Psyc 25 PDF - Developmental Psychology

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION E.g When one language is acquired early in development, Can you differentiate change, learning, maturation,...

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION E.g When one language is acquired early in development, Can you differentiate change, learning, maturation, the capacity for acquiring a and development? second or third language decreases later in DEVELOPMENT development, especially after pattern of change that begins at conception early childhood and continues through the lifespan Plasticity Involves growth as sell as decline brought on ○ capacity for change by aging and dying Multidisciplinary ○ Growth and change over time ○ Psychologists, sociologists, ○ Characteristics: anthropologists, neuroscientists, and Better adapted to the medical researchers all share an environment interest in unlocking the mysteries of Proceeds from the relatively: development through the lifespan Simple to more complex Contextual Global to specific ○ within situations Is relatively enduring ○ Influenced by historical, economic, ○ There are certain periods where social and cultural factors certain skills r the right time to develop ○ Normative AGE-graded influences: Similar for individuals in a particular Why study developmental psychology age group 4 goals Puberty or the Describe what ppl are like at different ages menopausal stage and how they change as a result of age Sociocultural and To explain what causes developmental environmental change processes - starting To predict what an individual will be like at a school at 6 and retiring later point of development from work at 50-60s To intervene or use knowledge to enhance Normative HISTORY-graded the quality of individual lives influences: common to people of a particular generation because of CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFESPAN historical circumstances PERSPECTIVE Pandemic 2020, World Views development as War II, Great Depression Lifelong Long term changes in ○ no one period dominates genetic and cultural development makeup of a population Multidimensional ○ Nonnormative life events: ○ across dimensions unusual occurrences that have ○ No matter what your age is, your body, a major impact on an mind, emotions and relationships are individual’s life changing and affecting each other *What would be a nonnormative life event for you?* Multidirectional ○ increase decrease Involves growth, maintenance and ○ Some dimensions or components of a regulation of loss dimensions expand and shrink ○ bring it back to equilibrium  ○ In middle and late adulthood, ○ Ethnicity: based on cultural heritage, maintenance and regulation of loss nationality characteristics, race, takes center stage religion, and language ○ 75 year old man = goal is no longer to African Americans, Latinos, improve golf skills but maintain Asian Americans independence in ability to play ○ Socioeconomic status (SES): grouping Constructed through biological, socio of people with similar occupational, cultural and individual factors working educational and economic together characteristics ○ Ex: brain shapes culture but it is also Implies inequality shaped by culture and human ○ Gender: characteristics of people as experience males or females Social policy Guiding principles ○ Government’s course of action Development results from constant interplay designed to promote the welfare of its of biology and the environment (never a citizens product of your own) ○ Shaped by values, economics, and Development occurs in a multilayered context politics (circle thing for uts - smallest ata) ○ Parenting and nurturing the next Development is a dynamic, reciprocal generation of children is our society’s process (i impact ppl the same way they most important function and that we impact me) (trauma can be passed down need to take it more seriously than in help) the past Development is cumulative Development occurs throughout the life-span (not fully developed just bc im nearing my 20s - growth, maintenance and regulation still occurs even in my 30s and so on) CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS Health and wellbeing ○ Health professionals today recognize the powerful influence of lifestyles and psychological states on health and well-being Parenting and education Technology ○ Issues related to parenting and ○ Developmental robotics education ○ Should babies watch TV and videos Sociocultural contexts and diversity ○ Degree to which adults who grew up ○ Health, parenting, and education like with many tech are adapting development are all shaped by their ○ Way of life has been permanently sociocultural context changed by technological advances ○ Culture: behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group that NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT are passed on from generation to Biological Processes: change in physical generation nature Cultural group: US  ○ Genes inherited from parents, brain sensorimotor coordination, and social development, height, weight gains, learning changes in motor skills, nutrition, 3. Toddler: child from 1 ½ to 3 years old exercise, hormonal changes, puberty, a. Transition period cardiovascular decline 4. Early childhood: 3 to 5 years old ○ There has been more research on MRI a. Preschool years - how the brain influences many b. Learn to be more self sufficient, care aspects of dev at diff points in a life for themselves, develop school span readiness, spend hours playing Cognitive Processes: changes in an c. First grade = end of this stage individual’s thought, intelligence, language 5. Middle and late childhood: 6 to 10 or 11 years ○ Putting together a two word sentence, old memorizing a poem, imagining being a. Elementary school years an actor, solving crossword puzzles b. Master fundamental skills: reading, Socioemotional Processes: changes in the writing, arithmetic, formally exposed to individual’s relationship with other ppl, world, self control increases changes in emotions and personality c. Achievement becomes a central ○ Infants smile in response to a parent’s theme and self-control increases touch, toddler’s aggressive attack on a 6. Adolescence: 10 to 12 years old to 18 to 21 playmate, affection of an elderly years old couple a. Transition from childhood to early Connecting Biological, Cognitive, and childhood Socioeconomic Processes b. Rapid physical changes - gains in ○ Developmental cognitive height and weight neuroscience c. Changes in body contour, explores links between development of sexual characteristics, development, cognitive pubic / facial hair, deepening voice processes and the brain d. Independence and identity ○ Developmental social neuroscience e. Thought = more logical, abstract, examines connections idealistic between socioemotional f. Time spent OUTSIDE of family processes, development and g. Sometimes referred to as emerging the brain adulthood (18 to 25 years old - exploring career, identity, lifestyle) PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT 7. Early adulthood: early 20s to lo 30s Developmental period refers to a time frame a. Establishing economic independence, in a person’s life that is characterized by advancing in career, selecting mate, certain features starting a family 8. Middle adulthood: 40 to 60 years old 1. Prenatal Period: conception to birth a. Expanding personal / social a. 9 month period involvement and responsibility b. Single cell to organism w complete b. Assisting younger generation brain c. Reaching and maintaining satisfaction 2. Infancy: birth to 18 or 24 months in career a. Extreme dependence on adults 9. Late adulthood: 60s / 70s / until death b. Beginning of psychological activities such as language, symbolic thought,  a. Life review, retirement, adjustment to Age in terms of biological health new social roles, diminishing strength Functioning capacitors of a person’s vital and health organs b. Major change takes place in older Psychological age adults’ lives → “oldest-old” around 85 Individual’s adaptive capacities compared i. They show considerable loss in with those of other individuals of the same cog skills, experience increase chronological age in chronic stress + more frail For those who continue to learn, are flexible, are motivated, have positive personality Four Ages traits, control their emotions and think clearly First Age: Childhood and adolescence Second age: Prime adulthood (20 to 59) Social age Third Age: 60 to 79 years old Connectedness with others and the social Fourth Age: 80 and older roles individuals adopt Ppl with better social relationships with others Three Developmental Patterns of Aging are happier and likely to live longer Normal aging: seen in most ppl – psych functioning peeks in early middle age Developmental Issues ○ remains stable til late 50s to early 60s, 1. Nature-nurture issue shows decline in early 80s a. Debate about whether development is Pathological aging: ppl who show greater primarily influenced by nature or than average decline – early old age -> may nurture have mild cognitive impairment b. Nature - organism’s biological ○ Alzheimer disease / other chronic inheritance disease c. Nurture - environmental experiences Successful aging: ppl whose positive d. Epigenetic view physical, cognitive, and socioemotional dev is i. Development reflects an maintained longer ongoing, bidirectional ○ decline is seen later in old age exchange between genes and environment Connections across periods of development: a girl ii. Involve specific DNA sequences who develops depression during adolescence may be linked to dev early in her life + current dev Nature or Nurture Physical looks SIGNIFICANCE OF AGE Weight or built Age and Happiness: typically older adults are Intelligence more contented with what they have in their Personality lives and have better relationships with ppl bc Hobbies or interest they feel less pressured to achieve life goals Career interest and goals Spirituality and beliefs Full evaluation of age requires consideration of the following: 2. Stability-Change issue Chronological age a. degree to which early traits and Number of years that have elapsed since characteristics persist through life or birth change Crude index of experience Debate about whether individual: Biological Age b. Becomes older renditions of their early experience  c. Develops into someone different from Emphasizes how culture and who they were at an earlier point in social interaction guide development cognitive development d. Ex: shy person = could be heredity or a ○ Information-Processing Theory bad social experience in early age Emphasizes that individuals e. Research states older adults show less manipulate information, capacity to learn new things than monitor it, and strategize about younger adults it f. Role of early and later experience Individuals develop a gradually 3. Continuity-Discontinuity issue increasing capacity for a. Debate about the extent to which processing information, which development involves allows them to acquire i. gradual (slow), cumulative increasingly complex change or distinct stages knowledge and skills Behavioral and social cognitive theories THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT ○ Skinner’s operant conditioning (Multi-dimensional) Development consists of the Psychoanalytical theories pattern of behavioral that are ○ Describe development as primarily brought about by rewards and unconscious and heavily colored by punishments emotion ○ Bandura’s social cognitive theory ○ Freud’s Psychosexual Theories Emphasizes behavior, Primary motivation is sexual in environment, and cognition as nature the key factors in development Basic personality is shaped during the first 5 years of life Ethological theory ○ Erikson’s Psychosocial Theories ○ Ethology: stresses that behavior is Primary motivation is social strongly influenced by biology, is tied and reflects a desire to affiliate to evolution, and is characterized by with other people critical or sensitive periods Developmental change occurs Konrad Lopez: helped bring throughout the lifespan ethology yo prominence John Bowlby: attachment to a Cognitive theories caregiver over the first year of ○ Piaget’s Four Stages of Development life has important Children go through 4 stages of consequences throughout the cognitive development as they lifespan actively construct their Margaret Mahler: concerned understanding of the world primarily with the Two processes underlie this psychological birth of the cognitive construction of the individual that takes place world: Organization and during the first 3 years of life, a adaptation time when a child gradually ○ Vygotsky’s Theory surrenders security for autonomy  Psychological birth of Standardized tests margaret - a sense of ○ Reliability (consistency) me ○ Validity (accuracy) David Wilson: natural selection Research designs doesn’t occur only at the level ○ Case studies of genes and individuals, but ○ Correlational studies about cooperation within ○ Experiments groups and how groups of ○ Studying change over time cooperators enjoy evolutionary Longitudinal research advantages over groups Cross sectional studies consumed by internal Cohort Effects completion Accelerated longitudinal design Ecological theory combination of ○ Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of longitudinal and cross Development section Stresses biological factors and emphasizes environmental Research Ethics factors 1. Non harmful procedures 2. Informed Consent Eclectic theoretical orientation 3. Confidentiality ○ Does not follow any one theoretical 4. Debriefing approach 5. Implications ○ Selects from each theory whatever is 6. Misconduct considered the best in it Processes and Periods Development in one period is connected to development in another period RESEARCH ON LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT The Scientific Study of Development Formulate a question Develop a hypothesis Conduct a study to test the hypothesis Analyze the data Make the findings public Research Methods and Design Research methods ○ Observational research Naturalistic observation Participant observation Structured observation (guided by an activity) Self reports CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS Mitosis: cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus duplicates itself with 2 new cells GENETIC FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT being formed The Collaborative Gene ○ Each cell contains the same DNA as Human life begins as a single cell with parent cell nucleus of each cell containing Meiosis: cell division that forms sperm and chromosomes eggs Chromosomes: threadlike structures made Fertilization: stage in reproduction when an up of deoxyribonucleic acid egg and a sperm fuse to create a zygote ○ DNA: complex double-helix molecule that contains genetic information Combining the genes of two parents in offspring Genes: units of hereditary increases genetic variability information, short segments of Genotype Person’s genetic heritage DNA ○ For each genotype, there is a range of Gene is a segment of phenotype (source of variability) chromosomes that Phenotype: way an individual’s genotype is control particular expressed in observed and measurable aspects of production of characteristics; physical and psychological a specific protein characteristics Heps cells to reproduce themselves Sources of Variability Manufacture the Identical or monozygotic twins proteins that maintain ○ Develop from a single zygote that life splits into two genetically identical Genes direct the cells of an replicas, each of which becomes a embryo to become a human person being Fraternal or Dizygotic Twins 23 pairs of chromosomes = ○ Develop when two eggs are fertilized genotype by different sperm, creating two Your observable characteristics zygotes that are genetically no more = phenotype similar than ordinary siblings Human genome consists of many genes that Mutated gene collaborate both with each other and with ○ Permanently altered segments of DNA nongenetic factors (inside and outside the Susceptibility genes body) ○ Make the individual more vulnerable ○ Activity of gene is affected by their to specific diseases or accelerated environment → can excite or inhibit aging the genetic expression Longevity genes Ex: Stress, radiation, ○ Make the individual less vulnerable to temperature can influence certain diseases and more likely to live gene expression to an older age Exposure to radiation changes the rate of DNA synthesis in GENETIC PRINCIPLES cells Dominant-recessive genes principle ○ One gene of a pair always exerts its Genes and Chromosomes effects, overriding the potential Genes are enduring and gets passed from generations thru:  influence of the other gene → Every individual carries DNA variations that phenotype predispose the person to serious physical ○ Dominant Gene disease or mental disorder Overrides the potential Genes that are missing, nonfunctional or influence of another gene mutated can be associated with disorders ○ Recessive Gene Identifying genetic flaws enables: Exerts its influence only if the ○ Predict an individual’s risks two genes of a pair are both ○ Recommend healthy practices recessive ○ Prescribe the safest and most Sex-linked genes effective drugs ○ When a mutated gene is carried on Down Syndrome the X chromosome, the result is called Form of intellectual disability caused by the X linked inheritance presence of an extra chromosome 21 ○ Usually carried by males (ex: Individual has a round face, flattened skull, an hemophilia) extra fold of skin over the eyelids, protruding Genomic imprinting tongue, short limbs, and impaired motor and ○ occurs when the expression of a gene mental abilities has different effects depending on 1 in 700 live births whether the mother or father passed Women between the ages of 16 and 34 are on the gene less likely to give birth to a child with Down Polygenic Inheritance syndrome than are younger or older women ○ Polygenically determined - characteristics are determined by the Sex-Linked Chromosomal Abnormalities interaction of many different genes Klinefelter Syndrome Gene-gene Interaction Chromosomal disorder in which males have ○ Studies that focus on the an extra X chromosome, making XXY instead interdependence of two or more of XY genes in influencing characteristics, Males have underdeveloped testes, enlarged behavior, diseases and development breasts, and are tall ○ Sex determination One in 1,000 live male births ○ Additive heredity Only 10 percent of individuals with Klinefelter Child’s visible traits, phenotype syndrome are diagnosed before puberty, with is mix of mother’s and father’s the majority not identified until adulthood traits Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) ○ Dominant/Recessive heredity Genetic disorder that results from an One version of gene dominant abnormality in the X chromosome which over another becomes constricted and often breaks ○ Regulator genes ○ An intellectual difficulty frequently is Some genes turn other genes an outcome, which may take the form on and off of an intellectual disability, autism, a ○ Environmental influences learning disability, or a short attention span CHROMOSOMAL AND GENE-LINKED Occurs more frequently in males than ABNORMALITIES females Chromosomal Abnormalities A study found that a higher level of maternal responsivity to the adaptive behavior of  children with FXS had a positive effect on the In vitro fertilization (IVF) - eggs and sperms children’s communication skills are combined in a laboratory dish Turner Syndrome ○ Fertilized egg is transferred into the Chromosomal disorder in females in which woman’s uterus either an X chromosome is missing, making ○ Success rate of IVF depends on the the person XO instead of XX mother’s age Females are short, have webbed necks, might be infertile, and have difficulty in HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION: THE mathematics but their verbal ability is good NATURE-NURTURE DEBATE Occurs in 1 of every 2,500 females Behavior Genetics XYY Syndrome Discover the influence of heredity and Chromosomal disorder in which a male has environment on individual differences in an extra Y chromosome human traits and development Does not identify the extent to which genetics Gene-Linked Abnormalities or the environment affects an individual’s Phenylketonuria (PKU) traits Genetic disorder in which the individual cannot properly metabolize phenylalanine Twin Study Results from a recessive gene and occurs ○ Behavioral similarity of identical and once in every 10,000 to 20,000 live births fraternal twins is compared Treated by a diet that prevents an excess Adoption Study accumulation of phenylalanine ○ Seek to discover whether, in behavior Sickle-Cell Anemia and psychological characteristics, Occurs most often in African Americans adopted children are more like their: Genetic disorder that impairs the functioning Adoptive parents, who of red blood cells provided a home environment Recessive gene causes the red blood cell to Biological parents who become a hook-shaped “sickle” that cannot contribute their heredity carry oxygen properly and dies quickly As a result, the body’s cells do not receive Environmental Effects on Gene Expression adequate oxygen, causing anemia and early Factors such as temperature, light, nutrients death and other chemicals affect proteins produced by body REPRODUCTIVE CHALLENGES AND CHOICES The nurturant rat studies: Prenatal Diagnostic Tests ○ Whether rat pups raised by nurturant Ultrasound sonography or non-nurturant moms affected Brain imaging techniques expression of genes regulating the Chorionic villus sampling stress response Amniocentesis ○ Those raised with nurturant mothers Maternal blood screening shoes less hormonal response to Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD) stress as adults Fetal sex determination Environment-Genotype Interaction Inherited traits lead to different Prenatal Diagnostic Tests characteristics in different contexts Infertility - inability to conceive a child after ○ Ex: shyness in different households 12 months of regular intercourse without Reaction range - inherited traits as an array contraception of possibilities rather than fixed points  ○ Ex: range of height vs influenced by CHAPTER 3: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT environment AND BIRTH Genotype-Environment Correlations Chapter Outline Passive gene-environment correlations Prenatal Development ○ Parents provide both genes and ○ The course of prenatal development environments for their children ○ Teratology and hazards to prenatal Ex: reading abilities development Evocative gene-environment correlations ○ Prenatal care ○ Genotypically different individuals ○ Normal prenatal development elicit different responses from their Birth environments Postpartum Period Active gene-environment correlations ○ Correlations occur because THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT individuals select contexts that they 1. GERMINAL PERIOD find stimulating and rewarding The Germinal Period occurs in the first two weeks after conception The Epigenetic View and Gene x Environment This includes ○ Creation of the zygote (G x E) Interaction ○ Continued cell division Epigenetic View: development reflects ○ Attachment of the zygote to the ongoing bidirectional interchange between uterine wall heredity and the environment Blastocyst ○ Heredity and environment operate ○ Inner layer of the cells that develops together—or collaborate—to produce into the embryo a person’s well-being, intelligence, Trophoblast temperament, height, weight, ability to ○ Outer layer that provides nutrition and pitch a baseball, ability to read, and so support for the embryo on Significance Developments in the Germinal Period Gene × Environment (G × E) Interaction: How the ○ *check book/ppt* interaction between heredity and environment influences development, including interactions that 2. EMBRYONIC PERIOD involve specific DNA sequences The Embryonic Period occurs in the 2-8 weeks after conception ○ Rate of cell differentiation intensifies and mass of cells is now called an embryo ○ 3 layers of cells Endoderm: digestive and respiratory systems (internal body parts) Mesoderm: muscular, circulatory, reproductive, excretory (surrounding internal body parts)  Ectoderm: nervous and sensory ○ Arms and legs moving (surface parts) ○ Brain is forming Support systems from the cells form and ○ Fetal heartbeat is detectable w organs appear: ultrasound ○ Aminon ○ Called an “embryo” Contains a clear fluid in which 12 weeks the developing embryo floats ○ 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ○ Umbilical cord ounce Contains two arteries and one ○ Can move arms, legs, fingers, and toes vein ○ Fingerprints are present Connects the baby to the ○ Can smile, frown, suck and swallow placenta ○ Sex is distinguishable ○ Placenta ○ Can urinate Disk-shaped group of tissues ○ “Fetus” which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring Second Trimester intertwine but do not join 16 weeks ○ Organogenesis ○ About 6 inches long and weighs about Organ formation that takes 4 to 7 ounces place during the first two ○ Heartbeat is strong months of prenatal ○ Skin is thin, transparent development ○ Downy hair (lanugo) covers body ○ Fingernails and toenails are forming The Placenta and The Umbilical Cord ○ Has coordinated movements; is able *check ppt for image* to roll over in amniotic fluid 3. FETAL PERIOD 20 weeks The Fetal Period occurs between 2 months ○ About 12 inches long and weighs close after conception and birth to 1 pound Lasts 7 months ○ Heartbeat is audible with ordinary Fetus forms stethoscope ○ Sucks thumb THE 3 TRIMESTERS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT ○ Hiccups ○ Hair, eyelashes, eyebrows are present First Trimester 24 weeks Conception to 4 weeks ○ About 14 inches long and weighs 1 to ½ ○ Is less than 1/10 inch long pounds ○ Beginning development of spinal cord, ○ Skin is wrinkled and covered with nervous system, gastrointestinal protective coating (vernix caseosa) system, heart and lungs ○ Eyes are open ○ Amniotic sac envelopes the ○ Waste matter is collected in bowel preliminary tissues of entire body ○ Has strong grip ○ Is called a “zygote” 8 weeks Third trimester ○ Is just over 1 inch long 28 weeks ○ Face is forming with rudimentary eyes, ○ About 16 inches long and weighs ears, mouth and tooth buds about 3 pounds  ○ Is adding body fat During early pregnancy, the neurons in the ○ Is very active brain of a fetus can grow at a rate of 250,000 ○ Rudimentary breathing movements neurons per minute are present 32 weeks Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal ○ Is 16 ½ to 18 inches long and weighs 4 Development to 5 pounds Teratogen ○ Has periods of sleep and wakefulness ○ agent that causes a birth defect or ○ Responds to sound negatively alter cognitive / behavioral ○ May assume the birth position outcomes ○ Bones of head are soft and flexible Teratology ○ Iron is being stored in liver ○ field of study that investigates the 36 to 38 weeks causes of birth defects ○ Is 19 to 20 inches and weighs 6 to 7 ½ Teratogen Influence pounds ○ Dose: greater dose, greater the effect ○ Skin is less wrinkled ○ Genetic susceptibility: type of ○ Vernix caseosa is thick abnormality severity may be linked to ○ Lanugo is mostly gone the genotype of a pregnant woman ○ Is less active ○ Time of exposure: does more damage ○ Gaining immunities from mother when it occurs at some points in development than at others THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Brain Prescription drugs that can function as ○ Neurons teratogens include Nerve cells which handle inf ○ Antibiotics processing at the cellular level Streptomycin and tetracycline in the brain ○ Hormones ○ Important phases of the brain’s Progestin and synthetic development estrogen Neural Tube ○ Accutane Failure of the neural tube to close may Nonprescription drugs cause anencephaly and ○ can be harmful spina bifida ○ include diet pills and high dosages of Neurogenesis: generation of aspirin new neurons Neural Migration: cells moving Psychoactive drugs - act on the nervous outward from their point of system to alter states of consciousness, origin to their appropriate modify perceptions and change moods locations ○ Caffeine Neural Connectivity: ○ Alcohol connections between neurons Fetal alcohol spectrum begin to occur, ap process that disorders (FASD): appear in continues postnatally the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy ○ Nicotine  risk factor for the development older than 35 = increased risk of attention deficit of Down syndrome hyperactivity disorder in ○ Emotional states and stress offspring Depression is linked to: Girls: more likely to smoke too preterm birth ○ Cocaine increased risk for associated with reduced birth depression in offspring weight, length, and head at age 18 circumference Taking antidepressants in linked to impaired connectivity second or third trimester: linked of the thalamus and prefrontal to increased risk of autism cortex in newborns spectrum disorders in children ○ Methamphetamine ○ Marijuana ○ Paternal factors related to lower intelligence in Men’s exposure to lead, children radiation, certain pesticides, offsprings’ low birth weight and and petrochemicals may greater likelihood of being cause abnormalities in sperm placed in a neonatal intensive that lead to miscarriage or to care unit diseases such as childhood ○ Heroin cancer several behavioral difficulties Father smoking can lead to: at birth Impaired male fertility Difficulties include withdrawal Increased DNA damage symptoms, such as tremors, Increasing paternal age irritability, abnormal crying, decreases the success rate of disturbed sleep, and impaired in vitro fertilization and motor control increases the risk of preterm birth Incompatible blood types ○ Incompatibility between the mother’s SENSITIVE PERIODS IN PRENATAL and father’s blood types poses risk to DEVELOPMENT prenatal development Zika Virus Environmental Hazards A birth defect characterized by a small head ○ Radiation, toxic wastes, and other and severe brain damage chemical pollutants HAs been linked to microcephaly Maternal diseases ○ Rubella and syphilis PRENATAL CARE ○ Genetic herpes and AIDS Screening for manageable conditions and ○ Diabetes treatable diseases Other Parental Factors Programs include educational, social and ○ Maternal diet and nutrition nutritional services mother’s total caloric intake as Exercise during pregnancy: well as her intake of proteins, ○ Helps prevent constipation vitamins, and minerals ○ Conditions the body ○ Maternal age ○ Reduces excessive weight gain adolescents and women 35 years and older  ○ Is associated with a more positive Regional anesthesia mental state that numbs the woman’s body from the BIRTH waist down BIRTH PROCESS ○ Oxytocin 3 Stages of Birth Hormone that promotes ○ 1st stage: Uterine contractions are 15 uterine contractions to 20 mins apart and last up to 1 min Natural childbirth: Reduces the mother’s pain Longest stage (6-12 hours) by decreasing her fear thru Contractions: causes woman’s ○ Education about childbirth cervix to stretch and open ○ Relaxation techniques during delivery ○ 2nd stage: begins when the baby’s Prepared Childbirth: Special breathing tech head starts to move thru the cervix to control pushing in the final stages of labor and birth canal ○ Provides detailed anatomy and Lasts 45 mins to an hour physiological course Ends when the baby ○ Called Lamaze method completely emerges from the Cesarean delivery: Surgical procedure in mother’s body which the baby is removed from the mother’s ○ 3rd stage: Afterbirth: when the uterus through an incision made in her placenta, umbilical cord, and other abdomen membranes are detached and ○ Breech position: Baby’s position in the expelled uterus causes the buttocks to be the first part to emerge from the vagina CHILDBIRTH AND ATTENDANTS Usually takes place in hospitals ASSESSING THE NEWBORN ○ Midwives: Profession that provides Apgar Scale health care to women during Apgar scale: Assessing the health of pregnancy, birth, and the postpartum newborns at one and five mins after birth period ○ Evaluates: May also give info on Infant’s heart rate reproductive health Respiratory effort ○ Doula: Caregiver who provides Muscle tone continuous physical, emotional and Body color educational support for the mother Reflex irritability before, during and after childbirth Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants Preterm and small for date infants Methods of childbirth ○ Low birth weight infants: Weighs less Medication than 5 ½ pounds at birth ○ Analgesia ○ Very low birth weight Relieve pain 3 pounds and 4 ounces ○ Anesthesia Born less than 28 weeks Used in the late-first stage and ○ Extremely low birth weight during delivery to block Less than 2 pounds sensation in an area of the body or to block consciousness Epidural block  ○ Preterm Infants: born before the Postpartum Blues (70%): symptoms appear completion of 37 weeks of gestation or 2-3 days after delivery and usually subside 3 weeks before full term within 1-2 weeks ○ Small for date infants: infants’ birth Postpartum Depression (10%): symptoms weights are below normal when the linger for weeks or months and interfere with length of pregnancy is considered daily functioning May be preterm or full term No symptoms (20%) Consequences of preterm birth and low birth Emotional and Psychological Adjustments weight Postpartum depression: strong feelings of ○ More health and developmental sadness, anxiety or despair problems than normal birth weight ○ Have trouble coping with daily tasks in infants the postpartum period ○ Extremely preterm infants ○ Treatment Born less than 28 weeks Antidepressant drugs, gestation psychotherapy, and regular ○ Very preterm infants exercise Born less than 33 weeks Bonding gestation Formation of a physical bond, between parents and their newborn shortly after birth Nurturing low birth weight and preterm Rooming-in arrangement infants ○ Baby remains in the mother’s room ○ Kangaroo care: Involves skin-to-skin most of the time during its hospital contact n which the baby, wearing stay only a diaper, is held upright against the parent’s bare chest, much as a baby kangaroo is carried by its mother ○ Massage therapy POSTPARTUM PERIOD Postpartum Period Period after childbirth that lasts until: ○ Lasts for about 6 weeks or until mother's body has completed its adjustment and has returned to a nearly prepregnant state Adjustments needed are: ○ Physical Fatigue (loss of sleep), Marital conflict, Impaired decision making, Hormonal changes ○ Emotional ○ Psychological Postpartum Blues and Postpartum Depression (among US Women) CHAPTER 4: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ○ Blooming and pruning vary by brain region Pruning: neural connections Chapter Outline for Physical Development that are often used survive and Physical Growth and Development in Infancy became stronger while unused Motor Development ones are replaced or disappear Sensory and Perceptual Development (shedding of connections between neurons) PATTERNS OF GROWTH ○ Lateralization: specialization of Cephalocaudal pattern hemisphere Developmental sequence in which the Right brain / left brain earliest growth occurs at the top with physical dominant growth and differentiation of features gradually working their way down from top to bottom The brain is developing so rapidly Proximodistal pattern 100 billion neurons at birth Sequence in which growth starts at the center The baby’s head should be protected from of the body and moves toward the falls and injuries extremities ○ Shaken Baby Syndrome ○ Young brain can be traumatized = Height and Weight: Growth is episodic impacting development THE BRAIN’S DEVELOPMENT Neuroconstructivist View Mapping the Brain Reciprocal interplay between biological Frontal Lobes processes and context / environmental ○ Voluntary movement, thinking, conditions affect brain development personality, and intentionality or Heredity and environment influence the purpose. timing and course Occipital Lobes ○ Function in vision SLEEP Temporal Lobes Newborns sleeps approximately 18 hours a ○ Active role in hearing, language day, half in REM (2 weeks, 4 months, 2 years – processing, and memory declining) Parietal Lobes ○ Play important roles in registering REM Sleep spatial location, attention, and motor ○ Infants begin sleep cycle with REM control sleep and REM sleep takes up a large amount of time Sleep and Cognitive Development THE BRAIN AND THE NEUROCONSTRUCTIVIST ○ Positive link between infant sleep and VIEW cognitive functioning, including Changes in neurons and regions memory, language, and executive ○ Myelination: speeds conduction of function nerve impulses SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) is ○ Dendritic Spreading: increases likely in Infants: connections between neurons ○ With abnormal brain stem functioning ○ Synaptogenesis involving the neurotransmitter serotonin  ○ With sleep apnea and low birth weight Caused by severe ○ Who do not use a pacifier when they protein-calorie deficiency go to sleep ○ Kwashiorkor: child’s abdomen and feet ○ Whose siblings have died of SIDS become swollen with water ○ Lower socioeconomic groups Caused by severe protein ○ Who are passively exposed to deficiency cigarette smoke Appears between 1 and 3 years ○ Share the same bed with parents or of age sleep on soft bedding MARASMUS KWASHIORKOR NUTRITION SIGN WHICH IS ALWAYS SIGNS WHICH IS ALWAYS Breast vs bottle feeding ○ Benefits of breastfeeding Edema is present Edema is present Lower Gastrointestinal Extreme growth The child is weak infections failure and weight and wasted but has Lower respiratory tract infection below 60% of the some subcutaneous Less likelihood to: expected weight fat Develop middle ear Patient is usually Psychomotor infection (for at least 9 alert and has a changes (e.g. months) good appetite apathy and Become overweight or Face is wizened and irritability) obese in childhood, shriveled like “little Puffy, moon face adolescence and old man” or monkey Growth failure adulthood face (wasting marked by Develop Type 1 diabetes Marked muscle edema) in childhood wasting and loss of Hair changes are Experience SIDS subcutaneous fat present ○ Benefits of breastfeeding for the Hairy are normal mother Lower incidence of breast cancer and ovarian cancer MOTOR DEVELOPMENT The Dynamic Systems View Small reduction in Type 2 Reflexes diabetes Gross Motor Skills FIne Motor Skills As motor skills improve, infants change ○ From using suck-and-swallow movement to chew-and-swallow DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY movements with semisolid and then Motor development comes through complex foods maturation When should mothers not breastfeed? Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving ○ Mothers in medication and acting ○ Alternatives: formula milk or from ○ Motor skills are developed when they mothers who overproduce milk are motivated to do something Malnutrition in infancy ○ Perception and action are coupled ○ Marasmus: wasting away of body ○ Motor development is more complex tissues in the infant’s first year than the result of a genetic blueprint. It requires the infant’s active efforts  Development of the nervous equilibrium; and in vision and system hearing Body’s physical properties and Within a few weeks - Hold their its possibilities for movement heads and soon lift them Child’s motivation to reach a 2 months - Sit while supported goal 6 - 7 months - Sit Environmental support for the independently skill 8 to 9 months - Pull themselves ○ Motor development influenced by up and hold on to a chair parental expectations and 10 - 12 - Stand alone childrearing practices E.g. what happens when ○ Learning to walk, balance, climb, run, parents refused to allow their kick children to crawl Milestones in Gross Motor Development* ○ Milestones also affect parent-infant check ppt interaction Adaptive patterns by modifying Dynamic Systems their current movement Fine Motor Skills: involve more finely tuned patterns movements such as finger dexterity Reaching and grasping marks a significant BASICS OF THE DYNAMIC SYSTEMS accomplishment Reflexes: built-in automatic reaction to During the first 2 years, infants refine their stimuli that govern the newborn’s movements reaching and grasping ○ Rooting: turns head when its cheek is Initially moving their shoulders and arms, stroked / side of the mouth is touched swinging it ○ Sucking: newborns automatically suck Later as they move their wrists, rotate hands, ay objects placed in their mouth coordinate thumb and forefinger ○ Moro: response to a sudden noise or Types of grasps movement which disappear after 3-4 ○ Palmar grasp months Gripping with the whole hand ○ Grasping Reflex: infants grasp ○ Pincer grip something tightly when something Grasp small objects with touches it hand thumb and forefinger ○ Coughing, blinking ○ Tripod grip Permanent reflexes Perceptual-Motor Coupling ○ Necessary for the infant to coordinate Gross Motor Skills: involves large-muscle grasping activities, such as walking ○ Development of posture What are sensation and perception? Posture: dynamic processes Sensation: occurs when information interacts linked with sensory information with sensory receptors in the skin, joints, and muscles ○ Eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils and skin which tell us where we are in Perception: interpretation of what is sensed space ○ Perception brings people in contact in vestibular organs in the inner with the environment to interact and ear that regulate balance and adapt to it  Ecological View: we directly perceive from another by measuring the length of time information that exists in the world around us they attend to different stimuli Connects perceptual capabilities to Habituation and dishabituation information available in the world of the ○ Habituation: decreased perceiver responsiveness to a stimulus after Perception beings people in contact with the repeated presentations of the stimulus environment to interact and adapt to it (already familiar so requires less Objects have affordances attention) ○ Opportunities for interaction offered ○ Dishabituation: increase in by objects that fit within our responsiveness after change in capabilities to perform activities stimulation OTHER SENSES Visual Perception Hearing Visual acuity increases ○ Changes in hearing Habituation for human faces Loudness: at birth, infants Color vision at 4 months cannot hear soft sounds as Newborn’s vision is estimated to be 20/240 well as adults can By 6 months, average vision is 20/40 Pitch: less sensitive to pitch Human faces: within hours that they are born, (but prefer higher pitch) they prefer to look at human faces more than Perception of the other objects, and attractive ones over frequency of sound unattractive ones Localization: can find the Color Vision: By 4 or 8 weeks, infants can source of the sound (turn head discriminate between some colors right bc they know) Perceptual constancy: size and shape Touch and pain (types) ○ Newborns respond to touch and can ○ Sensory stimulation is changing but feel pain perception of the physical world Smell remains constant ○ can differentiate between odors ○ Allows infants to perceive their world Taste as stable ○ Sensitivity to taste present before Perception for occluded objects birth ○ First two months of postnatal development, infants don’t perceive Intermodal Perception Perceptual-Motor occluded objects as complete; Coupling instead, they perceive only what is visible Involves integrating Perception and ○ Infants develop the ability to track information from action are not briefly occluded moving objects at two or more sensory isolated but are about 3 to 5 months of age modalities coupled Depth perception Vision and hearing Individuals perceive ○ Infants can perceive depth in order to move and move in order METHODS TO STUDY INFANT PERCEPTION to perceive Visual preference method: determines whether infants can distinguish one stimulus Perceptual development provides examples of the interplay between biology and experience Intermodal Perception CHAPTER 5: COGNITIVE PROCESSES The ability to relate and integrate information Chapter Outline for Cognitive Development from 2 or more sensory modalities, such as Piaget’s Theory of Infant Development vision and hearing Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing When you look at listen to what is going on, Individual Differences and Assessment you do not experience just the sound or just Language Development the sights – you put them together Present in newborns and become sharper COGNITIVE PROCESSES over the first year of life Schemes: actions or mental representations Our senses and fuse perceptions into wholes, that organize knowledge coordinated very early in life ○ Behavioral scheme - physical Perceptual experience is critical for normal activities, characterizes infancy psychological growth and development ○ Mental scheme - cognitive activities, Perceptual development provides examples develops during early childhood of the interplay between biology and Adaptation: process whereby knowledge is experience altered by experience ○ Assimilation: using existing schemes Perceptual-Motor Coupling to deal with new information or Perception and action are not isolated but experiences coupled from the inside to out Children perceive in order to move and to ○ Accommodation: adjusting schemes move in order to perceive to fit new information and experiences Perception guides action; action guides from outside in perception Organization: grouping of isolated behaviors Babies are motivated to move by what they and thoughts into a higher-order system perceive (the sight of an attractive toy across Equilibrium and stages of development the room) ○ Disequilibrium - the experiences of cognitive conflict that the children go through while trying to understand the world child is constantly faced with counterexamples to his or her existing ○ Equilibrium - mechanisms by which children shift from one stage of thought to the next