PSYC 215 Midterm Review.pdf

fi ffi ff fl ffi ff ff fi fl fl ff fi fi fi ff LECTURE 5 CHAPTER 3A - The capacity for self-re ection is necessary for people to feel as if they understand their own motives and emotions and the causes of their behaviour. - The self is heavily in uenced by social factors. Self-concept refers to the...

fi ffi ff fl ffi ff ff fi fl fl ff fi fi fi ff LECTURE 5 CHAPTER 3A - The capacity for self-re ection is necessary for people to feel as if they understand their own motives and emotions and the causes of their behaviour. - The self is heavily in uenced by social factors. Self-concept refers to the sum total of beliefs that people have about themselves and is made up of cognitive “schemas”. Schemas are beliefs about oneself that guide the processing of self-relevant information. Gordon Gallup (1977) placed di erent species of animals in a room with a large mirror. At rst, they greeted their own images by vocalising, gesturing, and making other social responses. Then, apes just responded, over the course of a couple days. Gallup also anaesthetised the animals, then painted an odourless red dye on their brows and returned them to the mirror. On seeing the red spot, only the apes spontaneously reached for their own brows—proof that they perceived the image as their own. When Gallup tested his apes, those that had been raised in isolation—without exposure to peers —did not recognize themselves in the mirror. The looking-glass self is a term introduced by Cooley that suggests that other people serve as a mirror in which we see ourselves. When it comes to self-insight, people do have di culty projecting forward and predicting how they would feel in response to future emotional events—a process known as a ective forecasting. Researchers have found that people overestimate the strength and duration of their emotional reactions, a phenomenon they call the impact bias. Ex. At 18, they don't think their lives will change much in 10 years. But at 28, looking back at 10 the last 10 years, they believe their lives have actually changed much. Bem’s theory, self-perception theory: the extent that internal states are weak or di cult to interpret, people infer what they think or how they feel by observing their own behaviour and the situation in which that behaviour takes place. Vazire’s Self–Other Knowledge Asymmetry (SOKA) model in which she predicts that we know ourselves better than others do when it comes to traits that are “internal” and hard to observe (such as how optimistic, anxious, or easily upset a person is) and that there is no self–other di erence when it comes to traits that are “external” and easy to observe (such as how quiet, sociable, or messy a person is). Facial feedback hypothesis states that changes in facial expression can trigger corresponding changes in the subjective experience of emotion. When someone is o ered a reward for something they already like to do that behaviour becomes overjusti ed, or over-rewarded, which means that it can be attributed to extrinsic as well as intrinsic motives. (overjusti cation e ect). Markers and gold stars study with children: Having played with the markers without the promise of tangible bene t, these children remained intrinsically motivated, while the others dropped the art. Social comparison theory: Festinger argued that when people are uncertain of their abilities or opinions—that is, when objective information is not readily available—they evaluate themselves by comparison to similar others. When people are unclear about their own emotional states, they sometimes interpret how they feel by watching others. Flashbulb memories describe these enduring, detailed, high-resolution recollections and speculate that humans are biologically equipped for survival purposes to “print” dramatic events in memory. One complicating factor is that people tend to distort the past in ways that in ate their own sense of importance and achievement. Nostalgia—de ned as a sentimental longing for the past—is common and universal. According to Markus and Conner, culture is made up of four I’s—ideas, institutions, and social interactions that shape how individuals think, feel, and act. Dialecticism is a system of thought characterised by the acceptance of such contradictions through compromise. Sociometer theory, proposed by Mark Leary and Roy Baumeister (2000), maintains that people are inherently social animals and that the desire for self-esteem is driven by a more primitive need to connect with others and gain their approval. It is a mechanism that enables us to detect acceptance and rejection and then translate these perceptions into high and low self-esteem. Terror management theory to help explain our relentless need for self-esteem. According to this theory, we humans are biologically programmed for life and self-preservation. Yet we are conscious of—and terri ed by—the inevitability of our own death. The Self-Discrepancy Theory: Higgins (1989) says our self-esteem is de ned by the match or mismatch between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves. According to self-awareness theory, most people are not usually self-focused, but certain situations predictably force us to turn inward and become the objects of our own attention. Private self-consciousness —the tendency to introspect about our inner thoughts and feelings —and Public self-consciousness —the tendency to focus on our outer public image. The better-than-average e ect. Relative to others across a wide range of domains, it seems that people in general believe they are better, more honourable, more capable, and more compassionate. Implicit egotism —an unconscious and subtle expression of self-esteem. Implicit egotism is illustrated in studies showing that people are quicker to associate “self” words with positive traits than with negative traits. Four methods that people use to rationalise or otherwise enhance their self-esteem: selfserving beliefs, self-handicapping, basking in re ected glory, and downward social comparisons. 1. Self-serving beliefs 2. Self-handicapping refers to actions people take to handicap their own performance in order to build an excuse for anticipated failure. People play down their own ability, lower expectations, and publicly predict that they will fail—a self-presentation strategy called sandbagging. 3. People bask in re ected glory (BIRG) by showing o their connections to successful others. 4. Downward social comparisons with others who are less successful, less happy, or less fortunate. Temporal comparisons between our past and present selves. Positive illusions can give rise to chronic patterns of self-defeating behaviour, as when people escape from self-awareness through alcohol and other drugs. People from individualist and collectivist cultures are similarly motivated to think highly of themselves. Self-presentation —the process by which we try to shape what other people think of us and what we think of ourselves. Ingratiation is a term used to describe acts that are motivated by the desire to “get along” with others and be liked. Self-promotion, a term used to describe acts that are motivated by a desire to “get ahead” and gain respect for one’s competence. Self-veri cation: the desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves. Self-monitoring: the tendency to regulate one’s own behaviour to meet the demands of social situations. Individuals high in self-monitoring appear to have a repertoire of selves from which to draw. In contrast, low self-monitors are self-veri ers by nature, appearing less concerned about the social acceptability of their behaviour. Weavers” weird muscle growth, fatigue, and weight loss. Horses live in hers, so in the olden days, they used to store them in stables alone. This made them feel uncomfortable and so they started behaving weirdly. They started rubbing up against fi ff fl fi ff fi fl fi - - - - the wall, causing weird muscle growth. BUT, when they put mirrors in the stalls, they didn’t feel alone and began acting normally again. Nesbett & Wilson (1977) pantyhose experiment: aimed to explore people's ability to introspect and accurately report the factors in uencing their behaviour. Participants were shown pairs of pantyhose and asked to choose which one they preferred and why. Nisbett and Wilson found that participants often provided post hoc explanations for their choices that were not accurate or were in uenced by factors they were not consciously aware of. The study concluded that people may not have complete access to the underlying reasons for their decisions and behaviours, and their introspective reports may not always be reliable. Bem’s parapsychology; Pikachu vs. Porn example When our internal states are weak/ambiguous, we infer our internal states similarly to how we infer other’s internal states. Distinctiveness Theory (McGuire, 1984): To avoid information overload, we tend to selectively notice aspects of the self that makes us distinctive in relation to others. Festinger’s Social Comparison Theory: Evaluating our abilities, traits and attitudes in relation to others as a way to learn more about the self. Upward social comparison: comparing oneself with someone judged to be better than oneself. To improve ourselves. Downward social comparison: comparing oneself with someone judged to be not as good as oneself. To make ourselves feel better for felling negatively. Lateral social comparison: comparing oneself with another who is considered to be more or less equal (similar to us). When need accurate reading of the self. Autobiographical memory: Observing ourselves, just via memory. BUT we don’t remember all events equally or objectively; ex. We often remember positive events better than negative events. PODCAST We leave important details out when we think about the future; especially the idea that we don’t know how we will be in the future. Painful decisions are painful because we haven’t made them yet. Sometimes more choice makes people less happy. Photograph study: taught students photography and then told them of the 2 photographs they took, they would keep one and the company the other. But they told them at any time, they could switch if they wanted this. But they said, if they tell them it's nal, their picture will be sent o to England. People that made an irrevocable decision, people are happier because the mind copes. People that made a decision they could think of and go back on, were unhappy because they ruminate more often about it. Forget details when projecting the future (error 1). Not the same people then and now (error 2). Speed dating experiment: Speed dating, but either showed them the guy, or didn’t and gave them another women’s review. Willing to listen to other people in this case, because a small piece of information of the future is better than nothing. Ultimately, we trust our own judgement over others. If it is possible. BUT, although we trust our judgement (ideally) we also value other people’s reviews WHEN there is no choice. Surrogation: using other people’s experience for your own. - fl ff fl fl fi LECTURE 6 CHAPTER 3B HIGH SE: feel good about self. LOW SE: feel less good/uncertain about themselves. Some evidence that some people uctuate a lot in response to feedback, making them highly responsive to praise and overly sensitive to criticism AND that personality plays a role in this. - - - - - - NO EVIDENCE that HSE causes better outcomes. Gender di erences NOT a ected by SE; Cultures are. Higher in NA than EA. This could be due to the di erence sin acceptability of reporting high opinion of self across cultures. Evolutionary perspective of SE: (maybe) Sociometer theory; think its ongoing way to measure how accepted we are by a group. Acceptance vs. not being accepted. Baumeister thought it was an alert system to dux what we are feeling bad about. Above-average e ect: people see themselves as better than average on most positive dimensions (and things they personally value). Dunning-Kruger e ect: Everyone tends to overestimate their own abilities. Study: Participants with lowest scores on logic, humour and grammar were the ones most likely to overestimate their own abilities. If it was really split, 50% would be either above or under average, but according to study, some numbers are very high or very low. BECAUSE we use a heuristic; we replace a tough question with an easier question to answer. Self-enhancement METHOD 1: Self-serving cognitions: Take credit for success and distance from failure. Intrinsic explanations for successes and extrinsic explanations for failures. METHOD 2: Self-handicapping: Behaviours that sabotage performance and provide an excuse for failure (and therefore protect the self). Protect SE from failure and enhance SE with success. METHOD 3: BIRG and CORF: Basking in re ected glory (BIRG) and its sibling CORF (cutting o re ected failure). We identify with groups/teams/friends/siblings when they experience success, and distance with failure. METHOD 4: Downward social comparisons: comparing ourselves to others we deem “worse o ” than us. Except, often, not objective in who we compare ourselves to. Positive allusions may be adaptive. Want to experience con dence and more success. Ex. Jogging and there is a snake down the trial; need to decide whether it is a stick or a poisonous snake. Positive adaptive bias: a tendency to interpret ambiguous stimuli (like something on the road) as a potential threat for the sake of survival. PODCAST Implicit egotism: idea that many biases are unconscious; a tiny invisible “nudge”. Choices are deliberate, we think, BUT really, sometimes we make a decision for one reason that we've told ourselves when really the more powerful underlying reason is something we could have never put our ngers on. Elliot Smith study: looked at implicit racial bias as a function of whether a person is from a di erent ethnic group. Ikea furniture study: we come to overvalue the things that we have created ourselves. People tend to use products to signal valued identities to both themselves and to others. Study: People given maths problems that were hard vs. easy questions and then right after, were asked if they’d want to build an Ikea shelf. Those who failed the problems, wanted to show o their competence so opted to build. Lego experiment; pre-built vs build-your-own car. How much would you pay to keep it? People who built their lego would pay more. - fi fl ff ff fi ff ff ff ff fl ff ff ff LECTURE 7 CHAPTER 4A - Social perception: the processes by which people come to understand one another. - Similar social scripts can be found in other cultures, where a greater value is placed on face (the notion that people are expected to show deference to others of higher status and humility in public situations) and dignity (the notion that everyone at birth has intrinsic and equal value). - Mind perception: process by which people attribute human-like mental states to various animate and inanimate objects, including other people. - People perceive minds along two dimensions: agency (a target’s ability to plan and execute behaviour) and experience (the capacity to feel pleasure, pain, and other sensations). - Non-verbal behaviour: behaviour that reveals a person’s feelings without words through facial expressions, body language and vocal cues. - People can reliably identify six primary emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise and - - ff - ff - ff - ff - fl - ff - disgust. - Darwin believed this was an advantage for survival; in other words, facial expressions are adaptive. People are more accurate at judging faces from their own national ethnic or regional groups than from members of less familiar groups, indicating that we enjoy an “in-group advantage”. Truth Detection: one hypothesis is that there is a mismatch between the behavioural cues that actually signal deception and those we use to detect deception. Attribution Theory: explanations we come up with that distinguish inner dispositions from behaviour or action. - Personal: attribution to internal characteristics of an actor such as ability, personality, mood or e ort. - Situational: attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, people or luck. - GOAL: not to understand the true causes of events but understand people’s perceptions of causality. Jones's Correspondent Inference Theory: aims to explain how people make attributions about the intentions, beliefs, and dispositions of others based on their observed behaviour in a given situation. The degree of choice and expectedness (predictability) are key concepts in this theory. Kelley’s Theory of Covariation: people attribute behaviour to factors that are present when a behaviour occurs and are absent when it does not. - How to do this? One has to observe a behaviour more than once and in all cases, the circumstances need to constant and unchanged (i.e. all dependent variables need to remain constant, only the independent variables can change). - Final decision relies on 3 things: - Consensus: we seek out information to see how di erent people react to the same stimuli. - Distinctiveness: want to see how people react to di erent stimuli. - Consistency: what happens to the behaviour at another time when the person and the stimulus both remain the same? - Example with the opinions about the cinema viewing. - Perception varies because there is variation in ideology caused by traits and the processing of information is usually impacted or compromised by self-serving motives. System 1 attribution: quick, easy and automatic; uses a process that one might call “intuitive”. System 2 attribution: slow, controlled and requires attention and e ort; uses a process that is more reasoned. Cognitive heuristics are information processing rules-of-thumb that enable us to think in ways that are quick and easy but that often lead to error. False-consensus e ect: a tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes and behaviours. Usually pervasive. In other words, people often assume that their own opinions and actions are more typical or common than they actually are. Base-rate fallacy, the fact that people are relatively insensitive to numerical base rates, or probabilities; they are in uenced more by graphic, dramatic events, such as the sight of a multimillion-dollar lottery winner celebrating on TV or a photograph of bodies being pulled from the wreckage of a plane crash. Counterfactual thinking, a tendency to imagine alternative outcomes that might have occurred but did not. First instinct fallacy: best to stick with one's original answer. FAE: People tend to overestimate the role of personal factors and overlook the impact of situations. Because this bias is so pervasive; it has been called the fundamental attribution error. - More likely to commit when busy, distracted or when the attribution is made in haste, without motivation. - We identify the behaviour and make a quick personal attribution, then we correct or adjust that fl fi fi fl ff fi fi fi ff fi fi - fi - fi - fi - fi - ff - fl - fi - ff - fl - inference to account for situational in uences. The rst step is simple and automatic, like a re ex; the second requires attention, thought, and e ort. - Cultural implication of FAE: Chinese vs. American sh tank example. Americans see the lone sh as leading the others (a personal attribution), while Chinese see the same sh as being chased by the others (a situational attribution). - Wishful seeing: judging objects that people want physically to see closer than what they are. - Belief in a just world: belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims. - People may also satisfy their belief in a just world by enhancing members of disadvantaged groups. For example, by inferring that poor people are happy and that obese people are sociable, both attributes that restore justice by compensation. - Summation model of impression formation: The more positive traits there are, the better. Impressed. - Averaging model of impression formation: The higher the average value of all the various traits, the better. Disappointment. Use self as reference when viewing others. Priming: tendency for frequently or recently used concepts to come to mind easily and in uence the way we interpret new information. - Can be used for manipulation. Target Characteristics: just as not all social perceivers were created equal, neither are all traits created equal. Trait negativity bias, the tendency for negative information to weigh more heavily on our impressions than positive information. Adaptive for us to stay negative as it alerts us to potentially alerting or threatening information. Stigma by association: When a target person's relationship to the positive or negative other comes about by chance, not as a matter of choice, our rst impressions are tainted. Implicit personality theory is a network of assumptions about the relationships among various types of people, traits, and behaviours. - Warm and cold are central traits, meaning that they imply the presence of certain other traits and exert a powerful in uence on nal impressions. Primacy e ect: Information often has a greater impact when presented early in a sequence rather than later. - But, can revise and revise interpretation of others when 1) information presented (newly) is factual and 2) when that information is negative and therefore a necessary diagnostic of a moral character. Con rmation biases: tendencies to interpret, seek, and create information in ways that verify existing beliefs. Perseverance of Belief: Once people form an opinion, that opinion becomes strengthened just by thinking about the topic. The Self-Ful lling Prophecy: that a perceiver’s expectations can actually lead to its own ful lment. - Ex. happens to people who are (1) insecure and fearful of rejection, (2) their behaviour is o -putting and (3) this increases the likelihood of rejection. INDUCED. - First, a perceiver forms an impression of a target person, which may be based on interactions with the target or on other information. Second, the perceiver behaves in a manner that is consistent with that rst impression. Third, the target person unwittingly adjusts his or her behaviour to the perceiver's actions. The net result is behavioural con rmation of the rst impression. More experience people have with each other, the more accurate they are. Pareidolia: Face pop out e ect; faces receive the most attention. - Human faces really capture our attention. - Ref. in class to how fast students lifted their hands for pointing out a face and NOT a panda. - Hardwired to see faces; even in non-animate objects like toasters, laundry machines that look like faces. - Fast and e cient face perception (WIllis and Todorov 2006): proved that we can form an impression - - of others extremely quickly from their faces. - Some descriptors of perception are not evaluable, like “punchability”, because there is no true underlying framework associated. - Ex. Took human dolls and then humans and morphed them. Asked individuals to rate the morphs in terms of which have animacy, mind capacity and pain/pleasure perception… Most of the curves were the same give or take a few, and so this showed that there is a limit to whom we associate these feelings too. - Overgeneralization hypothesis: we infer personality characteristics based on one’s similarity of one's appearance with learned associations. - Ex. RBF; emotional overgeneralization. - Ex. Photos of Turkish movie star… each photo has di erent “characters”. Todorov (2007), is sad for humans because we don’t know any of the agenda of these politicians or their policies, and yet we pick them based on basic heuristic (like appearance). Hehman “Mouse Tracking”; track decision making process as mouse hovers image to select male or female categories. These were images of politicians. - Was able to see that those whose mouse tracking showed a bit more hesitation, were less voted (and actually lost elections, on average). People from all over the world are able to accurately categorise faces as to what emotion target is feeling (Ekman et al., 1987). Emotional expression study: went to di erent tribes and showed them di erent triggers for basic emotions. And although there were a few variations, there was a general consensus on the perception of some emotions. Face in the crowd e ect: Since self-directed anger (with eye-gaze) indicates threat, it is important to detect (and avoid/respond) quickly. ff ff ff ff ffi ffi LECTURE 8 CHAPTER 4B - Big 5 personality factors: Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Openness to New Experience, Agreeableness, and Emotional Stability. - Very bad accuracy on “Trustworthiness/Friendliness/Intelligence”. Not good for people in decisive power; judges, police, etc. - Can make two inferences: - Personal (Intrinsic); internal personal motivation to do something. - Situational (Extrinsic); external factors contribute to a behaviour. - “Correspondence bias” (synonymous word for FAE): The tendency to overlook the impact of a situation and attribute someone’s actions to their disposition. - Participants randomly assigned to be: “Questioner” vs. “Responder”. Study: Questioner given list of di cult trivia questions to ask (with answers). Respondents answered. If the Respondents didn’t know the answer, the Questioner gave it and moved on (Observers watched this interaction on video as well). Measures: Rated “How good at trivia” (critical dependent variable) of both Questioner and Responder. Results: Questioners rated themselves and the contestants around the same. Questioner knew the truth but they didn’t know the answers either, so they voted “equivalent”. Contestants knew the questioners had the answers but still rated them as better than themselves. And the observers who also knew the situation, still rated the questioners as more knowledgeable. - Obvious that situation isn’t considered as much as people’s dispositions. - Castro vs. Anti-Castro speech Study - Students were randomly assigned to give pro or anti-Castro speech. Had to give a speech independent of their own feelings. Participant observers were told that the students either A) chose the position they were upholding OR B) students were assigned a position (from this you would understand the situation; being forced to give a speech). Asked participants how much fi ff fi fi fi fi fl fl ff fi - ff - fi - fi - fi - fi - fi - the speechwriter supported Castro. If we have pro-Castro and are told that they chose; we think they are pro-Castro. But, the right column demonstrates fundamental attribution error where they were told that this was an assigned manipulation and believed that those that gave a pro-Castro speech were actually pro-Castro. - Two step process of impression: - 1- Form impression ------------------------------------THIS IS AUTOMATIC. Takes less e ort and intuition than the second stage. - 2- Correct/update impression for context--------THIS TAKES EFFORT. - In the example of a man cutting the line, see that someone who makes an impression of the person’s disposition rst ends up with an unfavourable reaction, i.e. “this man is pushing in line because he is hostile and rude”. If you go with more situational attribution, then the thought process becomes: “maybe this man is rushing to go home to a sick child” and there is therefore a more sympathetic reaction. Attributions determine outcome. Chinese vs. American sh tank experiment: American and East Asians (Chinese) were shown a sh tank image for a couple seconds and then were asked after what they remember from the image. Americans spoke about the sh. And Chinese spoke about the sh in its environment (the rocks, the water, etc). - This is because there is cultural variation in expression of the FAE. North China focused a lot of wheat farming (individual farming) and East China focused on rice farming (collective activity). - Collectivist vs. Individualist cultures present di erent manifestations of the FAE. Motivation of a Perceiver: A perceiver’s goals/beliefs in uence how others are perceived. Could be advantageous to perceive certain things only when the situation calls for their perception. - Smoke detector principle: It refers to the idea that some cognitive mechanisms have evolved to be sensitive to certain types of information, similar to how a smoke detector is designed to detect the presence of smoke. - Ex. Could be advantageous to perceive smiles as signs of sexual interest (more so for men perceiving women, more costly for women). BECAUSE the woman in this situation I motivated but eh prospect of a suitor. Duchenne vs “Fake” smiles experiment - Relatively convincing and that is because there are some facial cues we detect. Namely, zygomaticus, orbital ocularis. - But, made participants play an online computer game in which they had to throw a ball back and forth with a cartoon. In some cases, the cartoon stopped throwing balls back. These people that ere “socially rejected” were more accurate in their detection of “fakes smiles”. Ideal beliefs: broader beliefs more expected, beliefs used for means of justi cation (satisfy an end), or beliefs that are “easy” and explain the internal state of an individual rather than their situation that could equally be the cause of their behaviour. Negativity Bias: negative information will be remembered and disproportionately inform our impressions. This is because it is memorable information because it is considered unique, rare. We perceive negative (or unexpected) information about a target as more diagnostic of their character than positive information. Primacy e ect: Learning about some traits rst in uences how all subsequent traits are perceived (Asch, 1946). - Ex. If you read a list of adjectives from left to right and other right to left, the order of the words will force a certain belief onto you, regardless of the fact that all the words remain the same, but the order at which you encounter them changes. I.e. will encounter positive words rst —> positive. If encounter negative words rst —> negative. Con rmatory Hypothesis Testing experiment: People did “getting to know you” interviews in pairs (Snyder & Swann, 1978) and were told before hand if their partner was introverted or extroverted. Depending on the information they were given, they catered their questions towards this. This is because, when we learn information, we are more likely to extract what con rms our idea or belief. - Con rmation Biases: Once a rst impression is formed, people have a tendency to look for - information to CONFIRM that impression (rather than to discon rm). Results in attending to con rming info, and disregarding discon rming. - Hannah experiment: Some participants told that Hannah is rich and other told that she is poor. Then participants made to watch video of Hannah being asked and answering questions; she did objectively “ok”; meaning some questions were wrong and others she got right. Those who were told she was “poor” tended to rate her “potential” much worse than those that were told she was “rich”. Self-Ful lling Prophecy experiment: Teachers told some students were “bloomers”, on verge of intellectual potential. “bloomers” were randomly selected and upon analysis 8 months later, “bloomers” were performing better in the classroom. High expectations lead to more challenging homework, attention, praise, feedback, which positively impact students. - Podcast - A perpetrator who is not Muslim would have to kill on average about seven more people to receive the same amount of coverage as a perpetrator who's Muslim. - Ishmael Brinsley received about four-and-a-half times more coverage than the Millers, and he was - - Muslim. - SITUATIONAL: Maybe because of lots of anti-police movements at the time, or maybe deBlasio’s involvement with police causes worry. Mainstream media outlets that are routinely accused of political correctness in their coverage of terrorism. Erin and her co-authors have noticed that the media and, in turn, the public, do not apply the terrorism label evenly. Erin GSU experiment: The researchers conducted an experiment. They controlled for all sorts of di erent factors. Volunteers were given descriptions of fake terrorist attacks, including the location, the number of casualties and other details. Holding everything constant, volunteers saw the cases di erently when the perpetrator was Muslim. It increased, you know, this concept of mortality, which psychology shows that whenever that happens, we also tend to have more in-group cohesion, which basically means that we tend to kind of stick to our in-groups. Salience: refers to the extent to which a particular object, person, or event stands out and captures attention in comparison to other objects, people, or events in the environment. Can be due to: prominence, relevance, novelty, emotional impact or social factors. - Consequence of salience: So you think that the entire out-group is homogeneous and they're all the same, they all talk the same, they all behave the same. So if one of them did something, then others must believe and act in the same way as well. - What was striking about this paper was not just that people supported aggressive foreign policy interventions, but they actually supported more aggressive policies toward American citizens who happen to be Muslim. - Solution to Implicit bias: Increased contact with Muslims, of course, especially when it's positive, tends to decrease reliance on these kinds of biases. fi fi fi fi fi fi fi ff ff LECTURE 9 CHAPTER 5A - Racism is as prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s racial background. - Institutional (systemic) Racism: cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group over another. - Sexism may be de ned as prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender or as institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender (typically men) over another (typically women). - Stereotypes as beliefs or associations that link whole groups of people with certain traits or characteristics. - Prejudice consists of negative feelings about others because of their connection to a social group. - Discrimination concerns behaviours—speci cally, negative behaviours directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group. - Old-fashioned racism is blatant, explicit, and unmistakable. - Modern racism, a subtle form of prejudice that tends to surface when it is safe, socially acceptable, or easy to rationalise. - Aversive racism, which concerns the ambivalence between individuals’ sincerely fair-minded - - ff - fl - fi - ff - fi - ff - ff - attitudes and beliefs on the one hand and their largely unconscious and unrecognized prejudicial feelings and beliefs on the other. People establish their moral credentials of not being racist by demonstrating—to others or even to themselves—that they have good friends from the racial or ethnic group in question or have behaved in ways that were quite fair to members of this group. Implicit racism: operates unconsciously and unintentionally. - Measurement of Implicit racism: IAT. - BUT: Other researchers have concluded that IAT scores are not reliable predictors of individuals’ behaviour, particularly over time and across situations. - Ex. Children do not tend to show biases based on race; it is only after they become adolescents that they learn to respond to people di erently based on race. - Bias revealed on explicit measures tends to decline with age—presumably because as children get older, they learn inappropriateness of these attitudes—but levels of implicit bias tend to remain more stable. Eric Hehman and others (2018, 2019) showed that a region’s average implicit racism scores predicted the disproportionate killing of black people by the police in that region. Ambivalent sexism consists of two elements: hostile sexism, characterised by negative, resentful feelings about women’s abilities, value, and challenge to men’s power (e.g., “Women seek special favours under the guise of equality”), and benevolent sexism, characterised by a ectionate, chivalrous feelings founded on the potentially patronizing belief that women need and deserve protection (e.g., “Women should be cherished and protected by men”). Social psychologists often refer to these targets as stigmatized— individuals who are targets of negative stereotypes, perceived as deviant, and devalued in society because they are members of a particular social group or because they have a particular characteristic. I In situations where a negative stereotype can apply to certain groups, members of these groups can fear being seen “through the lens of diminishing stereotypes and low expectations” called this predicament stereotype threat. Social identity threats: not necessarily tied to speci c stereotypes but instead re ect a more general devaluing of a person’s social group. - Natural and adaptive; many assume there is a clear genetic. Basis for classifying people by race; BUT complemented with idea that there is more variation amongst a race then between them. Groups that we identify with—our country, religion, political party, even our hometown sports team— are called ingroups , whereas groups other than our own are called outgroups. - Consequence: exaggerated di erences between our ingroup and other outgroups. - Outgroup homogeneity e ect, whereby perceivers assume that there is a greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of one’s own group. - One reason is that people tend to have less personal contact and familiarity with individual members of outgroups. Second, people often do not encounter a representative sample of outgroup members. - Automatic: less empathy for a member of an outgroup. Identity fusion to describe the sense of “oneness” that people may feel with a group. Favouring ingroups over outgroups is one important way that people preserve their cultural worldviews and, by doing so, try to attain a kind of immortality. Social dominance orientation: a desire to see their ingroups as dominant over other groups and tend to support cultural values that contribute to the oppression of other groups. - System justi cation theory, which asserts that people are motivated (at least in part) to defend and - - - fi ff ffi ff fl ff - ff - ff - fl - fi - fi - fl - justify the existing social, political, and economic conditions. System-justifying beliefs protect the status quo. Superordinate goals are mutual goals that could be achieved only through cooperation between the groups. The view that direct competition for valuable but limited resources breeds hostility between groups is called realistic con ict theory. Sense of relative deprivation, the belief that they fare poorly compared with others. Driver of realistic con ict theory. Self-esteem has two components: (1) a personal identity and (2) various collective or social identities that are based on the groups to which we belong. - In other words, people can boost their self-esteem through their own personal achievements or through a liation with successful groups. Schadenfreude refers to the experience of pleasure at other people’s misfortunes, particularly for celebrities or others we don’t feel empathy for. German term that translates to “harm-joy”. Two basic predictions arose from social identity theory: (1) Threats to one’s self-esteem heighten the need for ingroup favouritism, and (2) expressions of ingroup favouritism enhance one’s selfesteem. - Ex. A blow to one’s self-image evokes prejudice and that the expression of prejudice helps restore self-image. Social role theory, although the perception of sex di erences may be based on some real di erences, it is magni ed by the unequal social roles that men and women occupy. Stereotype content model: many group stereotypes vary along two dimensions in particular: warmth and competence. - Stereotypes about the warmth of a group are in uenced by perceived competition with the group— greater perceived competition is associated with lower warmth. There may be a perceived trade-o between competence and warmth. - On graph: lowest on warmth and competence were homeless, welfare recipients and the highest on warmth and competence were educated, professional jew or asian rich men. Women were less competence but higher in warmth; at the same level of students, middle class and Christians. Illusory correlation, a tendency for people to overestimate the link between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated. Subtype is a more speci c categorization within a larger social group. It involves acknowledging individual di erences within a group by creating subcategories based on additional characteristics or behaviours. - Ex. People who believe that women are not tough and athletic may maintain this stereotype even in the face of examples of women who defy it. Done by creating subtypes that don’t represent general stereotypes or categories. The contact hypothesis, which states that under certain conditions, direct contact between members of rival groups will reduce intergroup prejudice. - Interaction MUST be in circumstances that give two groups equal status, be one-on-one between members of a group, be done for the purpose of achieving superordinate goals, and done with the favouring of social norms. Elliot Aronson and his colleagues (1978) developed a cooperative learning method called the jigsaw classroom. A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group e orts. - Mechanism of action: by working closely with peers from diverse backgrounds, students have the opportunity to challenge stereotypes and reduce prejudice. - Results: Compared with children in traditional classes, those in jigsaw classrooms grew to like each other more, liked school more, were less prejudiced, and had higher self-esteem. End up classifying members of outgroup as members of own in-group. - Motivation to reduce stereotyping: One kind is externally driven—not wanting to appear to others to fl fl fi fl fl ff ff ff ff fl fl - fl - ff - fl - ff - ff - fl - fi - be prejudiced. A second type is internally driven—not wanting to be prejudiced regardless of whether or not others would nd out. Stereotype characteristics: have no valence (not positive or negative) and don’t directly associate things like sharp = knife (ex.). Prejudice characteristics: has valence (ex. group X is bad). Evolutionary adaptation because hanging out with smaller groups of similar individuals was a safer more successful evolutionary strategy. - Thought that maybe appearance-based signals of “outsiderness” were used to identify danger, “otherness” and trigger own-group favouritism. Race is a construct; biologically we are ALL phenotypically di erent individuals and have traits that have evolved di erently at di erent geological areas. - Bottom-Up Processing: This term often refers to information processing that starts with the basic features of a stimulus and builds up to more complex cognitive processes. In the context of race constructs, "bottom-up" could mean that the activation or construction of racial categories is in uenced by basic perceptual cues, cultural exposure, or societal in uences that operate at a fundamental level. Robber’s Cave experiment by Sherif (to look at how di erent groups get along when there is competition and the need for cooperation). - Assigned a group of young boys to either an eagle or a rattle-snake. PHASE 1: Ingroup formation (not aware of other groups and given team names mimicking symbols of identity). Boys were also ensured to not be friends or acquaintances. Each group engaged in activities that fostered in-group bonding, such as hiking, swimming, and participating in team-building exercises. The boys developed a strong sense of camaraderie and loyalty to their respective groups. PHASE 2: Friction (made aware of other groups resulting in competitive tasks and hostility breaks out). After a week of in-group bonding, the researchers introduced intergroup competition. The boys were informed of the existence of the other group, and a series of competitive activities, such as baseball and tug-ofwar, were organized between the Eagles and the Rattlers. Displayed in-group favouritism and outgroup derogation. PHASE 3: To mitigate the con ict, the researchers introduced situations that required the two groups to collaborate in achieving common goals, such as xing a water supply problem. Integration (hard to reduce hostility, superordinate goals ultimately worked). Groups became amicable afterwards. - Demonstrated that intergroup con ict could arise even in the absence of pre-existing hostilities. Relative Deprivation Theory: Actual/absolute resources don’t matter. PERCEIVED resources DISPARITIES lead to con ict. Social Identity Theory: (Tajfel & Turner)/Minimal Group Paradigm: tested with the idea of “minimal groups”. Participants are randomly assigned to di erent groups using criteria that have no real social relevance, such as preferences for certain paintings, arbitrary labels, or even the ip of a coin. Participants are informed about their group membership and the existence of other groups. The groups are labeled as "minimal groups" to emphasize their arbitrary nature. Participants are given the opportunity to distribute rewards or resources (such as points, money, or tokens) between members of their own group and members of the other group. Importantly, the distribution does not impact the individual's personal gain. Even in this minimal and arbitrary group context, participants consistently show a preference for allocating more resources to members of their own group (in-group favouritism) and allocating fewer resources to members of the other group (out-group discrimination). Explicit prejudice: conscious and deliberate. Measuring bias over time is hard because it is NOT socially desirable to report explicit prejudices. IAT experiment: assigning di erent objects/states to either good/ ower or bad/bug and bad/ ower and good/bug. - Criticisms of IAT: test-retest reliability, order e ect (brain associated right side with an event and left with another, and then when switched, kept same associations). - Spreading activation: Concepts are more tightly or loosely linked in our minds. This is functional and re ects how we organize information. - Implicit bias: Automatic, di cult-to-control associations between groups and positivity/negativity. - Measuring implicit and explicit bias: Explicit bias is better measured with self-report measures (questionnaires). Implicit bias is better measured based on reaction times, or means OTHER than selfreport as they are supposedly less-controllable and more automatic. LECTURE 10 CHAPTER 5B - Social categorization: An Example from Cultural Psychology - North East Chinese are WHEAT farmers; known to be independent, individualistic and have analytical thinking. - South Chinese are RICE farmers; known to be interdependent, collectivist and holistic thinkers. - Outgroup Homogeneity E ect: Perceivers assume there is greater similarity (in appearance and in personal attributes) of outgroup than ingroup members. - Happens because of reduced contact and lack of information about a particular group. - Stereotypes being schemas: quick and convenient summaries about groups, and although have some sort of truth, are completely exaggerated and out-dated because they change over time. - Ex. Irish love potatoes; yes, they are known for an excess consumption of potatoes. BUT, this is largely due to the British division of land and subsistence farming. It was an economic issue, and potatoes were a cheap thing to grow and survive of o. - Ex. Jim Crow era titled Blacks as “happy-go-lucky individuals” and modern era titles them criminal, dangerous and aggressive. - Stereotype con rming behaviour: occurs when individuals explain someone's actions or characteristics by relying on stereotypes associated with the person's social group. - “That’s because he’s Singaporean and they’re good at math” - Stereotype discon rming behaviour: occurs when individuals attribute someone's actions or characteristics to the individual's unique qualities rather than relying on stereotypes associated with their social group. - “That’s because he’s Travis and he’s lazy and didn’t study”. - Subtyping alleviation: either (1) update stereotypes or (2) make new subcategory, allowing previous stereotype to remain the same. - Pygmalion e ect: also known as the self-ful lling prophecy, it is a process where beliefs or expectations about someone lead to actions that, in turn, cause the person to ful ll those expectations. - In practice: In America, Black boys in kindergarten-early grade school were more likely to be sent to detention for their behaviour BECAUSE teachers led to expect enhanced performance from certain children and these children ended up indeed performing better. - Norms: stereotypes learned as they are norms set by socialization through parental guidance and media. - Field experiment in Rwanda: Half the country listened to a soap opera about intergroup con ict (which paralleled daily life in Rwanda, i.e. Hutu and Tutsi genocide) and how this was resolved via intergroup cooperation and non-violence. Other half listened to a soap opera about health (control). At the end of the year, those in the former condition had more positive feelings about the outgroup. - Alleviation of stereotype: (1) internal motivation: egalitarian beliefs and (2) external motivation: social desirability, or the desire to be perceived favourably by others. fl fi ff ff fi ff ffi fi fi ff LECTURE 11 CHAPTER 5C - Ambiguity of term “bias”: bias is just showing di erent treatment to two groups, so could be “ingroup favouritism” OR “outgroup derogation”. - MOST bias we encounter in the world is favouring the ingroup, without particularly caring what happens to the outgroup. Don’t necessarily want to HURT outgroup, just prefer to HELP ingroup, presumably because… if our group is doing well we feel good about ourselves. - Bias manifests itself when there are no clear norms or social script. - Phone call experiment (Gaertner & Bickman 1971): Participants received a phone call that was a wrong number. By voice, clear caller was Black or White. Caller explained trying to reach mechanic - - - - from payphone since car broke down on freeway and had no more change to make another call (this was done in late 60s). Asked for help to call his garage, gave number. Whites helped Black and White callers EQUALLY (by calling mechanics) when they listened long enough to get even get asked for help. BUT, if didn’t patient to listen long enough, hung up on Black callers earlier before they could ask for help. Aversive racism: Most people have egalitarian ideals, but will act prejudiced when safe, socially acceptable, or when the situation is ambiguous so that you can attribute behaviours to something other than racism. Potentially driven by anxiety rather than hatred. Interracial interactions can be mentally exhausting because people self-monitor to avoid appearing prejudiced. Hiring study: Participants rated applicants for a job; Applicants were Black/White x Highly/Medium/ Obviously not quali ed. Dependent variable was % people deciding to hire. In ambiguous circumstances (not/not not quali ed), 75% of whites were decided to be hired and only 35% of Blacks were decided to be hired. Stereotypes of women are generally more positive than stereotypes of men, BUT not as valued in certain areas (business). Women, as a gender, are present in all social, ethnic, cultural, and professional groups. Unlike some other forms of prejudice where the targeted group may be more clearly demarcated, women are part of every societal category. Women were less likely to protest against a sexually discriminating policy following exposure to benevolent than hostile sexism (Becker & Wright). Countries with greater benevolent sexism have greater gender disparities at all levels (economic and political equality). Glass cli (Ryan & Haslam, 2005): Women CEOs more likely to be hired when company in turmoil (want to try something di erent, so hire a woman), BUT company is ALREADY in peril and in high risk of failure. When a company then fails (often), women CEOs might be blamed, reinforcing stereotypes. Stereotype Threat (Steele, 1997): Fear of acting in a manner consistent with stereotypes. - Topic receives lots of attention in education. Studies show that when these groups (Blacks, women) are reminded of social category and stereotype (Blacks: not intelligent, Women: not good in STEM) prior to test, they perform worse. - Asian vs. Caucasian women in STEM study (Stone et al., 1999): Women stereotype: bad at maths. Asian stereotype: Good at maths. When Asian women primed to think of their gender, did worse. When primed to think of ethnicity, did better. - Mini golf study (Stone et al., 1999): Whites experience stereotype threat in sports/athletics. Had Black and White students play miniature golf. When described as test of “natural athletic ability”, white folks did worse. When described as a test of “sports intelligence”, Black folks did worse. - Generally, debated concept. Some studies replicable and other NOT. Likely that it is NOT really a “thing”. Contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954): Simple regular contact will reduce stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination. GENERALLY works BUT works better/faster under some conditions: equal status between groups, involves one on one interactions or cooperative activities (remember Robber’s Cave) and have social norms that favour contact. Implications of contact hypotheses: programs in cities to arrange contact between racially or ideologically divided cities/neighbourhoods. E cacy of IAT training: Doesn’t work. But is advertised to, and is sold blindly to companies for lots of money. fi ff fi ff ff ffi LECTURE 12 CHAPTER 6A - Attitudes: positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of an attitude object, expressed at some level of intensity. - Attitude towards ourselves is self-esteem, attitude towards others is prejudice. - Attitude is a cognitive heuristic (i.e., mental shortcut) that enables us to judge quickly whether stu is good/bad, should be approached/avoided. - Likert scale: self-report used of measure complex attitudes, or multi-faceted attitudes. - Pro of this measure is that it is easy and con is that people can lie. - Bogus pipeline: A mechanical device that supposedly records our true feelings like a lie detector test. - A study showed that with use of the bogus pipeline, participants become more likely to admit to drinking too much, cocaine use, frequent oral sex, not exercising much (Tourangeau et al., 1971). - Indirect measures (non self-reporting): infers attitudes through observable behaviour. Done via IAT, - - - - - heart rate, brain waves, EEG and fMRI. Pro is that they aren’t easily controllable (can’t easily lie) and con is that they aren’t always accurate readings. Facial Electromyography (EMG): measures muscle response or electrical activity in response to a nerve's stimulation of the muscle. Attitudes don’t always predict behaviour. Road trip with Chinese-American couple around the US experiment: Asian prejudice in US was high at time. Couple visited 250 restaurants/hotels/etc, refused service once (.004%). Researcher wrote later to individual restaurants and asked if would accept Chinese patrons and 90% said no. LaPiere's study highlighted the inconsistency between expressed attitudes (in writing) and actual behaviours observed during the road trip. Factors in uencing strength of attitudes: (1) amount of information people have of that attitude— in other words, the more direct the experience, the stronger, (2) how the information was acquired, (3) how accessible that information is mentally. Housing Study (Regan & Fazio, 1977): Crisis of limited dorms at Cornell; Some a ected, some not. Measured students’ attitude toward the housing crisis. Measured interest in taking action. The study found that there was a much higher correlation between attitudes and behaviours for individuals who directly experienced the housing crisis compared to those who did not. Correspondence principle: Whether attitudes will better predict behaviour depends on how well the measured attitude corresponds to behaviour. In other words, speci c attitudes predict speci c behaviour. - Organ Donation Study (Siegel et al., 2014). General attitudes: “In general, how do you feel about organ donation”? Speci c attitudes: “How do you feel about registering yourself as an organ donor?” Behaviour analyzed: whether the participant registers as a donor. The study found that speci c attitudes (i.e., attitudes toward registering oneself as an organ donor) were more strongly correlated with the behaviour of registering as a donor compared to general attitudes (i.e., general feelings about organ donation). - Religious Behaviour (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1974): Participants were asked about their general attitudes toward religion. This likely involved assessing their overall feelings, beliefs, or sentiments toward the concept of religion. The study also measured 100 speci c religious behaviours, such as praying before meals, donating to religious organizations, and other religious practices. The study found that while general attitudes toward religion weakly predicted individual religious behaviours, general attitudes strongly predicted aggregated behaviours. Aggregated behaviours refer to the combination or sum of various speci c religious behaviours. Attitudes are two dimensional: they have positive and negative dimensions, meaning they can be either or or a mix of both. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Azjen & Fishbein, 2005): considers how attitudes operate within our social environment. Although attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control impact each other, they collectively lead to intention. Though when our intentions translate into behaviour, no other external/internal in uences hindering them. Ambivalent attitude: state of mixed or con icting emotions and evaluations towards a particular attitude object. It involves the simultaneous presence of both positive and negative components toward the same attitude object. - Podcast - Our response incentives are shaped by psychological mechanisms, and sometimes they don’t fi ff fi fi fi fl fl fi fl fi always work the way we actually plan for them to work. - Shortcuts are used to align to one of 3 fundamental core motivations we used to determine - - - whether or not we should focus on or ignore a piece of information. - 1. The rst is that in this crazy information-overloaded world that we live in, people simply want to make accurate, e cient decisions in the most rewarding way possible. - 2. The second is that we want to make decisions. We want to behave in ways that gain the approval of others and increase the likelihood that we will create social networks with others. - 3. The third is that we want to make decisions and behave in ways that allow us to be seen in a positive light, to stand out from the crowd. The contrast e ect: It’s this idea that one way that we decide whether we should pay attention to a request or appeal is not to pay attention to what’s being o ered but instead to pay attention to what is being shown to us rst. - Ex. Carlucci’s motor bike on sale for 4500£; Not using inherent features but a comparison to determine what is good and what is bad. But inevitable because decisions aren’t made in a vacuum. NHS experiment: millions of GBP lost per year because people don’t show up to appointments, so tried 2 things to reduce, both linked to a fundamental motive to want to be seen in a good light. - Callers asked to repeat back appointment time and day. - Physical attendees asked to write down their appointment. Ethics of manipulation: when people nd out that they have been unduly manipulated, what’s interesting is that they don’t become necessarily immune to the strategy that was used on them, but their awareness is raised of the individual that used it on them. Best practice experiments: NOT good mechanisms for innovation and providing new opportunities/approaches. But, used to “re-inform” information already speculated or known. - UK tax experiment: reminder that most UK citizens pay their taxes on time signi cantly increased response rates and a signi cant speeding up of the receipts into the Treasury (“CRA”). - Podcast 2 - Connection between mind and society is an extremely important one that should not be forgotten. - Our deep-seated discomfort about discussing prejudice was one hurdle for a researcher looking to study the phenomenon. - IAT: Implicit Association test; gives example of card shu ing black with black and red with red, and ff ff fi ff ffi ff ffi fi - ffl - ffi - fi - fi - fl - fi - THEN spades and diamonds together with clubs and aces… takes longer for the brain to make those associations. - Took longer to make some association because they weren’t “habitual responses”. Video game experiment: Shoot or don’t shoot photos of white and black men holding di erent objects (coke can, pistol, wallet)... brain made faster associations to “shoot” (press) black man even when holding no weapon than white man. Does not presume that the people with such biases have active animosity toward African Americans BECAUSE it's impossible, he says, to recreate in a lab the fear and stress that a real-world police confrontation can generate. Eric Hehman suspected that if bias was a factor in police shootings, it was likely that implicit bias, rather than overt racism, was at play. Eric thinks the test has tapped into the mind of the community as a whole. The people who live in that neighbourhood have these associations between African Americans and threat or African Americans and danger. And these would be anybody in this community. Big data from Google searches can predict with great accuracy things like the suicide rate in a community or the chances that a hate crime will take place. In Mahzarin's view, you can't easily erase implicit bias because you can't erase the e ect of the culture when people are living day in and day out in that same culture. Correl study brought to be tested on police o cers; there was no bias in who they actually shot Whereas those stereotypes may in uence the behaviour of the college students and of you and me, the police o cers are somehow able to exert control. Mahzarin Banaji has a similar solution. She thinks we need more of what she calls in-the-moment reminders. - Opportunity to stop for a second to make a decision consciously and deliberately instead of quickly and automatically. - Implicit bias certainly does act on individuals, but it's possible that its strongest e ects are at the level of a community as a whole. fl fi ff fl fl fi fi ff fl ff ff ff ff ff LECTURE 13 CHAPTER 6B - Central route: people being in uenced by strength and quality of arguments. - Ex. Imagine a health and tness expert delivering a message about the importance of regular exercise for maintaining good health. - Peripheral: when in uenced by others or non-central cues. - Ex. Apple products; everyone has them; therefore only normal to want to buy them too. - Mere exposure e ect: Two products; one you’ve heard about and one you haven't… most likely to pick up the one that you “heard” about. - Study with Swiss kids: Picked the leader of the canoe and ended up predicting French presidential elections. A lot of that is because it is a complicated world, and most people have peripheral information that shapes our attitudes towards certain things. - Source: credibility (competence & trustworthiness). Other factors: attractiveness, likability and similarity. - Male/Female confederates approached others on campus, asked to sign a petition for no meat in the dining hall. Attractive confederate: 41%, Less attractive confederate: 32%. Most of the time, they are not aware of this and so can’t really prevent it. You can tell people that there is a bias and remove it from the equation but CAN’T. - Connected attribution error: because doing it for intrinsic motivations. - Sleeper e ect: involves the delayed impact of a persuasive message over time. In a typical sleeper e ect scenario, individuals initially exposed to a persuasive message from a less credible source (or with a weaker argument) show little immediate attitude change. However, over time, the persuasive impact of the message tends to increase, even though the source's credibility or the strength of the argument may be forgotten or discounted. - Message: emotion indication is key as trucking emotional chords make people fall into traps. Fear is ultra e ective. - Big discrepancy vs small: need to cater according to goal. Big works if you are a professional, as you are credible. Small works if you are an average Joe, because you are “less” credible, but have a more personal, intimate relationship with the receiver of the message. - One sided vs. two sided appeal: one-sided: mention only pros; works well if audience agrees with message and will not nd out about the cons; a one sided appeal is best… commerce ails use this form. Two-sided: addresses cons too. - Cognitive dissonance: the tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of con icting cognitions. Many behaviours ARE NOT consistent with attitudes. - Try to actively reduce cognitive dissonance by CHANGING attitude. - Dissonance Reduction Strategies: Individuals employ various strategies to reduce cognitive dissonance, such as: changing one's behaviour to align with existing beliefs, modifying one's beliefs to justify the behaviour and seeking out information that supports the chosen behaviour or belief. - Demagogue: a demagogue or rabble-rouser is a leader in a democracy who gains popularity by exploiting prejudice and ignorance among common people, whipping up the passions of the crowd and shutting down reasoned deliberation. Demagogues overturn established customs of political conduct, or promise or threaten to do so. - Primacy: information presented early has more in uence (ex. defences opening statement more e ective if comes before prosecution’s). - Recency: information presented last can sometimes overwrite information that came rst. - Attitude responses a ected by context, wording and order of the questions. - Evaluative Conditioning: the process by which we form attitudes towards a neutral stimulus because of its association with a positive or negative person, place or thing. - Ex. getting a celebrity to endorse a political campaign - Theory of Planned Behaviour (Azjen & Fishbein): Intentions to perform a behaviour are best predicted by attitudes towards the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. - Regulatory Fit: The idea that people are more likely to be in uenced by messages that match their frame of mind is known as regulatory t. - Inoculation Hypothesis: exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument tends to increase later resistance to that argument. - Subliminal In uence: Research indicates that subliminal in uence usually occurs in the short term for simple judgments and actions. - Self-Perception Theory: The idea that we infer our own attitudes by coolly observing ourselves and the circumstances of our behaviour. - Impression Management Theory: What matters is not a motive to be consistent but rather a motive to appear consistent. Is an alternative to a dissonance view of self-persuasion. - Insu cient deterrence: a condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even though only mild punishment is threatened. - Role-Playing: People show a greater attitude change after giving a persuasive speech than after - listening to one. Self-generated arguments are better remembered than arguments provided by others. Expecting to have to present a persuasive communication to another person increases the impact of the communication. Self-a rmation theory is a psychological theory that suggests individuals have a basic need to maintain a positive self-image. fi ffi fi fi ff fl fl ff fi ff ff fi fi fi ff ffl fl ff ffi ffi EXTRA - Metastereotypes: a person’s thoughts about the stereotypes’ outgroup members hold against their own group. - Hutu vs/ Tutsi: very phenotypically similar but the Rwandan massacre caused half a million Tutsi to be killed as a result of tension between the groups. - Social identity theory: people display ingroup favouritism as a means of increasing self-esteem. - According to social role theory: gender di erence in social behaviour are magni ed by the unequal gender-based division of labour and arise from social roles that provide a continuing basis r gender stereotypes. - Mechanisms that perpetuate stereotypes: illusory correlations, subtyping, self-ful lling prophecies (pygmalion e ect) and con rmation bias. - Spreading activation: concepts are more tightly or loosely organizes in our minds. It refers to the way information in our minds is interconnected and how the activation of one concept can lead to the activation of related concepts. It's often associated with the organization of information in semantic networks. Early research shows that exposure to a member of a stereotypes group is su cient to spread activate the stereotype and that exposure to content will activate stereotype as well. Use IAT to measure. - Subliminal presentation: method of presenting information so faintly and rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to it at all. - Social categorization: leads to OVERESTIMATION of di erence between groups and UNDERESTIMATION of di erences within groups. - Persistence of stereotypes: Primacy e ect, con rmation bias and negative info (rare, diagnostic). - Motivation to reduce stereotypes: Intrinsic (egalitarianism) and extrinsic (social desirability). - Superordinate goals: a shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups. - Germane Alexander’s research on children’s sex-based preferences for toys indicated that, in a addition to being a icted by socialization, such preferences are a ected by prenatal exposure to sex hormones. - Glass ceiling: women are less likely to rise to the rise to the highest levels or organization. - Stereotype threat: fear of con rming a stereotype because of fear of acting in a manner that is consistent with the stereotype. - "Cocktail party e ect” is a term used in psychology to describe the remarkable human ability to ff focus on a single conversation or voice in a noisy and crowded environment, such as a cocktail party.