stimuli. - Discriminative stimuli: Makes you aware of a reinforcer. We pickup on when things are available and when they are not. - Punishment must happen immediately in the presence of the discriminative stimuli in order to suppress a behavior. If you wait, the punishment will attach to the wrong stimuli. When you fall into certain situations you seek out the same reinforcers. Punishment does not generalize. Punishment is reinforcing for the punisher but can lead to learned helplessness. Learned Helplessness: When there is no escape from a punishment, the organism will give up. Reinforcement Schedules 1. Continuous: Every time the behavior happens, the reinforcers provide it. a. Learning and extinction are fast ( depending on how long it has been enforced) 2. Fixed Ratio ( FR or FR10): Behavior has to happen a certain number of times before reinforcement is provided.  3. Fixed Interval (FI): After the behaviors perform, a certain amount of time has to pass before a certain behavior is provided. (Ex. pay periods) a. Once reinforcers are provided behavior is provided b. Reinforcements get attached to wrong behaviors i. Ex. Lucky socks (hard to break) 4. Variable Ratio (VR) (Random): How many times you want the organism to perform the behavior before it gets reinforced, gets randomized. (Casino slot machine) 5. Variable Interval (VI) (Random): Behaviors performed and reinforcement is provided at random intervals of time. Bandura (1925-2021) - Realized there are holes in behavior when we see people do things - Social Cognitive Theory- Looking at how behaviors are influenced by others - Observational Learning- The learner observes someone perform a behavior, later the learner can often perform the behavior themselves, never having done so before (imitation) (no prior reinforcement) - Learner: - Attentional Process: Must pay attention if they are going to observationally learn something - Retentional Process: Must retain the information you saw or you will not be able to recreate it - Motor Reproduction: Must be able to transfer the memory into some sort of physical action - Motivational Process: Must be motivated to see the behavior present - Reinforcement creates motivation for behavior - Vicarious Reinforcement: When you see someone else get reinforced and it creates motivation for you to be reinforced - Model: Any representation of a behavior pattern - Other people, cartoons, instructions, anything that can be a model to you - Age: The closer the model is to the age of the learner, the more likely the learner is to model them - Sex (Gender): People are more likely to imitate those that match their gender - Status: The higher the status, the greater the imitation - For Adults: - Attractiveness - Power - Trustworthiness - The more complex something is, the less likely it is to be imitated - Emotions are highly imitated - Violence/hostile/aggressive behaviors are highly imitated. - Effects of Imitation  - Modeling Effect: Acquiring of new behavior - Inhibitory/Disinhibitory Effect: The starting or stopping of a deviant behavior after seeing the consequence to the model. - Will be disinhibited if you see the model get away with the behavior or get reinforced. Meaning you will want to now imitate this behavior. - Eliciting Effect: When you engage in a behavior that is similar to but not identical to the model Piaget (1896-1980) - At first, he studied intelligence, meaning how well a person can adapt to their environment and problem solve. - Stages of Cognitive Development: - Sensorimotor (0-2): Coordination of senses with motor responses, sensory curiosity about the world. Language used for demands and cataloguing. Object permanence is developed. - Preoperational (2-7): Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and grammar to express concepts. Imagination and intuition are strong, complex abstract thoughts are still difficult. Conservation is developed. - Concrete Operational (7-11): Concepts attached to concrete citations. Time, space, and quantity are understood and can be applied, but not as independent concepts. - Formal Operational (12+): Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy and planning become possible. Concepts learned in one context can be applied to another. - Thoughts organized into a schema which is the way your thoughts are organized - Your new thoughts, ideas, experiences go into your existing schema (they assimilate to what you already know) - When new experiences don’t fit in the schema you have to make an accommodation. Either you change the schema or create a new one. Kholberg- Stages of Moral Reasoning - As you develop cognitively so does your moral reasoning - Level 1(Preconventional): Don’t get punished - Stage 1 (Punishment/Obedience): Maintain the appearance of obedience (low morality) - Stage 2 (Instrumental Relativist): Prioritizing your own needs. Doing something for someone so they can do something for you - Level 2 (Conventional): Emphasis on society - Stage 1 (Good boy/Nice girl): Individuals do things to win the approval of others - Stage 2 (Law and Order): Everyone must abide by the laws. Even if no one is around to maintain this. Research shows this is as far as people get - Level 3 (Postconventional): Some people can get to stage 1 of this level  - Stage 1 (Social Construct): We obey societal rules when they benefit everyone. Moral obligation otherwise is to disobey - Stage 2 (Universal Ethics): Spiritual ideas that transcend religion. However, he found that this does not exist - Sensation: The afferent, neural input coming into the body - Perception: The organization of this information in the brain and its interpretation - Visual Capture: Information from the eyes is what the brain values most and relies on most - Sclera is the white part of the eye and light has a hard time passing through this - Cones help you see color - Rods bleach out when going from lit to dark areas - Light always comes into your eye through the pupil - Cornea protects the pupil - Iris is the color part of the eye and it is bands of tissue that regulate the size and amount of light coming in - Vision not as good when the eye is dilated, more focused when constricted - Ciliary muscles change shape of lens and keep it in place - Lens has a convex shape, flips the image and makes it inverted - The lens projects the image onto a concave screen, the Retina, which is black - The image must pass through a web of neurons before reaching the retina (4 layers) - The optic disc has no sensory detection and is the blindspot on the retina. Where the optic nerve leaves the eye. Anything that lands on that disc you don’t see. - Completion: Brain takes info from neurons around the optic disc and fills in the blind spot with what it thinks should be there Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) - Not a psychologist and never claimed to be - The term psychoanalysis comes from Freud - He was prescribing to patients cocaine and sex - Medical community backed away from him especially because of his studies on hysteria (unable to control emotions) - Freud claims hysteria is a female only disorder - Claims that men are not physiologically capable of this because it has to do with the uterus. - Had ideas about personality which is the characteristics someone possesses that influences how they behave in certain situations - Can come from genetics or from experiences - Breaks it down to the conscious, preconscious, and subconscious - Conscious: Thoughts and motives you are aware of right now. (Tip of the iceberg above water)  - Preconscious: Something that your not thinking of right now but you can remember quickly (considered the water level) - Subconscious: Thoughts and emotions beyond your awareness ( bottom, deep, underwater). You can’t access your subconscious. - Claims that only psychoanalysis is the only way to access it. He was the only one that would be able to do it - Along with these concepts are structures, the ID, the Ego, and the Superego - The ID functions on the need and desire for immediate pleasure, sex-based, predominantly in the subconscious. - The Superego, the morality principle, guilt, in the preconscious but some in the subconscious. Standards, ethical, and moral. - The Ego, balances between the ID and the Superego wants. Functions on a conscious level, focused on reality. If it can’t balance the two, problems arise called fixations. - Fixation: Getting stuck in a developmental stage again it was a problem only he could fix Psychosexual Stages of Development - Each stage in life defined by seeking certain sexual pleasures in regards to themselves - Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months): Sexual pleasure from putting stuff in their mouths. Most human beings are orally fixated because fixations are common at this stage. - Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years old): Sexual pleasure derived from anus. This is from potty training. Easy to become fixated. - Fixation here could be either anal retentive or anal explosive - Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years old): Pleasure derived from the genitals. Boys develop the oedipus complex, falling in love with their mother and hating their father for having the mother. They develop castration anxiety. Scared dad will find out they desire mom. Develop a false allegiance with dad to avoid castration. - Fixation here is resentment to authority figures - According to Freud all women are fixated in penis envy. - If men are gay they have unresolved castration anxiety - Girls develop penis envy and blame their mother for their physical deformity. They align with their mother’s so they can one day have a penis of their own - Latency Stage (6-12 years old): Sexual thoughts are repressed at this age. Men focus on sports and school. Women focus on being cute and playing with dolls. - Genital Stage (12-20 years old): Finding meaningful relationships with the opposite sex. - Fixation here causes you to be lustful and be with multiple partners - Cognitive Dissonance: (Pioneered by Leon Festinger 1919-1989) When a person’s beliefs are inconsistent with their actions - Forced Compliance: When you do the action even when you don’t want to. You don’t complain or say anything about it. - Effort Justification: Something takes on value that it doesn’t have because you put so much into something. The longer you stay in a situation that is bad, the more you see value in it.