PSY 102 Fall 2024 Final Exam Review - Cumulative Topics PDF

PSY 102: Introduction to Psychology I Fall 2024 Instructor: Professor Margot Sullivan (she/her) 1 Final Exam Information ▪ Saturday, December 7th at 10am ▪ 2 hours long ▪ Location: St. James Campus ▪ SJC Building (see map on next slide) ▪ 290...

PSY 102: Introduction to Psychology I Fall 2024 Instructor: Professor Margot Sullivan (she/her) 1 Final Exam Information ▪ Saturday, December 7th at 10am ▪ 2 hours long ▪ Location: St. James Campus ▪ SJC Building (see map on next slide) ▪ 290 Adelaide Street East ▪ Room 406 2 3 Final Exam Information ▪ Please arrive at least 15 minutes early. ▪ Please bring a physical card of your student ID/government ID for attendance. ▪ Please write your TMU Student Number and full name on both the bubble sheet and exam. ▪ Please bring a pencil/pen and an eraser. 4  Ivan Fill out your first Pavlov AND last name Leave blank Bubble in your TMU Student 5 3 3 7 2 9 0 8 9 Number 5 Final Exam Format ▪ Exam 3 will primarily focus on content covered after the second exam (the topics of Memory as well as Thinking, Reasoning, and Language), it will also include some cumulative questions from the rest of the topics in the course. ▪ 60 Multiple Choice Questions ▪ 20 from Memory ▪ 20 from Thinking, Reasoning, and Language ▪ 20 from earlier topics in the course (see study guide + the following slides on D2L). ▪ Select 2 out of 3 short answer options, worth 5 marks each. ▪ 1 question per topic area (see MC breakdown). 6 Cumulative Topics Final Exam Fall 2024 7 Lecture 1: Psychology and Scientific Thinking 8 What is a Scientific Theory? Scientific theory- Explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world. Hypothesis- testable prediction derived from a scientific theory. ▪ Theory Example: Negative attentional bias in depression. ▪ Hypothesis Example: Depressed individuals will focus more on negative words in a memory test compared to non-depressed individuals. Theory General explanation Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Specific predictions 9 Confirmation Bias ▪ Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them. 10 Confirmation Bias Example ▪ Biased search for information: “Are dogs better than cats?” “Are cats better than dogs?” 11 Another Example of Confirmation Bias ▪ Hastorf and Cantril (1954) Football Game Study ▪ Dartmouth fans saw Princeton players as committing more penalties and vice versa. 12 Lecture 2: Brief History of Psychology 13 A New Science is Born ▪ In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt developed the first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany. ▪ Scientifically examine consciousness- the awareness of immediate experience. 14 Wundt’s Methods 1) RT experiments. 2) Introspection- Trained observers carefully reflect and report on their mental experiences. ▪ Visual stimuli or auditory tones. ▪ Example: Describe your experience of hearing a five-note chord. 15 Structuralism: The Elements of the Mind ▪ Edward Titchener (1867-1927), British student of Wundt. ▪ Structuralism aimed to identify the basic elements of the psychological experience. ▪ Used introspection. 16 Structuralism: The Elements of the Mind ▪ Wanted a comprehensive map of the elements of consciousness. Chemistry Psychology Matter Consciousness/Experience Sensations, Chemical elements feelings, images 17 William James and Functionalism ▪ Influential American psychologist. ▪ Principles of Psychology (1890) ▪ Observations based on the functions of his own mind, not experiments. “Millions of items…are present to my senses which never properly enter my experience. My experience is what I agree to attend to…. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.” ▪ Structuralists asked “what” questions. Functionalists asked “why” questions. ▪ Example: why do we forget things? ▪ Lasting Influence: Perspective has been absorbed into modern-day psychology. 18 2.2 Abandoning the Study of the Mind 19 Behaviourism: The Laws of Learning ▪ Founded by John B. Watson (1913). ▪ Criticized the study of consciousness. ▪ Psychological science must be objective, not subjective. ▪ Behaviourism- focuses on uncovering the general principles of learning underlying animal and human behaviour. 20 Behaviourism: The Laws of Learning ▪ Eliminated the study of the mind. Stimuli Response X “What does behaviour tell us about the mind?” “What is the relation between stimuli in the environment and behaviour?” 21 Behaviourism: The Laws of Learning ▪ Understand human behaviour (responses) in relation to external/environmental factors (stimuli). ▪ B.F. Skinner (1938) examined operant conditioning. ▪ Rewards and punishments ▪ Watson focused on classical conditioning. ▪ Associations 22 2.3 The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind 23 Cognitivism Cognitive psychology- The study of mental processes. ▪ Perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking, and reasoning. ▪ Thinking affects our behaviour in powerful ways. ▪ Interpretation in rewards and punishments. B+ ▪ Jean Piaget (1896-1980): children think in different ways than adults. ▪ Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy ▪ Cognitive Neuroscience- Examines the relationship between brain activity and thinking. 24 Psychoanalysis ▪ Sigmund Freud (1896), Viennese neurologist ▪ Psychoanalysis- Focuses on internal psychological processes of which we are unaware. ▪ Unconscious mind- contains thoughts, memories, and desires below the surface of conscious awareness. 25 Behaviourism vs. Psychoanalysis Sexuality, Rewards Aggression Punishments External Internal 26 Psychological Life is Filled with Symbols ▪ Concept of the unconscious based on observations. ▪ “Freudian Slips” ▪ “I decided to take a summer school curse.” ▪ “I'm mad you're here.” ▪ Dream Analysis ▪ Strong role of childhood experiences Smoking Orderliness 27 The Humanists Revolt ▪ 1950s, in opposition to behaviourism and psychoanalysis. Humanism- Emphasizes unique qualities of humans. ▪ Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). Free will and potential for personal growth. ▪ Psychological disorders result from hindering of human needs. Hierarchy of Needs 28 Lecture 3: Research Methods 29 3.1 Guiding Principles for Applying the Scientific Method to Psychology 30 Guiding Principle 1 ▪ Generalizability- is a measure of how useful the results of a study are for a broader group of people or situations. ▪ External validity. ▪ Need a representative sample of the population. ▪ Population depends on the research question. Sample Population 31 Increase Generalizability with Random Selection ▪ Random Selection- Procedure that ensures every person in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate. Population 32 Guiding Principle 2 ▪ Reliability- Consistency of measurement. Personality Personality Questionnaire Questionnaire Today 2-Months ▪ A reliable questionnaire should yield similar scores over time = test-retest reliability. 33 Interrater Reliability ▪ Extent to which different people agree on the characteristics they are measuring. ▪ Example: Two psychologists giving separate diagnoses (low or high IR?). ▪ Example: Job interview panel all like a candidate (low or high IR?). 22°C 25°C 34 Guiding Principle 3 ▪ Validity (Construct Validity)- Extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure. ▪ Example: Giving a math test to measure numeracy (low or high validity?). ▪ Example: Questionnaire to measure depression, but it’s really measuring anxiety (low or high validity?). 35 Reliability vs. Validity ▪ A valid test must also be reliable, ▪ but a reliable test can be completely invalid. ▪ Example: polygraph ▪ What might it be measuring instead? 36 “Distance Index-Middle Width Intelligence Test” Example ▪ Subtracts the width of our index finger from our middle finger. ▪ high test-retest reliability. ▪ high interrater reliability. ▪ BUT, is this a valid measure of intelligence? 37 3.2 Types of Research Designs 38 (1) Studying Humans “in the Wild” ▪ Naturalistic Observation- Watching behaviour in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation. ▪ Conduct in real time or video recordings. ▪ Also, social media. Jane Goodall observing Chimpanzees in Gombe, Kenya. ▪ Wearable technologies. 39 (2) Case Study Designs ▪ Case Study- Examine one person or a small number of people. ▪ Used to study rare brain damage and/or unusual conditions. ▪ Can inspire new hypotheses about the brain and behaviour. 40 Case Study Examples Henry Molaison (H.M.) Face Recognition ▪ Experimental operation to remove ▪ Prosopagnosia – Extreme impairment portions of the hippocampus. of the ability to recognize faces. ▪ Observed by Dr. Brenda Milner from ▪ Fusiform face area (FFA) responds McGill. specifically to faces. ▪ Inability to form new memories. 41 (3) Self-Report Measures and Surveys ▪ Self-report measures (Questionnaires)- assess participant characteristics. ▪ Demographics, personality traits, mental illnesses. ▪ Surveys- Measure opinions and attitudes. ▪ Market research, political polls. 42 (4) Correlational Designs ▪ Strength of association between two variables. 1. Correlations can be negative, zero, or positive. 2. Correlation coefficients range from −1.0 to +1.0. ▪ Higher absolute value means stronger relationship. 43  Levels of Correlation Perfect No Perfect Negative Correlation Positive Correlation Correlation 44  Negative Zero Positive Correlation Correlation Correlation 45 Experimental Designs ▪ Permit cause and effect inferences. ▪ Internal validity ▪ Two essential components: 1) Random assignment of participants to conditions. 2) Manipulation of an independent variable. 46 Random Assignment ▪ Randomly sort participants into one of two groups. OR ▪ Between-subjects design Experimental Control Group Group ▪ Research Question: How does Receives Does not receive distracting music influence typing performance? manipulation manipulation No music 47 Independent vs. Dependent Variable ▪ IV: Variable that is manipulated. ▪ Music vs. no music ▪ Antidepressant vs. sugar pill ▪ DV: Variable the experimenter measures to see if the manipulation has an effect. ▪ Typing performance ▪ Level of depression 48 Lecture 4: Biological Psychology 49 Parts of the Neuron ▪ Dendrites ▪ Branchlike extensions that receive information. ▪ Increases surface area. 50 Parts of the Neuron ▪ Cell body (soma) ▪ Contains mechanisms to keep the cell alive. ▪ Where information assembles. 51 Parts of the Neuron ▪ Axons and Axon Terminals ▪ Transmits signals to other neurons. ▪ Synaptic vesicles are spherical sacs containing neurotransmitters. 52  Electrochemical Gradient of the Neuron ▪ Membrane has an electric potential difference. ▪ A neuron is at rest when it is not sending an electrical signal. ▪ During this time, the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside. ▪ Resting Potential: -70 mV 53  Initiating an Action Potential ▪ Neurotransmitters open ion channels. ▪ Rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane occurs. ▪ When a high enough level is reached an action potential is triggered. ▪ Threshold of Excitation: -55mV 54  Steps of an Action Potential Repolarization Depolarization -55 5 Hyperpolarization 55 Psychoactive Drugs ▪ Agonists increase activity of the NT system ▪ Opioids (like codeine and morphine) mimic endorphins ▪ Reuptake inhibitors ▪ Anti-depressants ▪ Antagonists decrease activity of the NT system ▪ Dopamine blockers for schizophrenia 56 Cerebral Cortex ▪ Frontal: Executive functions, motor planning, language, and decision making. ▪ Parietal: Processes touch information; integrates senses, spatial perception. ▪ Temporal: Processes auditory information, language, and long-term memory. ▪ Occipital: Processes visual information. 57 Lecture 5: Sensation and Perception 58 Sensory Adaptation ▪ Activation is highest when a stimulus is first detected. ▪ E.g., smells, sounds, touch, taste, decrease over time. High Perceived Aroma Intensity Low 1 2 3 4 Number of sniffs ▪ Why might this occur? 59 Psychophysics (Gustav Fechner, 1860) ▪ Study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics. 1) Absolute Threshold of a stimulus ▪ Is the lowest level of a stimulus needed for a person to detect that stimulus 50% of the time. 60 Absolute Threshold Experiment Design Example Images from The Open University 61 2) Just Noticeable Difference (JND) ▪ Smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that humans can detect. ▪ Weber’s Law: There is a constant proportional relationship between the JND and the original stimulus intensity. ▪ Stronger stimuli, higher JND ▪ Lower stimuli, lower JND 62 Perception: Interpreting Sensory Information ▪ Bottom-up processing ▪ Relies on sensory data alone. ▪ Whole stimulus is constructed from the parts. ▪ Raw stimulus → sensory system → brain (meaningful concepts) 63 Top-down processing ▪ Raw stimulus is modified by experiences, knowledge, expectations/beliefs, and goals. ▪ brain (meaningful concepts)→ sensory processing of raw stimulus Image from: OpenPSYC 64 Beach Example 65 Gestalt Principles of Object Perception ▪ Rules that govern how we perceive objects as wholes within their overall context. ▪ 1. Proximity ▪ Object physically close to one another are perceived as unified wholes. 66 Gestalt Principles ▪ 2. Similarity ▪ We see similar objects as composing a whole. 67 Gestalt Principles ▪ 3. Continuity ▪ We still perceive objects as wholes, even if other objects block part of them. 68 Gestalt Principles ▪ 4. Closure ▪ When partial visual information is present, our brain’s fill in what’s missing. 69 Gestalt Principles ▪ 5. Symmetry ▪ We perceive objects that are symmetrically arranged as wholes. 70 Gestalt Principles ▪ 6. Figure-ground ▪ We tend to focus on what we believe to be the central figure and ignore the background. 71 Lecture 6: Consciousness Credit: Getty Images 72 Sleep Stages vs. Wakefulness ▪ Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures distinct brain wave patterns. EEG Pattern Frequency State of Consciousness (cycles/sec) Beta 13-24 Normal waking thought Alpha 8-12 Deep relaxation Theta 4-7 Light sleep Delta