PSYC121 Introduction to Social Psychology and the Self PDF

 STUDY UNIT 1: introduction to social psychology and the self  STUDY UNIT 1.1 describe social psychology Social psychology The scientific study of how people affect and are affected by others. Help you make sense of your own social world. describe what social ps...

 STUDY UNIT 1: introduction to social psychology and the self  STUDY UNIT 1.1 describe social psychology Social psychology The scientific study of how people affect and are affected by others. Help you make sense of your own social world. describe what social psychologists does 1. Social psychology aims for a broad understanding of social factors that influence how human beings think, act and feel. 2. It focuses particularly on normal adult human beings, though some social psychologist do study children and people who suffer from mild mental illness (such as depression) 3. Social psychology is concerned with the effect of other people (real or imagined) on our thoughts, feelings and behaviours. 4. Social psychology features experiments and the scientific method. It studies inner states and processes as well as behaviour 5. Social psychologists studies the effects of personal and situational influences on the ABC-triad 6. Social psychology focuses especially on the power of situations Explain the abc-triad of social psychology A = Affect How people feel Social psychologists are intersected in how people feel about themselves (their self-esteem) , how they feel about others (prejudice), and how they feel about various issues (attitudes) B = Behaviour What people do Social psychologists are interested in all the various behaviours people engage in. C = Cognition What people think about Social psychologists are interested in what people think about themselves (self-concept), what they think about others (forming impressions), and what they think about various problems and issues in the social world. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 1 Anja Viljoen   test yourself: what do social psychologist do? Unconscious forces are reinforcement histories such as ___ to ___. a) Affect ; cognition c) Behaviourism ; psychoanalysis b) Cognition ; affect d) Psychoanalysis ; behaviourism What research methodology do most social psychologist use? a) Experimental studies c) Quasie-experimental studies b) Longitudinal studies d) Survey studies What are the components of the ABC triad? a) Affect; behaviour ; cognition c) Attitudes; beliefs ; compliance b) Affect; beliefs ; cognition d) Affect; behaviour ; community What is the primary approach that social psychologists use to uncover the truth about human behaviour? a) Reliance on authority c) Rationalism b) Introspection figures d) Scientific method Name the two major ideas from the early 20 century that had th a lasting influence on social psychology 1. Gordon Allport: Attitudes are “the most distinctive and indispensable” concepts in social psychology. 2. Kurt Lewin: Behaviour is a function of the person and the situation. Discuss how culture and nature work together to affect choices and behaviour and make culture a better way of being social. 1. As social animals we seek connections with others. We live, work, and play together. Many other animals are just as, if not more social. What makes humans different is culture. 2. Being cultural animals is what sets humans apart from other animals. It is the view that evolution shaped the human psyche to enable humans to create and take part in culture. 3. Culture is difficult to define. Social scientists generally use culture to refer to what a large group of people have in common. It is an advanced way of being social, with nature progressing from plants, to solitary animals to social animals, and finally cultural animals. 4. Culture as a social system. Culture links many different people, and because of its dynamic nature it is aptly described as a system. 5. Culture as Praxis. Praxis refers to practical way of doing things and often depends on shared ideas. 6. Meaningful information is shared in a culture and influences how people in that culture act. Humans find meaning through connecting with each other, as evidenced by our tendency to gain more pleasure from shared experiences than from new objects that would be used alone. 7. Culture is an information-based system, involving both shared understandings and praxis, that enables groups of people to live together in an organized fashion and to get what they need. Are people the same everywhere? 1. Culture influences food, language and other aspects of life 2. Culture provides many advantages for humans a) But requires many things: language, holding social roles while being flexible, thinking about complicated decisions and restraining impulses b) The requirements for culture may help us explain the human psyche PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 2 Anja Viljoen   test yourself: Nature and social behaviour The finding that kids who watch violent TV programmes become more aggressive as adults that kids who watch non-violent TV programmes can be best explained in terms of __ influences. a) Biological c) Hormonal b) Genetic d) Societal Suppose that a new baby girl was born with no tongue. Unfortunately, because she had great difficulty eating, she died of starvation before she could have any children. Thus, the trait of having no tongue was not preserved for future generations. This process is called __. a) Natural selection c) Praxis b) Nurture d) None of the above What term refers to a new gene or combination of genes? a) Mutation c) Reproduction b) Natural selection d) Survival Some species have bigger brains (for their body weight) that other species. What do big-brained species primarily use their brains for? a) Eating better foods c) Having longer and more complex social b) Roaming over larger territories structures d) All the above test yourself: culture and human social life Humans are best describing as __. a) Cultural animals c) Both cultural and social animals b) Social animals d) Neither cultural animals nor social animals In social psychology, the “nature vs nurture” debate __. a) Is alive and well b) Has largely died out; most social psychologist maintains that human behaviour is mostly shaped by social forces. c) Has largely died out; most social psychologist maintains that human behaviour is mostly shaped by genetic forces. d) Has been reframed; the debate now concerns how nature and nurture interact with one another and influence one another All known cultures have rules about __. a) Agriculture c) Sleeping b) Sex d) All the above Most social psychological research has been conducted in __. a) South Africa c) Europe b) Canada d) USA PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 3 Anja Viljoen  summarise how the two systems of the mind differ and work together. The two systems of the mind: a) Automatic system and b) Deliberate system The automatic system is the part of the mind outside of consciousness that preforms simple operations. The deliberate system is the part of the mind that preforms complex operations DIFFERENCES Deliberate system Automatic system Slow Fast Controllable Outside of conscious control Guided by intention Unintentional Flexible Inflexible Good at combining information Poor at combining information Precise, rule-based calculations Estimates Can perform complex operations Can perform simple operations Does one thing at a time Can do many things at once Reasoning Intuition Effortful Effortless Features full-blown emotions Features quick feelings of like and dislike, good and bad Depends on automatic system Can be interdependent of conscious processing “Figure it out” “Go with your gut feeling” HOW THEY WORK TOGETHER The two parts of the duplex mind are not entirely independent of each other, they often work together. The automatic system serves the deliberate system, in the sense that it operates behind the scenes to make conscious thought possible. You may think consciously that something you’ve heard on the radio is illogical, but before that can happen, the automatic system must have done a great deal of work. It processed the stream of sounds into comprehensible language  understood the main point of the message  activated various other ideas in your memory that were associated with the centre of the idea. The automatic system also works like an alarm that signals the deliberate system that something is wrong, and that careful conscious thinking is needed. CONSCIOUS OVERRIDE Sometimes the two systems work against each other. The conscious mind may override the automatic system. Humans often override aggressive impulses when frustrated, hot, or insulted. Conscious override is necessary for culture This happens when you feel like doing something, but you restrain yourself. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 4 Anja Viljoen  Describe how inner processes serve interpersonal functions. Inner processes often serve interpersonal functions. 1. Built to relate 2. Nature says go, culture says stop 3. Selfish impulses vs social conscience 4. Trade-offs 5. Putting people first That is, the psychological traits people must enable them to connect better with others.  In general, nature says go and culture says stop.  Nature makes us selfish; culture requires us to resist selfish impulses.  Most choices in life involves trade-offs, both benefits and costs.  An important aspect of many trade-offs is short-term vs long-term gain  Humans get most of what they need from other people Culture operates as a ‘general store’ of information Asch’s study demonstrated that sometimes people rely more on information from other people than on their own senses If the brain is like a personal computer, then culture is like the internet. A computer can do a lot more when it is connected to the internet than when it’s a stand-alone machine test yourself: important features of human social life The duplex mind contains what two systems? a) Automatic; deliberate c) New; old b) Cognitive; emotional d) Short-term; long-term In humans, the road to social acceptance is: a) Downhill c) Short b) Long d) Smooth In a classic experiment with lines of different lengths, Solomon Asch found that __. a) Perceptual judgements can be influenced by others b) Perceptual judgements cannot be influences by others c) Large groups of people tend to overestimate the lengths of the lines d) Large groups of people tend to underestimate the lengths of the lines In a common analogy used by psychologists, the brain is compared to a computer. In that analogy, culture is like the __. a) Hardware c) Keyboard b) Internet d) Software PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 5 Anja Viljoen   STUDY UNIT 1.2 Explain the three main parts of the self Name the tree main parts of the self 1. Self-knowledge (or self-concept) 2. Interpersonal self (or public self) 3. Agent self (or executive function) Self-knowledge or self-concept A set of beliefs about oneself Interpersonal self or public self The image of the self that is conveyed to others Agent self or executive function The part of the self-involved in control, including both control over people and self-control Self-knowledge (or self concept) Awareness enables them to develope elaborate sets of beliefs about themselves. Information about the self Self-awareness Self-esteem Self-deception Interpersonal self (or public self) Agent self (or executive Helps the person connect socially function) with others. The part that get things done. Self-presentation Decistion making Member of groups Self-control Relationship partner Taking charge of situations Social roles Active responding Reputation PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 6 Anja Viljoen  Define the terms self-knowledge, self-esteem and self- presentation Self-knowledge (self-concept) A set of beliefs about oneself Self-esteem How favourably someone evaluates himself or herself Self-presentation Any behaviour that seeks to convey some image of self or some information about the self to other people. Explain the importance of a complex self in a cultural animal What makes us human? Putting the cultural animal in perspective  Understanding the self is important for understanding what makes humans special  Humans are unique in their degree of self-awareness; they compare themselves to standards and to other people  Self-knowledge is based in self-awareness and seems unique to humans  Humans can take on different roles  Humans are unique in being motivated by extrinsic rewards. This allows for society to function  Humans desire to communicate information about themselves to others Why do people have a need for self-esteem? It seems as if we need to see ourselves in a positive light. Some people get their worth from their appearance, others from physical strength, accomplishments, wealth, people skills or group affiliation. Terror Management Theory (Solomon and Pyszczynski) is used to explain why people have the need for self-esteem. According to this theory humans are biologically programmed for life and self-preservation and are terrified of the inevitability of death. To provide meaning and combat the anxiety, people tend to get world views on the creation of the earth, religious explanations on the purpose of existence and a sense of history. Self-esteem thus works as a protective shield against terror and anxiety Are there racial and gender differences in self-esteem? In adults and adolescents, males tend to have higher self-esteem than females. The difference, however, were very small, particularly in older adults. There seems to be a lower self-esteem in minority groups and victims of prejudice and discrimination. What is the role of self-awareness? 1. The Self-awareness theory states that self-focused attention leads people to notice self- discrepancies, motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behaviour. Self- awareness theory suggests two ways of coping with discomfort: “shape up”, that is behaving in ways that reduce self-discrepancies, or “ship out”, that is withdrawing from self-awareness. 2. Private self-awareness refers to attending to one’s inner states; public self-awareness means attending to how one is perceived by others 3. When people are self-aware, they are more likely to behave in ways that are consistent with their own personal values or with socially accepted ideals. 4. Self-awareness is vital for self-regulation and adopting others’ perspectives PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 7 Anja Viljoen  How does self-regulation play a role? 1. Self-regulation is the process through which you control or alter your thoughts, feelings, behaviours and urges. 2. All self-control efforts come from a single common reservoir and exercising self-control is like flexing a muscle. 3. Self-regulation can help people do what is rational, of what will produce the best results from them in the long run What does self-enhancement mean? The desire to learn favourable or flattering things about the self Are positive illusions adaptive? 1. Overestimate good qualities 2. Overestimate control over events 3. Unrealistic optimistic Yes, positive thoughts lead to positive outcomes Does culture have an influence on self-esteem? Yes. Selves differ across the different cultures. Free from outside control; not depending on another's authority Different attitudes towards the self 1. Independent self-construal: a self-concept that emphasises what makes the self-different and sets it apart from others 2. Interdependent self-construal: a self-concept that emphasises what connects the self to other people and groups. A way of thinking about The dependence of two the self or more people or things on each other. analyse the different sources of self-knowledge Where does self-knowledge come from? 1. Looking glass self 2. Generalized other 3. Introspection 4. Social comparison 5. Self-perception Charles Horton Cooley: Looking glass self The idea that people learn about themselves by imagining how they appear to others. 1. How you appear to others 2. You imagine how others will judge you 3. You develop an emotional response as a result of (2) George Herbert Mead: Generalized other A combination of other people’s views that tells you who and what you are Introspection Process of a person examining contents of their minds and metal states - Know your own thoughts and feelings better PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 8 Anja Viljoen  Social comparison Examining the difference between oneself and another person - Learn about yourself by looking at others - Social comparison, comparing yourself in the same general category – Best comparison [SOCIAL COMPARISON: If you are a tennis player, compare yourself to a teammate. UPWARD COMPARISON: Compare yourself with a professional. DOWNWARD COMPARISON: Compare yourself to a beginner tennis player] describe how the sources of self-knowledge lead to self- concept Why people want self-knowledge 1. Appraisal motive The simple desire to learn the truth about oneself, whatever it is 2. Self-enhancement motive The desire to learn favourable or flattering things about the self 3. Consistency motive A desire to get feedback that confirms what the person already believes about the self. Each of these three aspects helps form self-concept, knowing yourself. analyse the benefits and drawbacks of high self-esteem and positive illusions Negative aspects of the high self-esteem (Drawbacks) 1. Narcissism: Excessive self-love and a selfish orientation 2. Higher prejudice 3. Poorer relationship partners 4. Antisocial actions People use self-deception strategies to believe things that are false 1. Using self-serving bias a. If you do good – My lecturer is so good, I worked hard etc. b. If you do bad – eFundi is confusing, my lecturer doesn’t do his/her work 2. Being more sceptical of bad feedback 3. Remembering good things more 4. Making comparisons with those slightly worse 5. Skewing impressions of other to highlight own good traits 6. Choosing definitions wisely Positive illusions of nondepressed people 4. Overestimate good qualities 5. Overestimate control over events 6. Unrealistic optimistic PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 9 Anja Viljoen  Evaluate the different functions of self-presentation Self-perception  People about themselves in same they learn about others: Observing behaviour and drawing conclusions  People observe their own behaviour to infer what they are thinking and how they are feeling.  Most people are more concerned with looking good to others than with private self-esteem.  Nearly everyone strives for a good self-presentation as a way of obtaining social acceptance. It is so important to people that they sometimes engage in risky or dangerous behaviour in order to make a good impression.  People will engage in risky behaviours to gain social acceptance STUDY UNIT 1.3 Distinguish between the patterns that influence people ’s choices Name the two steps of choosing? 1. Moving from many to a few choices; 2. Careful consideration of the remaining choices Name the 4 different influences on choices 1. Risk aversion is, in decision making, the greater weight given to possible losses than possible gains 2. Temporal discounting is, in decision making, the greater weight given to the present over the future 3. The certainty effect is, in decision making, the greater weight given to definite outcomes than to probabilities 4. Keeping options open. People prefer to postpone decisions rather than make them right away Name the 3 main reasons why people don’t choose 1. Status quo bias is the preference to keep things the way they are rather than change 2. Omission bias is the tendency to take whatever course of action does not require you to do anything (also called the default option) 3. Reactance theory is the idea that people are distressed by loss of freedom or options and seek to reclaim or reassert them. Name the main consequences of reactance? 1. Makes forbidden things more attractive and more greatly desired 2. Motivates you to take action to reclaim the lost option 3. Makes you feel or act aggressively toward the person who has restricted your freedom PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 10 Anja Viljoen  Explain how a belief in free will affects behaviour What does the belied of free will lead to? Belief in free will leads to people to act in more prosocial ways, thereby helping the social system function better. How or why does people acting in more prosocial ways help society?  In experimental manipulations people who were induced to reject their belief in free will became more willing to cheat on a test and steal money  Same manipulations showed that disbelieving in free will caused people to become more aggressive and less helpful toward other.  Thus, free will helps people act more prosocial which is valuable for society. Explain the two theories regarding free will 1. Self-determination theory emphasises that people need to feel that some of their behaviour is caused by their own free will. 2. The panic button effect refers to the finding that believing there is an escape option can reduce stress, even if the option is never used. Summarise how a hierarchy of goals affects planning and reaching goals What is a goal? An idea of some desired future state Name the two major steps in goal pursuit: 1. Setting goals: Time to be open minded, evaluate whether it’s realistically feasible to reach the goal Study unit 1 2. Pursuing goals: Focus on how to complete the goal, being optimistic rather than realistic is helpful Explain the Zeigarnik effect Zeigarnik effect is a tendency to experience automatic, intrusive thoughts about a goal whose pursuit has been interrupted. The automatic system thus reminds the individual of unmet goals What are proximal goals? Proximal goals = Short term goals What are distal goals? Distal goals = Long term goals Why won’t distal goals alone be successful? You won’t have any short-term plans or stepping stones to reach your goal? Why won’t proximal goals alone be successful? You won’t have any sense of where you are heading in the long run. You are only solving problems as it comes. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 11 Anja Viljoen  How is the duplex mind relevant to goal hierarchies?  The automatic system can keep track of the goals and initiate behaviour to peruse each step along the way.  The deliberate system may be useful, however, when an intermediate goal is blocked consciousness (associated with the deliberate system) is flexible at processing information, and it can find a substitute goal when the overarching or goal is blocked.  The automatic system is much less effective at such flexible thinking. If its plan were blocked, it might be at a loss to find an alternative pathway to the goal. Why is a hierarchy of goals important?  A hierarchy of goals is important so you can have stepping stones (proximal goals) in order to reach your distal goals.  It is important to have both these types of goals, preferably interlinked. What are the common mistakes people make when they are planning? 1. Planning fallacy is the tendency for plans to be overly optimistic because the planner fails to allow for unexpected problems 2. Individuals are more realistic in providing estimates for others. 3. Unrealistic optimism is more likely when the goal is far into the future Explain the TOTE loop What does TOTE stand for? T = Test O = Operate T = Test E = Exit Explain the TOTE loop First, TEST. Comparison of the self against the standard. Example: If you have resolved to be nicer to someone, at some point you evaluate (test) how nice you’ve been to that person lately. If you aren’t as nice as you want to be, you move to the operating phase. OPERATE means exert conscious control to change yourself to reach a certain goal Example: You do nice things for the person and at some point you TEST yourself again. If your answer is still no, then more operations are needed. If your answer is yes, you exit the loop. EXITING the loop means you have met the standard set during the first test phase. identify two main pathways to self-destructive behaviour What is self-destructive behaviour? Any action by which people bring failure, suffering or misfortune on themselves. Name the two main reasons for self-destructive behaviour 1. Trade-offs. People accept a negative outcome to gain the positive outcome that comes from the same behaviour 2. Faulty knowledge and reliance on strategies that don’t work PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 12 Anja Viljoen  Discuss suicide as the ultimate form of self-destructive behaviour Why does suicide seems to be the ultimate in self-destructive behaviour? 1. Suicide involves a trade-off between continued suffering and immediate cessation of those feelings. 2. Suicide is more common in richer countries, at nice times of year. 3. Individuals who commit suicide were often highly self-aware. 4. Suicidal people tend to be emotionally numb rather than distressed. 5. Those who commit suicide often focus on the immediate numbing misery rather than the possibility of a better future. They often focus on the present rather than the future. 6. Suicidal people feel that they are a burden to those around them. 7. One theory cannot account for all suicides. Individuals have other reasons to commit suicide, such as the reasons held by suicide bombers. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 1 13 Anja Viljoen   STUDY UNIT 2: social cognition, emotion and social influence  STUDY UNIT 2.1 define and discuss the following concepts: automatic and deliberate thinking, schemas, scripts, priming, framing, thought suppression and ironic processes Automatic and deliberate thinking Some thinking proceeds by automatic means, whereas other thinking relies on conscious control. Schemas Schemas are knowledge structures that represent substantial information about a concept, its attributes and its relationships to other concepts. Scripts Scripts are knowledge structures that contain information about how people (or other objects) behave under varying circumstances. Priming Priming is the process by which a given stimulus activates mental pathways, thereby enhancing their accessibility. It could also be activating an idea in someone’s mind so that related ideas are more accessible. Framing Framing refers to how information is presented. Whether messages stress potential gains (positively framed) or potential losses (negatively framed) Though suppression and ironic processes When people want to suppress a thought, their mind sets up two processes. One process keeps a lookout for anything that might remind the person of the unwanted thought. It is an automatic process that checks all incoming information for danger. The other is a deliberate process that redirects attention away from the unpleasant thought. discuss and evaluate the theory regarding attribution and expression by applying it to relevant examples within the south african context; What are attributions? Attributions are the casual explanations people give for their own and others’ behaviour. What does the following attributions involve? Internal, stable attributions Ability Internal, unstable attributions Effort External, stable attributions Point to the difficulty of tasks PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 1 Anja Viljoen  External, unstable attributions Luck What does the self-serving bias suggest? The self-serving bias suggests that people want to take credit for success but deny blame for failure. What does the actor/observer bias state? The actor/observer bias states that actors tend to make external attributions, whereas observers make internal attributions What does the fundamental attribution error refer to? The fundamental attribution error (also sometimes called the correspondence bias) refers to the finding that people have a bias to attribute another person’s behaviour to internal or dispositional causes. What is a major attribution dimension? A major attribution dimension is whether one believes another person’s behaviour was intentional versus accidental. explain the various heuristics people have and how it helps them to provide quick estimates of uncertain events What are heuristics?  Mental shortcuts or rules of the thumb  Provide people with quick estimates about the likelihood of certain events. Name the most common mental shortcuts (or heuristics) that people use 1. Representativeness 2. Availability 3. Simulation 4. Anchoring and adjustment What is meant by representativeness? The tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the extent to which it ‘resembles’ the typical case Give an example of preventiveness In a series of 10-coin tosses, most people judge the series HHTTHTHTTH to be more likely than the series HHHHHHHHHH (where H is heads and T is tails), even though both are equally likely. What is meant by availability? The tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. Give an example of availability People overestimate the frequency of dramatic deaths (e.g., dying in an airplane crash) and underestimate the frequency of less dramatic deaths (e.g., dying from lung cancer) What is meant by simulation? The tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which you can imagine (or mentally simulate) an event PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 2 Anja Viljoen  Give an example of simulation In the Olympics, bronze medallists appear to be happier than silver medallists because it is easier for a silver medallist to imagine being a gold medallist. What is meant by anchoring and adjustment? The tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by using a starting point (called an anchor) and then adjusting up and down from this starting point. Give an example of anchoring and adjustment If one party in a negotiation starts by suggesting a price or condition, then the other party is likely to base its counteroffer on this anchor. identify and describe common cognitive errors people make Why do people make cognitive errors? People make cognitive errors because they are more concerned about arguing their point of view than about finding the truth. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 3 Anja Viljoen   STUDY UNIT 2.2 contrast conscious emotion and automatic affect; Define emotion Emotion is a conscious evaluative reaction that is clearly linked to some event. What are 4 characteristics of emotion?  Part of our core existence and experiences  Outside our conscious control  Provide a feedback system about our experiences  Bring us information about the world and about the activities in in. Define mood Mood is a feeling state that is not clearly linked to some event What is meant by affect? Affect is the automatic response that something is good (positive affect) or bad (negative affect). Differentiate between positive- and negative affects  Positive affect encompasses all good emotions, such as joy, bliss, happiness, love and contentment.  Negative affect encompasses all bad emotions, such as anger, anxiety, fear, jealousy and grief. What is meant by conscious emotion? Conscious emotion is powerful and clearly combined feeling state (powerful, single feeling state) Define the automatic affect Automatic affect is a quick response of liking or disliking towards something. (liking, disliking, good, bad) What is the difference between conscious emotion and affect? 1. Conscious emotion is felt as a powerful, single (unified) feeling state. 2. Automatic affect is felt as a liking or disliking, good and bad feelings, towards something, and may occur outside of consciousness. 3. Emotion refers to the conscious reaction, often including bodily response, to something. 4. Affect refers to the automatic response that something is good or bad. Which is more important, conscious emotion or affect? Both are equally important. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 4 Anja Viljoen  describe how emotions such as happiness, anger, guilt, shame and disgust serve interpersonal functions Name and describe one of the measures of happiness The affect balance is the frequency of positive emotions minus the frequency of negative emotions What is meant by life satisfaction? Life satisfactions is an evaluation of how your life is generally and haw it compares to some standard. What is the hedonic treadmill? The hedonic treadmill describes the tendency to revert to one’s usual level of happiness soon after an emotional event What things can increase happiness? 1. Forgiving others 2. Being grateful for blessings 3. Practicing religious beliefs 4. Sharing good feelings 5. Being optimistic To which outcomes is happiness linked? 1. Health 2. Success in life What is anger? Anger is an emotional response to a real or imagined threat or provocation Explain the catharsis theory The catharsis theory holds that expressing anger produces a healthy release of emotion and is therefore good for the psyche. However, research demonstrates that catharsis increases anger and aggression and has negative health consequences. What is the difference between shame and guilt? Shame is usually destructive, whereas guilt is usually constructive What does guilt do? Or how is guilt constructive? 1. Guilt motivates people to do good acts 2. Motivates people to make amends to repair damage to relationships. What is disgust? Disgust is a strong negative feeling of repugnance and revulsion. What type of behaviour does disgust motivate? Healthy behaviour PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 5 Anja Viljoen  discuss the role of emotion in feelings of belongingness and relationships, in behaviour, in thinking and learning, and in decision-making; Why do we have emotions? 1. Emotions promote belongingness 2. Emotions communicate social information 3. Traditionally it has been assumed that emotion causes behaviour 4. Emotions guide thinking and learning 5. Emotions that are anticipated, guides decisions and choices 6. Emotions help and hurt decision-making 7. Positive emotions counteract negative emotions How does emotions promote belongingness? 1. Emotions help people get along better. 2. Emotions help promote good interpersonal relations. 3. People want to feel good and avoid bad emotions, and this desire drives them to try to form and maintain good relationships How does emotions help us communicate social information? 1. Emotions help individuals to communicate their needs and how they feel How does emotion guide think and learning? 1. Emotions make up a feedback system that helps people process information about the world and their own actions in in. 2. Emotions change the way people think and sometimes help them learn better. 3. Emotions helps people think about certain things and make choices about it. 4. Emotions helps people learn from their mistakes. 5. Having an emotion, alters memory, thus emotions helps people learn. It makes people remember important things better while impairing memory for low priority information. 6. Emotions can constitute valuable information that people learn about the world. What is the affect-as-information hypothesis? The idea that people judge something as good or bad by asking themselves “How do I feel about it?” How does emotion guide decisions and choices? If emotion rewards and punishes behaviour, then people decide how to act based on how they expect to feel afterward. What is affective forecasting? The ability to predict one’s emotional reactions to future events. What is the risk-as-feelings hypothesis? The idea that people rely on emotional processes to evaluate risk, with the result that their judgements may be biased by emotional factors. Explain the broaden-and-build theory The broaden-and-build theory is the proposition that positive emotions expand an individual’s attention and mindset and promote increasing one’s resources. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 6 Anja Viljoen  Name the 7 values of positive emotions 1. Builds intellectual resources  Develop problem-solving skills  Learn new information 2. Builds physical resources  Develop coordination  Develop strength and cardiovascular health 3. Builds social resources  Solidify bonds  Make new bonds 4. Builds psychological resources  Develop resilience and optimism  Develop sense of identity and goal orientation 5. Being in a good mood helps flexibility, creativity and problem-solving ability 6. Your work can benefit from positive emotions  People in a positive mood preforms better, are more persistent, try harder and are more motivated than people in a neutral or negative mood. 7. Serve a protective function  People in a good mood tend to avoid risks summarise how emotions differ across gender and culture by applying it to relevant South African examples. Are emotions the same in different cultures? Yes, people of different cultures can reliably recognise posed facial expressions of the six basic emotions. Name the 6 basic emotions 1. Anger 2. Surprise 3. Disgust 4. Happiness 5. Fear 6. Sadness Are there a difference between the emotional lives of men and women? No. Men and women doesn’t differ in emotional levels. Women just tend to be more willing to report their emotions and to claim stronger feelings. What are the differences between men and women when it comes to falling in love? Men tend to fall in love faster than women, where women tend to fall out of love faster than men define emotional intelligence and explain how it relates to emotional regulation Define emotional intelligence The ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions to promote emotional an intellectual growth. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 7 Anja Viljoen  Explain the four parts of emotional intelligence 1. Perceiving emotions – The ability to recognise how you and those around you are feeling. 2. Facilitating emotions – The ability to generate an emotion and then to reason with this emotion. 3. Understanding emotions – The ability to understand complex emotions and how emotions can transition dorm one stage to another. 4. Managing emotions – The ability to be open to feelings and to modulate them in oneself and other to promote personal understanding and growth How does emotional intelligence relate to emotional regulation? Emotional intelligence helps people control and regulate their feelings. STUDY UNIT 2.3 Define attitudes and explain why they are important; Define attitude Attitudes are global evaluations toward some object or issue. What is a dual attitude? Dual attitudes are different evaluations of the same attitude object held by the same person (perhaps one deliberate, the other automatic) Compare automatic- and deliberate attitudes Automatic attitudes are very fast evaluative, “gut-level” responses that people think more carefully about. Deliberate attitudes are more reflective responses that people think more carefully about. Why do people have attitudes? / What is the importance of attitudes? 1. Attitudes are used to sort things into ‘good’ and ‘bad’ categories. 2. Attitudes help us adjust to new situations 3. Attitudes helps us to seek out those things in our environment that reward us and to avoid those things that punishes us. 4. Attitudes helps make decisions 5. Possessing an attitude increases the ease, speed and quality of decision making. Explain how attitudes are formed; How does attitudes form? 1. Mere exposure effect – The tendency for people to come to like things simply because they see or encounter them repeatedly 2. Embodied attitudes – Bodily movements shape people’s attitudes (Social environment) 3. Classical conditioning – People from attitudes through a type of learning in which, through repeated pairings, a natural stimulus starts to evoke a conditioned response. 4. Operant conditioning – Attitudes are formed by the likeliness of being rewarded or punished 5. Social learning – Learning through the imitating of others behaviour, more likely to perform the things being rewarded than punished. Define classical conditioning A type of learning in which, through repeated pairings, a neutral stimulus starts to evoke a conditioned response. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 8 Anja Viljoen  What is an unconditioned stimulus? A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response What is an unconditioned response? A naturally occurring response What is a neutral stimulus? A stimulus that initially evokes no response What is a conditioned stimulus? A neutral stimulus, that through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to evoke a conditioned response. What is meant by a conditioned response? A response that, through repeated pairings, is evoked by a formerly neutral stimulus Define operant conditioning Operant conditioning or instrumental conditioning is a type of learning in which people are most likely to repeat behaviours that have been rewarded and less likely to repeat behaviours that have been punished What is social learning (observational learning, imitation, vicarious learning) A type of learning in which people are more likely to imitate behaviours if they have seen others rewarded for performing them, and less likely to imitate behaviours if they have seen others punished for performing them. Describe how people try to avoid inconsistency, and therefore adapt their attitudes; In short: You don’t like how you are feeling (experiencing inconsistency) So you must do something about and thus decide to change or adapt your attitude. How does people reduce the feeling of inconsistency? People may have to seek out new or reinterpret old information, realign or abandon cherished beliefs, or change patterns of behaviour. People will generally choose the easiest of these, which often means changing their attitudes. Name the three parts of consistency theories 1. They specify the conditions that are required for consistency and inconsistency of cognitions 2. They assume that inconsistency is unpleasant ad therefore motivates people to restore consistency. 3. They specify the conditions that are needed to restore consistency. Define cognitive dissonance The uncomfortable feeling people experience when they have two thoughts or cognitions that conflict with one another. Describe the cognitive dissonance theory The theory states that inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort, leading people to rationalise their behaviour or change their attitudes. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 9 Anja Viljoen  What is meant by effort justification? The finding that when people suffer or work hard to make sacrifices, they will try to convince themselves that it is worthwhile. Explain the relationship between attitudes and behaviour; The link between attitudes and behaviour are often weak. What conditions must be met for attitudes to predict behaviour? 1. Attitude measures are very specific 2. Behaviours are aggregated across time and different situations 3. Attitudes are consciously prominent and influence how the person thinks about the choices he or she faces 4. Attitudes are highly accessible (i.e., they come to mind easily) Explain the concept of beliefs and believing. What is meant by belief perseverance? The finding that once beliefs form, they are resistant to change, even if the information on which they are based is discredited. What are functions doing the automatic and deliberate system serve in believing and beliefs??  The automatic system just believes.  The deliberate system can override this belief by deciding that it is false How is belief perseverance reduced or eliminated? By explaining the opposite theory Define coping Coping is how people attempt to deal with stressful traumas and go back to functioning effectively in life. What is meant by assumptive worlds? Assumptive worlds are the view that people live in social worlds based on certain beliefs (assumptions) about reality. What are the 3 main types of assumptions that helps people live healthy and happy lives? 1. The world is benevolent – People are nice, life is safe, and one can count on good things happening most of the time 2. The world is fair and just – The world is fair, so people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get. If you follow the rules and treat others with fairness and kindness, you can expect to be treated that way yourself. 3. I am a good person – I am someone of value and therefore I deserve good things to happen to me. What can cause these 3 assumptions to be violated? 1. Trauma 2. Misfortune Name two types of beliefs 1. Religious beliefs 2. Irrational beliefs (UFO’s, witches etc.) PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 10 Anja Viljoen   STUDY UNIT 2.4 distinguish between normative and informational influences; What is a normative influence? A normative influence involves going along with the crowd in order to be liked and accepted What type of people especially liked to be influenced by group norms? People from collectivist countries are more likely to be influenced by group norms than are people from individualist countries. What are group norms? Group norms are the beliefs or behaviours a group of people accepts as normal. What is an informational influence? Informational influence going along with the crowd because you think the crowd knows more than you do In which situations does this especially happen? When … 1. The situation is ambiguous, so people do not know how to behave 2. There are a crisis and people don’t have time to think for themselves. identify the techniques of social influence and describe ways of resisting these techniques; Name the techniques based on commitment and constancy 1. Foot-in-the-door: The foot-in-the-door technique gets someone to comply with a large request by first making a small request. 2. Low-ball: The low-ball technique involves shifting from a smaller request to a larger request after the person has committed to the small request. 3. Bait-and-switch: The bait-and-switch technique involves making a great offer and then switching to a less desirable offer. 4. Labelling: The labelling technique involves assigning a label to an individual and then requesting a favour that is consistent with that label. 5. Legitimisation-of-paltry-favours: The legitimisation-of-paltry-favours technique involves asking for a very small contribution in order to get a larger contribution. How do you resist these commitment and constancy techniques? 1. Ask them to weigh the advantages and disadvantages. 2. Do not feel obligated to behave consistently with a commitment you were tricked into making 3. Make a public commitment to your position Name the techniques based on reciprocation 1. Door-in-the-face: The door-in-the-face technique involves making an inflated request (that will most likely be rejected) and then retreating to a smaller request. (It only works if the first request is not too extreme and if the same person makes both requests.) 2. That’s-not-all: The that’s-not-all technique begins with an inflated request that is quickly followed by a discount or bonus. PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 11 Anja Viljoen  How can you resist these reciprocation techniques? 1. Accept initial favours or concessions in good faith, but also be ready to define them as tricks if they prove to be Name the techniques based on scarcity 1. Limited-number: With the limited-number technique, the customer is told that items exist in a limited supply. 2. Fast-approaching-deadline: With the fast-approaching-deadline technique, the customer is told that items can only be obtained for a limited time. How can you resist these techniques based on scarcity? 1. Use the emotional response as a signal to stop. 2. Ask yourself why to do you need the item Name the techniques based on capturing and disrupting attention 1. Pique: The pique technique captures the target’s attention by making the request novel to increase the chances of compliance with the persuasive request. 2. Disrupt-then-reframe: In the disrupt-then-reframe technique, an unexpected element is introduced to provide a momentary disruption that interrupts critical thinking and increases the chances of compliance with the persuasive request. summarise the two routes to persuasion, applying the concept of the duplex mind to describe the two routes; What is the elaboration likelihood model (ELM)? The elaboration likelihood model is a theory that suggests two routes to persuasion, via either automatic or conscious processing. What is the name of the two routes to persuasion? 1. Central route (systematic processing) 2. Peripheral route (heuristic processing) Which part of the duplex mind is involved with the central route? Deliberate processing Which part of the duplex mind is involved with the peripheral route? Automatic processing Which two factors influences a person when he/she first hears a message? 1. Personal relevance 2. Need for cognition Which two factors influences a person’s ability to process the message? 1. Knowledge 2. Distractions PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 12 Anja Viljoen  Explain the different routes to persuasion USEFUL TIP: Watch YouTube videos on this. identify and describe steps you can take to increase your resistance to persuasive attempts. Name and describe the steps that you can take to increase your resistance to persuasive attempts 1. Attitude inoculation in order to immunise people against persuasion, it is good to expose them to some of the counterarguments and let build up defences against the counterarguments. ‘ 2. Forewarned is forearmed If people are forewarned that a persuasive message is coming, they are less persuaded by it. 3. Use all your resources Physical, cognitive and social should be used PSYC121: STUDY UNIT 2 13 Anja Viljoen   STUDY UNIT 3: social behaviour social relationships and groups  STUDY UNIT 3.1 Define prosocial behaviour and illustrate it by providing examples Define prosocial behaviour Doing something that is good for other people or for society as a whole. Name 4 forms of prosocial behaviour 1. Obeying rules 2. Conforming to norms 3. Cooperating 4. Helping 5. Fairness 6. Justice What generally promotes prosocial behaviour? And why?  Public circumstances generally promote prosocial behaviour.  This is because people tend to behave better when they know they’re being watched, or people know who they are. Define “rule of law” When members of a society (including its most powerful leaders) respect and follow its rules Explain how norms like reciprocity, equity and equality create different motivations to help others. Define norms Norms are standards established by society to tell its members what types of behaviour are typical or expected Define reciprocity Reciprocity refers to the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us Define equity Equity is the idea that each person receives benefits in proportion to what he or she contributes Define equality Equality is the idea that everyone gets the same amount, regardless of what he or she contributes Define gratitude Gratitude can be explained as a positive emotion that results from the perception that one has benefited from the costly, intentional, voluntary action of another person How does reciprocity, equity and equality create different motivations to help others?  These different norms show society members what is expected from them.  Also, each of these three norms promotes prosocial behaviour, which motivates people to help others. PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 1 Anja Viljoen  Explain the role morality plays in prosocial behaviour Define moral reasoning? Moral reasoning is using logical deductions to make moral judgements based on abstract principles of right and wrong What is meant by moral intuitions judgements? Moral intuitions judgements (about whether an action is right or wrong) occur automatically and rely on emotional feelings What does moral rules do in general? Moral rules generally encourage people to do what is best for the social group, which often requires restraining their own selfish and other antisocial impulses. What human societies have morals? 1. Developed countries 2. Religious countries 3. Developing countries What time of day are people the most moral? And why?  During the mornings  Because of the fact that it takes self-control to do what is morally right rather than to act on impulse or selfish motives.  Self-control depends on an energy resource, which tends to be in good shape after a good night’s sleep but gets depleted during the day Name the five different foundations moral judgements can be traced to according to conservatives 1. Disapproval of people hurting each other 2. Fairness 3. Respect for legitimate authority 4. Loyalty to one’s group 5. Purity/Sanctity Which of these foundations does liberals tend to value? 1. Disapproval of people hurting each other 2. Fairness compare and contrast the different kinds of prosocial behaviours, such as cooperation, forgiveness, obedience, conformity and trust. Define cooperation Cooperation is working together with someone for mutual or reciprocal benefit What is the prisoner’s dilemma? Prisoner’s dilemma refers to a game that forces people to choose between cooperation and competition What is meant by forgiveness? Forgiveness is ceasing to feel angry toward or seek retribution against someone who has wronged you Define obedience Obedience is following orders from an authority figure PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 2 Anja Viljoen  What does conformity mean? Conformity is when you go along with the crowd that is, saying or doing whatever other people are doing What is trust? Trust is a confidence that others will provide benefits and/or not harm you, even if they may be tempted to do otherwise critically discuss the Milgram study and its influence Who was the researcher? Stanley Milgram USEFUL TIP: Watch When did he do this research? YouTube videos on Milgram’s experiment. It will 1960’s give you context and help you understand it better By what was his research interests shaped?  By the disturbing events of WW2  Including large scale massacres of civilians by German Nazi troops.  Especially Adolf Eichmann and the rest who said, when they were asked why they killed all the people, “It was an order” How did Milgram’s experiment work?  He recruited 40 male participants via newspaper.  The experiment was built to determine how far will people go to follow orders.  Milgram’s experiment had 3 people in each run, a teacher, a learner and a researcher.  During the experiment, each learner was given word pairs to learn. The teacher then asked one of the words and the learner said the other part. When the learner answered correct, they could move on. When the learner’s answer was wrong, he had to be shocked.  The shocks varied from 30 volt to 450 volt and was marked, slightly to XXX  When the teacher didn’t want to go forward with shocking the learner, the researcher simply said things like, “the experiment requires you to continue”.  At least two thirds of people went to 450 volts and 100% of the people went to at least 300 volts.  This study showed that obedience was highest when the person giving orders was nearby and was perceived as an authority figure, especially if from a prestigious institution. Also, when the learner was depersonalised and couldn’t be seen. Why did people obey Milgram’s experiment? People are naturally inclined to belong to groups, to seek social acceptance and to put other people first and when a seemingly legitimate authority figure gives people commands, they tend to do it analyse the different explanations and motives for helping. Name two explanations for helping other 1. Evolutionary theory of kin selection 2. Empathy What is the kin selection theory? The evolutionary tendency to help people who have our genes. Name the two motives for helping others 1. Egoism 2. Altruism PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 3 Anja Viljoen  What is egoistic helping?  Egoistic helping is when the helper wants something in return for offering help.  The helper’s goal is to increase his or her own welfare. What is altruistic helping?  Altruistic helping is when the helper expects nothing in return for offering help.  The helper’s goal is to increase another’s welfare. By what is altruistic helping motivated? Altruistic helping is motivated by empathy What is empathy? Reacting to another person’s emotional state by experiencing the same emotional state. What is the empathy-altruism hypothesis? The empathy-altruism hypothesis is the idea that empathy motivates people to reduce other people’s distress, as by helping or comforting By what is egoistic helping motivated? Personal distress describe who is most likely to help and who is most likely to receive help. 1. Many people get pleasure from helping others 2. People are more likely to help similar others than dissimilar others 3. Males are more helpful than females in the broader public sphere, toward strangers and in emergencies, whereas females are more helpful in the family sphere, in close relationships and in volunteering. 4. Females are more likely to receive help than males, regardless of the helper is female or male. 5. People are more likely to help attractive individuals that unattractive individuals Explain the five steps of bystander intervention. What is the bystander effect? The bystander effect is the finding that people are less likely to offer help when they are in a group than when they are alone. Explain the five steps of bystander intervention. 1. Notice that something is happening Notice that something is happening. An obstacle for noticing an incident is being distracted. 2. Interpret the meaning of the event. Once you’ve noticed something is happening, the next step is to decide whether it is an emergency or not. An obstacle for this step is pluralistic ignorance, looking to others for cues about how to behave, while they are looking to you – collective misinterpretation. PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 4 Anja Viljoen   3. Take responsibility for providing help Just noticing the situation and deciding that it is an emergency, doesn’t help, something must be done. An obstacle for this step is called diffusion of responsibility. This is the reduction in feeling responsible that occurs when other people are present (you feel they can help, why should you) 4. Know how to help The next step is deciding how to help, figuring out what to do. An obstacle for offering help is the feeling of lack of competence – people don’t feel qualified to help, or they think someone else can do it better. 5. Provide help The final step is to offer help. An obstacle for this is audience inhibition – failure to help in front of others for the fear of feeling like a fool if one’s offer of help is rejected. discuss the ways to increase helping. How can helping be increased? 1. Reduce uncertainties 2. Educate others about bystander indifference 3. Provide helpful models 4. Teach moral inclusion (making others a part of the ingroup) STUDY UNIT 3.2 define the different types of aggression. Define aggression Any behaviour intended to harm another person who is motivated to avoid the harm What is displaced aggression? Displaced aggression is any behaviour that intentionally harms a substitute target rather than the provocateur What is direct aggression? Direct aggression is any behaviour that intentionally harms another person who is physically present Define indirect aggression Indirect aggression is any behaviour that intentionally harms another person who is physically absent What is meant by reactive aggression (or hostile aggression)? Reactive- or hostile aggression is ‘hot’, impulsive, angry behaviour motivated by a desire to harm someone. What is proactive aggression? Proactive or instrumental aggression is ‘cold’, premediated, calculated harmful behaviour that is a means to some practical or material end PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 5 Anja Viljoen  Define bullying Bullying is persistent aggression by a perpetrator against a victim for the purpose of establishing a power relationship over the victim What is cyberbullying? The use of the internet to bully others What is meant by antisocial behaviour? Antisocial behaviour is behaviour that either damages interpersonal relationships or is culturally undesirable debate the role of nature versus nurture in human aggression and analyse the effects of culture on aggressive impulses. What does people learn regarding aggression? 1. People can learn to behave aggressively 2. People can learn how to restrain aggression 3. People can learn and obey rules about aggression What is Freud’s view regarding aggression? Freud sees aggression like a hunger, the need bubbles up from inside and has to be satisfied in some way. He views, aggressive drive is independent of circumstances. What role does culture play in aggression? People don’t learn to be aggressive, it comes naturally Culture however helps bring those natural impulses under control in order to follow the rules. identify the inner causes of aggression. Name the inner causes of aggression 1. Frustration 2. Being in a bad mood 3. Hostile cognitive biases 4. Age and aggression 5. Gender differences in aggression and violence What is frustration? Blockage of or interference with a personal goal Describe the frustration-aggression hypothesis The proposal that ‘the occurrence of aggressive behaviour always presupposes the existence of frustration’ and ‘the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression’ Define the hostile attribution bias The tendency to perceive ambiguous actions by others as aggressive Define hostile perception bias The tendency to perceive social interactions in general as being aggressive Define the hostile expectation bias The tendency to assume that people will react to potential conflicts with aggression PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 6 Anja Viljoen  What is meant by “Fight or flight syndrome”? Fight or flight syndrome refers to a response to stress that involves aggressing against others or running away tend What is tend and befriend syndrome? A response to stress that involves nurturing others and making friends. describe the interpersonal causes of aggression. Name the interpersonal causes of aggression 1. Selfishness and influence 2. Domestic violence Wat is relational aggression? Relational aggression (also called social aggression) refers to behaviour that involves intentionally harming another person’s social relationships, feelings of acceptance, or inclusion within a group Why do people resort to aggression to get what they want? 1. The more they want the reward the more willing people are to use violence to get it 2. People resort to violence when they believe it will bring success such as if the person seems unlikely to retaliate 3. Some people regard physical violence as immoral and will not engage in it under almost any circumstances, whereas others are far less inhibited. 4. Blaming someone for unfair actions can lead to aggressive relation What is domestic violence? Domestic violence (also called family violence or intimate-partner violence) is violence that occurs within the home, between people who have a close relationship with each other. Which relationships are the most violent? Sibling relationships Compare men and women in context of relationships Women tend to attack their relationship partners more often than men do, but women don’t cause as much harm. compare the external causes of aggression to the internal and interpersonal causes. What are the external causes of aggression? 1. People behave more aggressively in the mere presence of a weapon 2. Exposure to violent media increases aggression 3. Hotter temperatures are associated with higher levels of aggression and violence. 4. Unpleasant environmental events such as noise, crowding, foul odours, air pollution and second- hand smoke, can increase aggression 5. Increases in testosterone, junk food and alcohol lead to increased aggression, decreases in serotonin and increases in vitamins reduce aggression. PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 7 Anja Viljoen  discuss the role of culture and self-views in producing violence and aggression. What does running amok refer to? According to Malaysian culture, running amok refers to behaviour of a young man who becomes ‘uncontrollably’ violent after receiving a blow to his ego What is one of the most important causes of crime? Poor self-control Why is poor self-control an important cause of crime? 1. When you have poor self-control, you tend to do things that are not seen as right in your culture. 2. Also having no self-control is linked with selfishness and most crimes are selfish because it seeks to benefit the individual at other’s expenses 3. Criminals seem to be impulsive, which is also a form of poor self-control How are self-views and aggression linked? 1. Aggression often starts when someone comes along and questions or challenges favourable self- views. 2. Wounded pride seems to be the most appropriate descriptor of how self-views are linked to aggression. How does violent individuals see themselves? Violent individuals see themselves as better than other people and have grandiose or inflated opinions of their own worth What does the term narcissism mean? The term narcissism describes the condition of thinking of oneself as superior or special, feeling entitled to preferential treatment, being willing to exploit others, having low empathy with “lesser” human beings, and entertaining grandiose fantasies or other ideas about oneself as a great person. Why are narcissists likely to become aggressive? Because much aggression involves wounded pride What is meant by culture of honour? Culture of honour is a culture in a society that places high value on individual respect, strength and virtue, and accepts and justifies violent action in response to threats to one’s honour What is honour killing? Honour killing refers to killing another individual who has brought ‘dishonour’ to the family (e.g., a woman who has committed adultery) What appears to be the primary cause of violence and aggression in cultures of honour? Humiliation Define humiliation Humiliation is a state of disgrace or loss of self-respect (or of respect from others) PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 8 Anja Viljoen  identify other, non-aggressive forms of antisocial behaviour. What classifies as other, non-aggressive forms of antisocial behaviour? 1. Lying 2. Swearing 3. Cheating 4. Stealing 5. Littering What is lying? Lying is deliberately making a false statement, usually to mislead someone What is plagiarise? Plagiarise is to claim the ideas or words of another person as one’s own without crediting that person identity theft consists of stealing someone’s personal information (e.g., identity number, bank account, credit card number) and using it without their permission, usually to obtain money or goods. What does deindividuation refer to? Deindividuation refers to a sense of anonymity and loss of individuality, as in a large group, making people especially likely to engage in antisocial behaviours such as theft What are norms? Norms are social standards that prescribe what people ought to do Injunctive norms are norms that specify what most others approve or disapprove of What are injunctive norms? Injunctive norms specify what most others approve or disapprove Describe descriptive norms Descriptive norms are norms that specify what most people do What psychological reactance? Psychological reactance is the unpleasant emotional response people experience when someone is trying to restrict their freedom to engage in a desired behaviour STUDY UNIT 3.3 differentiate between the two ingredients for belongingness, and debate why the need to belong is a basic need for a cultural animal. Define attraction Anything that draws two or more people together, making them want to be together and possibly to form a lasting relationship Define social acceptance A situation in which other people have come to like you, respect you, approve of you, and include you in their groups and relationship. PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 9 Anja Viljoen  Define rejection (social exclusion) Being prevented by others from forming or keeping a social bond with them, the opposite of acceptance. What is a need to belong? The desire to form and maintain close, lasting relationships with other individuals. What are the two ingredients to belongingness? 1. People want some kind of regular social contacts 2. People want the stable framework of some ongoing relationship in which the people share a mutual concern for each other Belonging is a need and not just something you want. It is important because when it is prevented people suffer from more than just being unhappy. Why is not belonging bad for you? 1. People experience a failure to satisfy their need to belong leads to significant health problems, including higher risk of death. 2. People who are alone in the world have more physical and mental problems than people who belong to a good social network 3. Death rates from all kinds of diseases are higher among people without social connections 4. Loneliness is hard on the body leading to impaired natural powers, including your immune system discuss the variables that predict who will like whom. Define ingratiation What people actively do to try and make someone like them Name different causes of attraction 1. Similarity – People tend to like people that are similar to themselves. 2. Social rewards: You make me feel good – Reinforcement theory, if you give someone something (physical or emotional) they like you, because they associate being liked with these things. 3. Reciprocity – If you do something for me, I’ll do something for you, this leads to people liking each other 4. Mere exposure – If I see you a lot and share experiences with you, I’ll probably end up liking you more (propinquity) 5. Looking good – What is beautiful is good effect. Define the matching hypothesis The proposition that people tend to pair up with others who are equally attractive Define the reinforcement theory The proposition that people and animals will perform behaviours that have been rewarded more than they will perform other behaviours Define propinquity Being near someone on a regular basis Define the social allergy effect The idea that a partner’s annoying habits become more annoying over time Define the what is beautiful is good effect The assumption that physically attractive people will be superior to others on many other traits PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 10 Anja Viljoen  identify two strategies for getting someone to like you that confirm the importance of interpersonal rewards and explain how reciprocity has a powerful effect on liking. Which two strategies for getting someone to like you confirms the importance of interpersonal rewards? 1. Similarity 2. Social rewards Explain how reciprocity has a powerful effect on liking Reciprocity is having a powerful effect on liking because liking can’t only come from one side. It needs to be mutual. People also tend to like people who likes them. compare the inner reactions to the behavioural effects of rejection. Define ostracism Being excluded, rejected and ignored by others. What are the inner reactions due to rejection? 1. Pain 2. Illness 3. Depression 4. Suicidal thoughts 5. Eating disorders 6. Helplessness 7. Promiscuity 8. The person’s self-esteem suffers 9. Rejection sensitivity 10. People may start to feel that no one cares 11. The initial reaction to rejection is often closer to numbness than to anxiety or sadness. It can interfere with normal psychological and cognitive functioning Define rejection sensitivity A tendency to expect rejection from others and to become hypersensitive to possible rejection. Name the behavioural effects of rejection 1. People tend to avoid or reject social contact 2. Repeated experiences of rejection or social exclusion can create aggressive tendencies. And aggression then can lead to further rejection. 3. Rejected people who have a chance to form a new social relationship may engage in positive nonverbal behaviour which helps people come to like each other 4. Rejection undermines self-regulation and often makes people behave selfishly rather than acting in a socially conscientious way PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 11 Anja Viljoen  analyse what makes people feel lonely and describe the conditions that lead to social rejection. Define loneliness Loneliness is the painful feeling of wanting more human contact or connections than you have. What makes people feel lonely? 1. When there isn’t quality relationships or social interactions. 2. When people don’t know how to use their social skills 3. When people struggle to figure other people’s emotional states out Why are children rejected by their peers? 1. Because they are aggressive or violent 2. Because they withdraw or are socially isolated 3. Because they are different from other children in someway Why does adults get rejected? Deviance Why does groups reject insiders more than outsiders? Deviance describe the different types of love. Describe passionate love 1. This is romantic love 2. Passionate love refers to strong feelings of longing, desire and excitement toward a special person Describe companionate love 1. This is affectionate love 2. Companionate love consists of mutual understanding and caring to make the relationship succeed Name and describe the three parts of Sternberg’s triangle: 1. Passion is an emotional state characterised by high bodily arousal, such as increased heart rate and blood pressure 2. Intimacy is a feeling of closeness, mutual understanding and mutual concern for each other’s welfare and happiness 3. Commitment is a conscious decision that remains constant differentiate exchange and communal relationships. Define exchange relationships Exchange relationships are based on reciprocity and fairness, in which people expect something in return Define communal relationships Relationships based on mutual love and concern, without expectation of repayment PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 12 Anja Viljoen  identify and discuss the factors that are important to maintaining relationships over time. Define self-acceptance Self-acceptance is regarding yourself as being a reasonably good person just as you are Explain the investment model Investment model is a theory that uses three factors – satisfaction, alternatives and investments – to explain why people stay with their long-term relationship partners 1. Satisfaction – Do you like your partner? Do you enjoy spending time together? 2. Alternatives – The decision of staying with someone doesn’t only depend on how you evaluate the relationship, it also depends on whether you could be happy with someone else. 3. Investments – “sunk costs”, you have to put time, effort, emotion and other resources into a relationship. discuss jealousy and double standards What is the difference between jealousy and envy? Jealousy is the fear of losing something that you have while envy is a desire for something you do not have What is the cultural perspective on jealousy? 1. Society can modify and channel jealousy but cannot effectively eliminate it. 2. Some degree of sexual possessiveness is deeply rooted in human nature. What is the evolutionary perspective on jealousy? Men and women experience jealousy differently on average and may worry about different aspects of what their partners do with other lovers What is seen as the cause of jealousy? The person and the situation Define double standards Condemning women more than men for the same sexual behaviour Define reverse double standards Condemning men more than women for the same sexual behaviour Define social reality Social reality refers to the beliefs held in common by several or many people; public awareness Define paternity uncertainty Paternity uncertainty refers to the fact that a man cannot be sure that the children born to his female partner are his PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 13 Anja Viljoen   STUDY UNIT 3.4 identify the differences between prejudice, discrimination and stereotyping. Define prejudice Prejudice is a negative feeling toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group What is meant by racism and aversive racism?  Racism is prejudice towards a certain race  Aversive racism is simultaneously holding egalitarian (democratic/free) values and negative feelings toward people of other races. Define discrimination Unequal treatment of different people based on the groups or categories to which they belong. Define stereotyping Stereotyping is beliefs that associate groups of people with certain traits. What are subtypes? Subtypes is categories that people use for individuals who do not fit a general stereotype Define categorisation Categorisation is the natural tendency of humans to sort objects into groups Define social categorisation Social categorisation is the process of sorting people into groups on the basis of characteristics they have in common (e.g., race, gender, age, religion, sexual orientation) What is meant by outgroup members? Outgroup members are people who belong to a different group or category than we do Ingroup members are people who belong to the same group or category as we do What does outgroup homogeneity bias mean? Outgroup homogeneity bias is the assumption that outgroup members are more similar to one another than ingroup members are to one another Categorise prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination into the ABC triad. A – The affect component is prejudice B – The behavioural component is discrimination C – The cognitive component is stereotyping PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 14 Anja Viljoen  evaluate how and why stereotypes and discrimination impact targets. NOTE: Knowing and understanding these following terms will give you context and help you evaluate how and why stereotypes and discrimination impact targets. What is homophobia? Homophobia is an excessive fear of homosexuals or homosexual behaviour. What are stigmas? Stigmas are characteristics of individuals that are considered socially unacceptable (e.g., being overweight, mentally ill, sick, poor or physically scarred) Define ingroup favouritism Ingroup favouritism refers to preferential treatment of, or more favourable attitudes toward, people in one’s own group What is meant by minimal group effect? Minimal group effect is the finding that people show favouritism toward ingroup members even when group membership is randomly determined What are superordinate goals? Superordinate goals are goals that can be achieved only by cooperating and working with others Define the realistic conflict theory Realistic conflict theory is the idea that competition over scarce resources leads to intergroup hostility and conflict Define competition Competition is a situation in which people can attain their goals only if others do not Define cooperation Cooperation is a situation in which people must work together with others to help all achieve their goals What is the discontinuity effect? Discontinuity effect refers to the finding that groups are more extreme, and often more hostile, than individuals Define the contact hypothesis Contact hypothesis is the idea that regular interaction between members of different groups reduces prejudice, providing that it occurs under favourable conditions PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 15 Anja Viljoen  debate the innate versus cultural causes of prejudice and stereotyping. Give 5 reasons why prejudice exists 1. Competition – According to realistic conflict theory competition over scarce resources leads to intergroup hostility and conflict 2. Ignorance – People who have very little contact with other groups have no information about them, and so they attempt to fill the gap by forming stereotypes 3. Rationalisation for oppression – To restrain their status, powerful groups justify and rationalise prejudice against less powerful groups. 4. Stereotypes as heuristics – To simplify their world, people often rely on stereotypes as mental shortcuts or heuristics, rather than collecting information about them. 5. Prejudice boosts self-esteem – People can feel better about themselves if they consider their own group superior and all other groups inferior. Summarise research on the accuracy of stereotypes. What did research show on the accuracy of stereotypes?  Stereotypes work like heuristics; they take an approach that is true most of the time and follow it as if it were always true  Some stereotypes are accurate, some are wrong and other are partly true, but over generalised  Racial stereotypes were consistently inaccurate.  Stereotypes on personality traits based on countries were also not very accurate  Stereotypes of age differences in personality traits are accurate  Stereotyping has changed  Stereotypes aren’t always negative  Stereotypes can form from purely cognitive processes, without any influence of emotion or motivation. Still, emotion or motivation can greatly increase the likelihood of prejudice. Discuss how inner processes can affect prejudice. Define salience Being obvious or standing out Define the scapegoat theory The idea that blaming problems and misfortunes on outgroups contributes to negative attitudes toward these outgroups What is meant by the self-serving bias? The tendency for people to take credit for success but refuse blame for problems and failures By what is stereotypes often brought out? 1. Conflict 2. Stress How do people use stereotypes as a hypnotises? People use their stereotypes as a hypothesis to be tested, rather than using it as rules that can be applied in all cases. What does the automatic- and conscious system do in terms of prejudice?  The automatic system may often sustain prejudices  The conscious system may strive to overcome them PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 16 Anja Viljoen  What do people do when they are accused of prejudice? They often exert themselves to prove the opposite Explain how stereotypes actually operate and how they can be overcome. How does people overcome stereotypes? 1. People overcome prejudice by making conscious efforts to be fair and equal 2. Intergroup contact reduces different types of prejudice 3. Jigsaw classroom - Cooperating to achieve a common goal is also a good way to overcome prejudice and get people to work together What are internal motivations? The belief that prejudice is morally wrong What are external motivations? The desire to avoid social disapproval Explain the jigsaw classroom A co-operative learning technique in which group members must work as a team and share unique information to accomplish a common goal. describe the impact of prejudice on targets. What impact does prejudice have? 1. Applied to stereotypes, a self-fulfilling prophesy would mean people would come to act like the stereotype’s others hold from them 2. Stereotypes can also create a self-defeating prophecy, which ensures, by the behaviour it generates, that it will not come true. What is a stereotype threat? The fear that a stereotype might apply and that one’s behaviour might confirm it. What does stereotype threat do in terms of interracial interactions? It provokes anxiety for both races because they worry about confirming the stereotypes about themselves. Explain the self-fulfilling prophecy Self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that ensures, by the behaviour it generates, that it will come true Explain the self-defeating prophecy Self-defeating prophecy is a prediction that ensures, by the behaviour it generates, that it will not come true PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 17 Anja Viljoen   STUDY UNIT 3.5 Explain how people function in groups What is a group? A collection of at least two people who are doing or being something together What makes a group feel united? 1. Common identity 2. Frequent interaction with each other 3. Dependence on each other 4. Working together towards a common goal 5. Common beliefs, values and practices 6. Shared emotional experiences Why does people in a group need to feel similar to each other? People need to feel similar to each other, because more diverse groups may find it harder to come together as a group, compared to groups that start of being similar. What is the importance of the presence of an outgroup? An outgroup, especially a rival or enemy is necessary, because it gives groups the opportunity to have to work together for common good, against a common opponent. Why does social animals live in groups? 1. Groups provide safety 2. Groups find and share food 3. Groups do tasks individuals can’t do alone What are the benefits of culture groups? 1. Cultural groups preserve information and pass it along to future generations; this increases the benefit of being able to absorb and communicate information. 2. Differentiation; everyone specialises at something and become an expert at it and in the end all jobs are performed by experts. What are the positive effects of working in a group? 1. Identifying people and holding them accountable for their actions produces better outcomes. 2. People cooperate more with others when they are individually identified whereas the anonymity of groups produces more greed fear and other dangerous reactions Define the social facilitation theory The social facilitation theory states that the presence of others can make people perform better, especially on easy and familiar tasks Discuss Zajonc’s theory of social facilitation The theory of facilitation states that the presence of others increases arousal, which increases the dominant response tendency What can change people’s eating patterns? The presence of others PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 18 Anja Viljoen  What intensifies the effects of others’ presence? Evaluation apprehension Define evaluation apprehension The concern how others are judging you and/or your performance Define social loafing (or the free rider problem) People reduce effort when working in a group, compared to working alone, especially if their work is not individually identifiable What is the bad apple effect? The bad apple effect refers to the finding that one loader can cause other workers to loaf as well What is deindividuation? A loss of self-awareness and of individual accountability in a group, which can lead to antisocial behaviour What is the commons dilemma? The tendency for shared or jointly owned resources to be squandered and not used in an optimal or advantageous fashion What affects the tendency to overuse a common resource? 1. Communication 2. Personality 3. Mood 4. Behaviour Define dominant response The most common reaction to a given situation Define altruistic punishment The finding that people will sometimes sacrifice their own gain for the betterment of all, by punishing people who cheat the system discuss decision-making in groups; Define brainstorming A form of creative thinking in groups, using a procedure in which all group members are encouraged to generate as many ideas as possible while interacting and stimulating each other. How can large groups of people make smarter predictions than the smartest person in the group? If people operate as separate, independent members and then pool and share their diverse information Define transactive memory A process by which members of a small group remember different kinds of information What does group think? The tendency of group members to think alike especially when doing so leads to bad decisions PSYC 121: STUDY UNIT 3 19 Anja Viljoen  When does group think especially likely to happen? 1. If the group is similar and cohesive 2. If the group has a strong, directive leader 3. If the group is isolated from other ideas 4. If the group has a high self-esteem Name the symptoms marking group think 1. Pressure toward conformity 2. An appearance of unanimous agreement’ 3. An illusion of invulnerability 4. A sense of moral superiority 5. Underestimation of opponents What type of information does groups tend to focus on more? Groups tend to focus more on information held in common by all members than on unique information each member has What is self-censorship? Choosing not to express doubts or other information that goes against a group’s plans and views What is a risky shift? A tendency for groups to take greater risks than the same individuals would have decided to take individually Define the group polarisation effect A shift toward a more extreme position resulting from group discussion Explain the five crucial effects that power has on people. What effects does power have on leaders? 1. Power feels good - People with power are more likely to feel positive, pleasant emotions and to express these good feelings 2. Rewards versus punishment – Power makes people attend more to rewards than to punishments. People tend to go ahead and pursue unrealistic or risky strategies, because they are not focused on potential problems and obstacles. 3. Adaptability – Powerful people tend to think in terms of how they can use circumstances, benefit from them, or work with them 4. The duplex mind – Power makes people rely more on automatic processing than deliberate