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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS MODULE 7 PERSONALITY FREUD’S MODEL Lesson 1 What is Personality? TOPOGRAP...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS MODULE 7 PERSONALITY FREUD’S MODEL Lesson 1 What is Personality? TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL PERSONALITY - used a spatial metaphor (the mind - refers to the enduring patterns of as split into sectors) that divided thought, feeling, motivation and mental processes into three types: behavior that are expressed in different circumstances. 1. Conscious mental processes - are rational, goal-directed REPUTATION thoughts at the center of - the way the person acts and is awareness. known socially — but also the 2. Preconscious mental processes internal processes that create that - are not conscious but could reputation. become conscious at any point, such as knowledge of IDENTITY the color of robins. - an internal process and reflects a 3. Unconscious mental processes person’s own view of their - are irrational, organized personality. along associative lines rather than by logic. 2 AIMS OF PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGISTS DRIVE MODEL - Drive or instinct focused on what 1. To construct theories that describe drives or motivates people the structure of personality - the organization of 2 BASIC DRIVES enduring patterns of thought, feeling, motivation 1. SEX and behavior - Refers as much to pleasure 2. To study individual differences in seeking, sensuality and love personality as it does to desires for - the way people differ from sexual intercourse one another. 2. AGGRESSION Lesson 2 Psychodynamic Theories - People also express aggression in various ways, some socially acceptable FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHODYNAMICS and others not. - According to Freud, psychological forces such as wishes, fears and PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES intentions have a direction and an - stages in the development of intensity. personality, sexuality and motivation - At each stage, libido is focused on a particular part of the body, or PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS erogenous zone (region of the body that can generate sexual pleasure). REGRESSION - means reverting to conflicts ORAL STAGE (0-18 MONTHS) or modes of managing - children explore the world through emotion characteristic of an their mouths earlier stage - pleasure through sucking - children develop wishes and PHALLIC STAGE (4-6 YEARS) expectations about dependence - children enjoy the pleasure they can because they are totally dependent obtain from touching their genitals on their caretakers. and even from masturbating. - Difficulties (such as chronic IDENTIFICATION dissatisfaction or discomfort) during - means making another the oral stage — or any of the stages person part of oneself — can lead to fixations, conflicts or - According to Freud, much of concerns adult personality is built - According to Freud, people with through identification, as the fixations at the oral stage may be child internalizes motives, extremely clingy and dependent, behaviors, beliefs and ideals. with an exaggerated need for 2approval, nurturance and love. OEDIPUS COMPLEX - Emergence of teeth as a defense - refers to Freud’s hypothesis that little against environment is called oral boys want an exclusive relationship sadistic with their mothers, and little girls want an exclusive relationship with ANAL STAGE (2-3 YEARS) their fathers. - characterized by conflicts with - According to Freud, children learn parents about compliance and about love and sensual defiance, which Freud linked to gratification from their parents, conflicts over toilet training and they desire an exclusive sexual - the age during which the child learns relationship with the parent of the to do unto others what they are now opposite sex constantly doing unto him: saying no. ! Oedipus complex, named after the - Freud proposed that in the anal character in a Greek legend who stage the child discovers that the unknowingly killed his father and slept with anus can be a source of pleasurable his mother. excitation. - Occurs at about the second year of CASTRATION COMPLEX life, when toilet training is the child's - Boys unconsciously fear that their chief source of frustration. father, their ultimate rival, will - If parents use disciplinary training castrate them because of their methods, a child may develop the desires for their mother anal triad of orderliness, stinginess, and obstinacy, all of which mark the anal character. PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS ELECTRA COMPLEX - This model described conflict in - According to Freud, during the terms of desires on the one hand and phallic stage, girls develop penis the dictates of conscience or the envy, the belief that because they constraints of reality on the other lack a penis they are inferior to boys. ! PENIS ENVY refers to the envy a girl develops in a society in which men’s activities seem more interesting and valued. ID - the reservoir of sexual and LATENCY STAGE (7-11 YEARS) aggressive energy. - repress their sexual impulses and continue to identify with their SUPEREGO same-sex parents. - acts as a conscience and source of - They also learn to channel their ideals sexual and aggressive drives into EGO socially acceptable activities such - structure that must somehow as school, sports and art. balance desire, reality and morality - - From about age 5 years until puberty— in which the sexual DEFENSE MECHANISMS instinct is partially suppressed. - unconscious mental processes aimed at protecting the person from GENITAL STAGE (12+ BEYOND) unpleasant emotions (particularly - conscious sexuality resurfaces after anxiety) or bolstering pleasurable years of repression, and genital sex emotion. becomes the primary goal of sexual activity 1. REPRESSION - people become capable of relating - a person keeps thoughts or to and loving others on a mature memories that would be too level and carrying out adult threatening to responsibilities such as work and acknowledge from parenting. awareness. - least elaborated by Freud, who believed that the major aspects of 2. DENIAL personality become firmly - a person refuses to established in childhood and may acknowledge external require considerable effort to realities or emotions change thereafter. - Begins with puberty when 3. PROJECTION adolescents experience a - a person attributes his or reawakening of the genital aim of her own unacknowledged Eros, and it continues throughout feelings or impulses to adulthood. others STRUCTURAL MODEL 4. REACTION FORMATION PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS - a person fails to between internal opposites while at acknowledge unacceptable the same time striving for impulses and development as an individual overemphasizes their - According to Jungian theory, the opposites Ego represents the conscious mind. - The Ego is like the internal command 5. SUBLIMATION center that carries the - involves converting sexual consciousness, our identity, and or aggressive impulses into existence. The role of the Ego is to socially acceptable develop an effective relationship activities. with the Self 6. RATIONALIZATION - The Self represents experiences of - a person explains away wholeness, is forward-looking and actions in a seemingly seeks fulfillment logical way to avoid uncomfortable feelings, INDIVIDUATION especially guilt or shame. - Jungian theory is organized from the point of view of the Self, with 7. DISPLACEMENT individuals aiming to discover that - directing their emotions, they are unique individuals, while especially anger, away from being no more unique than one the real target to a another; this is known as substitute. individuation. 8. REGRESSION ARCHETYPES - reverting back to an earlier - represent universal, archaic patterns stage of psychological and images (including fantasies, development, typically when dreams, cultural practices, magic under a period of great and beliefs) that reside within the stress or hardship. collective and personal unconscious and are actualized when they enter ANALYTICAL/JUNGIAN PSYCHOLOGY consciousness or are manifested in - Carl Jung behavior upon interaction with the - Jungian theories are based on outside world. experience, incorporating both experience from the outer world and COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS from the inner world of fantasies, - represents a form of the unconscious symbols and dreams. comprising memories and impulses - A major component of Jung’s work of which the individual is not aware was the complex analysis of the and represents those structures of psyche, which was believed to be the the unconscious mind that are dialogue between consciousness common to humans. states. PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUSNESS - according to Jung, the psyche is a - represents a repressed unconscious, self regulating system (like the body) and develops during childhood when and strives to maintain a balance aspects of personality may not be PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS congruent with the morals, culture, COGNITIVE-SOCIAL THEORY parental attitudes and context in - shares the behaviorist belief that which a child lives. learning (rather than instinct, conflict SHADOW or defense) is the basis of - contains the negative aspects of personality and that personality personality that are collected dispositions tend to be relatively through interactions with society. specific and shaped by their ANIMA consequences. - refers to the contra sexual factor for - According to this approach, a woman’s psyche, with the image of personality reflects a constant a man created through her father interplay between environmental and enhanced by interactions with demands and the way the individual men in the environment. processes information about the self and the world. OTHER CONCEPTS OF JUNGIAN THEORY Lesson 4 Trait Theory COMPLEXES - represent a distinct part of personality comprising the living TRAITS aspects of the psyche. - are emotional, cognitive and - refer to clusters of feelings, behavioral tendencies that memories, thoughts and ideas that constitute underlying personality guide behavior and perceptions. dimensions on which individuals vary. PERSONA - represents the aspects of personality GORDON ALLPORT that people reveal or hide from - trait has two separate but others complementary meanings 1. Trait is an observed tendency to Jung classified people by psychological type, behave in a particular way. being either extroverted or introverted.. He 2. trait is an inferred, or hypothesized, identified four essential psychological underlying personality disposition functions: thinking, feeling, sensation and that generates this behavioral intuition. tendency. OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY One of the best-researched trait - Object relations refers to enduring theories was developed by Hans patterns of behavior in intimate Eysenck. In his view, individuals relationships and to the produce specific behaviors, some of motivational, cognitive and affective which are frequent or habitual. processes that produce those A trait is a group of correlated habits patterns. — a person who has one of these habits tends to have the other habits that constitute the trait. Lesson 3 Cognitive-Social Theory A type or super-trait is a group of correlated traits. PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS - Existentialism is a school of THE FIVE FACTOR MODEL (FFM) twentieth-century philosophy - known as the ‘big five’ factors. that similarly focuses on - Costa and McCrae use the labels subjective existence. openness to experience, - The individual is alone throughout conscientiousness, extroversion, life and must confront what it agreeableness and neuroticism. (A means to be human and what values to embrace. good acronym to remember them is - Jean-Paul Sartre (1971), unlike OCEAN.) other animals and physical objects, people have no fixed nature and must essentially create themselves. Lesson 5 Humanistic Lesson 6 Genetics, Personality and Culture - Humanistic approaches focus on distinctively human aspects of personality, such as how to find - Substantial evidence supports the meaning in life or be true to idea that much of personality is oneself. inherited. - Carl Rogers believed that human - Studies of monozygotic and beings are basically good but dizygotic twins reared together their personalities become and reared apart show evidence distorted by interpersonal for the heritability of certain experiences, especially in traits. childhood. - The culture pattern approach - According to Rogers and other sees personality primarily as an humanistic psychologists, accommodation to culture. psychologists should not be - According to interactionist studying people as objects of approaches, personality is their investigations but as shaped by economic and subjects who construct meaning. cultural demands, but cultural - FALSE SELF — a mask they wear and economic processes and ultimately mistake to be their themselves are in part created to true psychological ‘face’. fulfill psychological needs. - a false self emerges because of people’s natural desire to gain the positive regard of other MODULE 8 PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND people. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT - According to Carl Rogers’ person-centered approach, psychology should try to Lesson 1. Issues in Developmental understand individuals’ Psychology phenomenal experience — the way they conceive of reality and experience themselves and their The interaction of heredity and world — through empathy. environment occurs when the effect of having both genetic and environmental vulnerabilities is EXISTENTIALISM PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS 2. EMBRYONIC PERIOD different from that which would be predicted by simply adding up - 3rd week to eight week of their independent effects. gestation Gene–environment correlations - the most important period occur when genes influence the in the development of the environments people choose or central nervous system and the experiences to which they are of the organs. exposed 3. FOETAL PERIOD changes in individuals over time reflect the influence of genetically - 9 weeks to birth programmed maturation (nature) - muscular development is or of learning and experience rapid. By about 28 weeks, (nurture). the fetus is capable of Maturation refers to biologically sustaining life on its own. based changes that follow an (The term fetus is often used orderly sequence, each step more broadly to refer to the setting the stage for the next step according to an age-related organism between timetable. conception and birth.) Most psychologists believe that - the features of the embryo development, like intelligence or become recognizably personality, reflects the action human, the rudiments of and mutual influence of genes and most organs have formed environment. Nature provides a fertile field for development, but and the heart has begun to this field requires cultivation. beat INFANCY Lesson 2. Physical Development and Its - At birth, an infant possesses many Psychological Consequences adaptive reflexes - The rooting reflex helps ensure that PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT the infant will get nourishment: when - One of the most remarkable aspects touched on the cheek, an infant will of development is that a single cell, turn her head and open her mouth, forged by the union of a sperm and ready to suck. an egg, contains the blueprint for an - Sucking reflex is similarly adaptive: organism that will emerge — infants suck rhythmically in response complete with billions of specialized to stimulation 3 to 4 centimeters cells — nine months later. inside their mouths - prenatal period (before birth, also - Motor skills progress from head to called the gestation period) toe: motor development in infancy follows a universal sequence, from DIVIDED INTO 3 STAGES smiling, turning the head and rolling over, to creeping, walking with 1. GERMINAL PERIOD support, and ultimately standing - (approximately the first two alone and walking unaided weeks after conception), the fertilized egg becomes CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE implanted in the uterus. PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS - A remarkable aspect of human Menopause usually begins in the 40s development is the extent to which or 50s and may last several years children can maintain the sense that they are the same person over time LATER LIFE despite massive changes in the sheer - physical appearance size of their bodies and the shape of - Sensory changes (visual contrasts) their faces. - take a longer time adapting to the - Growth rates for girls and boys are dark roughly equal until about age 10 - Hearing loss. presbycusis, the inability to hear high-frequency GIRLS sounds - begin a growth spurt that usually peaks at age 12 - Girls usually experience the onset of menstruation (known as menarche) at about age 11 to 13 - Early onset of puberty tends to be Lesson 3. Cognitive Development in associated with greater distress and Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence delinquency than later maturation. (EARLY/LATE MATURATION) WHAT CAN INFANTS’ SENSE AND BOYS PERCEIVE? - boys typically follow suit about two or three years later Infants are born with many sensory - mature sperm production is abilities, with hearing being more somewhat later, at about 14.5 years advanced. Before birth, fetuses respond to - Boys whose growth spurt comes loud sounds, and studies indicate that newborns can hear and recognize their early are more likely to excel at mother's voice in utero, despite physical athletics and be more popular, barriers like flesh and amniotic fluid. relaxed and high in status than late-maturing boys. (EARLY/LATE Unlike hearing, vision is not MATURATION) well-developed at birth. The visual cortex, retina, and other structures are still ADULTHOOD AND AGEING immature. Visual acuity at birth is roughly 20/500, improving to 20/100 by six months. Infants focus best on objects By their 30s, people are already deteriorating 18-20 cm away, a distance similar to that physically, with muscular strength and between a nursing infant and its mother's sensory abilities showing subtle but clear face. signs of decline. Individuals differ tremendously. Research over the last 30 years suggests that infants are far more capable of intermodal processing — the ability to MIDLIFE CHANGES associate sensations of an object from - For women perhaps the most different senses or to match their own dramatic physical change of middle actions to behaviors they have observed adulthood is menopause, the visually — than anyone would have cessation of the menstrual cycle. PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE expected. DEVELOPMENT At three months, infants pay more - Jean Piaget(1896-1980) - 1st attention when speech sounds are psychologist to trace cognitive synchronized with lip movements. By 4 to development 5 months, they can follow a conversation - proposed that children develop by shifting visual attention between two knowledge by inventing, or speakers. This suggests that infants constructing, reality out of their own recognize not only features of objects from different senses but also the experience, mixing what they temporal order of these features, observe with their own ideas about understanding how events across different how the world works. senses unfold over time, such as observing lips moving and hearing corresponding STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT sounds. SENSORIMOTOR (0-2) - Thought and action are virtually identical, as the infant explores the world with its senses and behaviours; WHAT CAN INFANTS REMEMBER? object permanence develops; the child is completely egocentric INFANTILE AMNESIA PREOPERATIONAL (2-7) - Infantile amnesia, the lack of explicit - Symbolic thought develops; object memory for events before age three permanence is firmly established; or four, is a common phenomenon. the child cannot coordinate different However, this doesn't mean that physical attributes of an object or infants lack memory altogether. The different perspective ability of infants to remember varies depending on the task and is CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-12) influenced by the maturation of - The child is able to perform neural circuits involved in different reversible mental operations on the types of memory. Research, such as representations of object; that by Hayne in 2004, indicates that understanding of conversation the retention interval for infant develops; the child can apple logic to memories accessible to retrieval concrete situations increases significantly with age, particularly improving over the first FORMAL OPERATIONS (12+) two years of life. It is suggested that - The adolescent (or adult) can apply if forgetting occurs in the early logic more abstractly; hypothetical stages of infancy, memories may be thinking develops challenging to retrieve later on. Yet, over time, the forgetting process VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF gradually diminishes, making COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT memories easier to retrieve and - Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) maintain. - a sociocultural theory of cognitive development that emphasizes the role of social interaction for the child PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS as motivation for cognitive gains and learning AGEING - Vygotsky’s model proposes that - One of the most pervasive myths children collaborate and strive about ageing is that old people lose together on tasks to enhance their their memory and their ability to levels of understanding think and reason — that is, they become ‘senile’ Lesson 4. Cognitive Development and Change in Adulthood Lesson 5. Attachment COGNITIVE CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH ATTACHMENT AGEING - refers to the enduring ties of - A number of cognitive changes occur affection that children form with with ageing, ranging from changes their primary caregivers in psychomotor speed to changes in - includes a desire for proximity to an memory attachment figure, a sense of security derived from the person’s presence and feelings of distress when the person is absent. - interaction between two people who PSYCHOMOTOR SPEED react to each other’s signals. - psychomotor slowing, an increase in JOHN BOWLBY’S THEORY OF the time required for processing and ATTACHMENT acting on information. - John Bowlby - actually begins early, around the - linked Harlow’s findings to the mid-20s psychodynamic literature on children - can be observed both on relatively reared in institutional settings. simple tests, such as pushing a - He argued that attachment behavior button when a light flashes, and on is prewired in humans, as is similar tests that require more complex behavior in other animal species, to thinking keep immature animals close to their - In practical terms , psychomotor parents. slowing can be seen in the difficulty - Bowlby argued that attachment older people have relative to behaviour in human infants, such as younger people when first learning staying close to parents and crying to use a mouse at the computer — loudly in their absence, evolved for particularly double-clicking. For most the same reasons. Thus, when a child people, psychomotor slowing is so feels threatened, the attachment gradual that it goes unnoticed until system ‘turns on’, leading the child to the 50s or 60s cry or search for its attachment figure MEMORY - ‘emotional refueling’ - Once the - common stereotype is that older child feels safe again people are constantly forgetting things PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS IMPLICATIONS OF ATTACHMENT FOR various mental disorders, including LATER DEVELOPMENT schizophrenia. - Attachment patterns that begin in infancy can persist and find THE EVOLVING SELF-CONCEPT expression in a wide range of social behaviors throughout the lifespan. SELF-CONCEPT IN INFANTS AND Children labeled as avoidant often YOUNG CHILDREN exhibit insecurity and detachment in - Children below 15 months preschool, struggling to express typically do not touch their feelings about separation at age six. noses, unlike two-year-olds Conversely, securely attached who start recognizing preschoolers tend to display higher differences in their self-esteem, show greater sensitivity appearance. Infants seem to to the needs of their peers and are develop a visual more popular. The security of self-concept between 15 and attachment predicts a range of 24 months. In toddler years, behaviors in later childhood, children categorize including self-control, peer themselves based on acceptance, classroom behavior, and dimensions like age and academic achievement. Children gender. Early childhood with a disorganized attachment style self-descriptions focus on in infancy are likely to be perceived concrete elements such as by teachers as impulsive, disruptive, group membership, and aggressive, especially if they possessions, abilities, and also have below-average intellectual appearance. abilities. SELF-CONCEPT IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE Lesson 6. Development in Social Cognition - Around the age of eight, children start defining themselves based on The evolving nature of children's friendships internal attributes, focusing can be attributed to their emotional and on their abilities, motivational development, such as an preferences, and personality increasing concern on intimacy and a traits. This self-concept heightened capacity to navigate the involves comparisons with challenges within relationships. Additionally, peers, such as being good at Children’s friendships also change as their certain subjects or activities. understanding of themselves, others and In adolescence, relationships — that is, their social cognition self-representations become — develops. Fitness and Case (2003) assert more nuanced, with that emotions play an integral role in shaping individuals expressing the social mind and that further subtleties about their inner consideration of the social functions of thoughts and outward emotions can enrich our understanding of behaviors. For instance, a 17-year-old described PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS herself as outwardly shy but - children follow moral rules either to internally engaged and avoid punishment (stage 1) or to expressive in certain social obtain reward (stage 2). A situations. preconventional child might conclude that Heinz should steal the drug ‘if he likes having his wife Lesson 7. Moral Development around’. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF SECOND LEVEL - CONVENTIONAL MORAL DEVELOPMENT MORALITY - Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral - children (and adults whose moral development consists of three levels, reasoning remains conventional) each with two stages. To assess define what is right and wrong by moral development, he presented the standards they have learned individuals with hypothetical from other people, particularly dilemmas, such as the famous Heinz respected authorities such as their and the druggist scenario, where parents. People with conventional they had to choose between morality justify their choice of moral breaking the law and helping actions on the basis of their desire to someone in need. Kohlberg used gain the approval or avoid the these dilemmas to understand and disapproval of others (stage 3) or on categorize individuals based on their the need to maintain law and order moral reasoning and (e.g., ‘if everyone stole whenever he decision-making processes. wanted to, what would this world come to?’) (stage 4) The scenario involves a woman in THIRD LEVEL - POSTCONVENTIONAL Europe facing life-threatening cancer, MORALITY with a potentially life-saving drug - views the values of the time as available. The drug, a recently conventions — rules established by discovered form of radium, is social contract rather than by any expensive to produce, and the local absolute or divine power — and druggist charges ten times its cost. The woman's husband, Heinz, cannot hence as both potentially fallible and afford the full price and attempts to changeable. Virtually all normal borrow money but can only gather children progress to the conventional half. Despite pleading with the level of morality (stage 3) by the age druggist to lower the price or allow of 13. Beyond stages 3 and 4, delayed payment, the druggist however, the development of moral refuses, citing his right to profit from reasoning is not related to age and is his discovery. Faced with desperation, Heinz breaks into the store to steal the more a matter of individual drug for his dying wife. The ethical differences and culture question is whether the husband's actions are justified. ! Kohlberg's theory of moral development suggests that individuals progress through FIRST LEVEL - PRECONVENTIONAL three levels: preconventional, conventional, MORALITY and postconventional. At the preconventional PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS level, morality is based on self-interest, while attributed diseases to evil spirits, leading at the conventional level, individuals adhere to trephination, a primitive form of to societal rules. The postconventional level is neurosurgery. The Greeks introduced the characterized by abstract, self-defined humoural theory, linking illness to principles that may not align with societal imbalances in bodily fluids. In the Middle norms. Only about 5 percent of people reach Ages, diseases were often viewed as the postconventional level, where moral divine punishment, and medical treatments were influenced by religious values are viewed as social conventions and beliefs. subject to change. The theory emphasizes that moral reasoning development is not The Renaissance marked a shift with strictly age-related but influenced by advancements in anatomy, microscopy, individual differences and culture. and dissection, discrediting the humoural theory. Cartesian dualism separated the mind and body, emphasizing biological causes. The biomedical model dominated medicine, focusing on individual cell abnormalities and neglecting psychological and social factors. Sigmund Freud challenged the biomedical model, suggesting some illnesses stemmed from unconscious conflicts. Psychosomatic medicine emerged, linking psychological issues to physiological changes. Critics argued for a more complex understanding involving genetic predispositions and environmental stressors. Health psychology arose, emphasizing MODULE 9 HEALTH, STRESS AND COPING the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in health and illness. Lesson 1. Health Psychology Changing illness patterns, with preventable causes like smoking, underscored the importance of health HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY behavior. Death rates for major health - devoted to understanding issues improved, but lifestyle choices psychological influences on how remained key contributors. Health people stay healthy, why they psychologists now play a vital role in promoting health, preventing illness, and become ill and how they respond assisting individuals and families dealing when they do get ill. with chronic conditions in both medical and public settings. HISTORY OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY The history of medical theories has evolved over time. Early beliefs PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS he, too, is likely to develop lung cancer or some other smoking-related illness. b. OPTIMISTIC BIAS - by which they believe that they are far less likely than other people to contract particular illnesses. Thus, Health psychologists are involved in they rate their own level of examining behavioral and psychological susceptibility lower than factors that place individuals at risk for they rate that of others. illness - E.g. George may believe that, even though his uncle WELLBEING died of lung cancer, his own - defined as the state of being chances of yielding to the comfortable, healthy or happy. An same fate are remote. individual’s health and wellbeing is multidimensional, with c. PERCEIVED SERIOUSNESS OR environmental, social, biological, SEVERITY OF THE HEALTH lifestyle, spiritual, vocational, THREAT societal and socioeconomic factors - an individual’s perception of all. the impact a particular - not merely living a life free of illness illness would have on her life. or disease; it reflects a combination For example, the more pain of factors related to quality of and discomfort associated relationships, life satisfaction and with a health threat, the happiness more severe it is perceived to be. THEORIES OF HEALTH BEHAVIOR 1. HEALTH BELIEF MODEL 2. PROTECTION MOTIVATION - suggests that health THEORY OF HEALTH behaviors are predicted by - during the 1980s, the health four factors: belief model was modified to include the component of a. PERCEIVED SUSCEPTIBILITY self-efficacy, a person’s - refers to a person’s belief in her ability to perception that he is likely to successfully undertake a contract a particular illness particular action or - E.g. George had an uncle behaviour. With the addition who recently died from lung of self-efficacy, the health cancer after years of belief model assumed a new smoking cigarettes. George name: the protection is also a smoker and, since motivation theory of health. his uncle’s death, he believes that if he continues to smoke 3. THEORY OF REASONED ACTION PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS - takes a social–cognitive their behavior in the near view towards health future. They may also be behaviors, broadly stating unaware that a problem that behaviors stem from exists. behavioral intentions. Behavioral intentions are a b. CONTEMPLATION function of 137 two - At this stage, people are components: aware that a problem exists and are considering taking a. ATTITUDES action soon but are not yet - represent the beliefs one has committed to that action. that a particular behaviour will produce a particular outcome and one’s c. PREPARATION evaluation of those - During this stage, people are outcomes’ preparing to make behavioral change in the b. SUBJECTIVE NORMS next month or so and are - reflect someone’s perception making small changes of how significant other already that will help them individuals will view the achieve their goal. behaviour and the motivation to comply with d. ACTION the desires of those others. - This stage usually lasts approximately six months 4. THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR and is when people are - includes all the components actively working on of the theory of reasoned behavioral change. action plus self-efficacy, sometimes referred to as e. MAINTENANCE perceived behavioral - People in this stage have control. achieved their desired behaviour change and are 5. THE TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL working to maintain this. - an integrative approach to behavioral change and HEALTH - COMPROMISING BEHAVIORS theorizes that people’s readiness to change is a key OBESITY determinant of change. - not only a pervasive problem in People cycle — and can industrialized countries today, but it recycle — through five is also one of the leading stages of change: contributors to preventable deaths a. PRECONTEMPLATION TREATMENT - Dieting has been and - People in this stage are not still is the most common step in even considering changing treating obesity PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS any formal method of CIGARETTE SMOKING intervention - the single most preventable cause of - Rehabilitation center illness, disability and premature 1. detoxification or the death in much of the world. Smoking process of drying is a risk factor for heart disease, lung out cancer, emphysema, bronchitis and other respiratory problems, and Lesson 2. Barriers to Health Promotion cancers of the mouth, bladder, esophagus and pancreas - Smoking poses risks not only to GENDER smokers but also to those exposed to - Gender plays a significant role as an second-hand smoke, known as individual barrier in health passive smokers. Passive smoking behaviors. Research indicates that increases the risk of lung cancer and women are more inclined towards heart disease, earning it the preventive and health-promoting designation as the third leading behaviors compared to men, making cause of preventable death. being a woman a strong predictor of such behaviors. Men are more likely TREATMENT - Taxes on cigarettes to engage in risky health behaviors, have increased with the idea of like smoking and driving while making smoking prohibitively intoxicated. They are also less prone expensive for many, particularly to self-care when sick and are less adolescents whose funds are already likely to seek medical attention. limited. Women tend to have a more realistic perception of their risk of illness, ALCOHOL ABUSE potentially contributing to the - remains a leading cause of death contrast in risk-taking behaviors - A person is identified as having between men and women. alcohol dependence (commonly referred to as alcoholism) when he or FAMILY BARRIERS she is physiologically dependent on - Health habits are acquired early, and alcohol, and, therefore, shows one of the primary models of health withdrawal symptoms when no behaviour is parents or caregivers. alcohol has been consumed. Children tend to mimic the health - Damage to the liver is one of the behaviors they observe in their most obvious physiological effects of parents or siblings. For instance, if excessive alcohol consumption over parents smoke or abuse alcohol, time. In fact, excess alcohol their children are more likely to consumption over time is the leading adopt similar habits. Similarly, cause of liver damage and death children of parents who engage infrequently in exercise are more TREATMENT prone to lead sedentary lifestyles - Spontaneous remission - themselves. The influence of parental greatly reduce their alcohol models plays a crucial role in the intake on their own, without PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS development of health behaviors in Lesson 3. Stress children. STRESS - a challenge to a person’s capacity to HEALTH SYSTEM BARRIERS adapt to inner and outer demands - Doctors typically receive training to - is a psychobiological process, with concentrate on treating illnesses both physiological and psychological rather than promoting overall health. components and consequences Even when inquiring about a patient's history leading to illness, An early contribution to the understanding of the emphasis remains on treating stress was Walter Cannon’s (1932) description the specific ailment rather than of the fight-or-flight response, in which an addressing potentially contributing organism prepares for danger with endocrine negative health habits. The issue is and sympathetic nervous system activation exacerbated by the common tendency for individuals to consult a STRESS AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS doctor only when already unwell. This practice is problematic as it Hans Selye conducted experiments aiming to overlooks the opportunity to detect study a new sex hormone but unexpectedly and address conditions early, and found that various stress-inducing factors, preventive visits could provide a including injections of different substances, platform for discussing both fatigue, and extreme cold, triggered a health-compromising and consistent physiological response in rats. Thi health-promoting behaviors. response, termed the general adaptation syndrome, comprises three stages: alarm, COMMUNITY, CULTURAL AND ETHNIC resistance, and exhaustion. BARRIERS - Community norms significantly impact individuals' willingness to ALARM adopt preventive health behaviors - involves the release of adrenalin and and discontinue negative health other hormones such as cortisol as habits. Environments endorsing well as activation of the sympathetic alcohol use may influence people to nervous system. This is what occurs initiate or continue alcohol biologically in fight-or-flight consumption. The shift toward responses: blood pressure, heart smoke-free work settings has rate, respiration and blood sugar rise decreased smoking rates at work, as blood is diverted from the and the promotion of fitness centers gastrointestinal tract to muscles and within companies has established other parts of the body that may be new norms for physical activity. Fit called upon for an emergency workers contribute to financial response benefits for the company, including reduced absenteeism and turnover. RESISTANCE - The parasympathetic nervous system returns respiration and heart PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS rate to normal. However, blood glucose levels remain high (for 2. THREAT energy) and some stress-related - or anticipation of harm or hormones (including adrenaline and loss. cortisol) continue to circulate at elevated levels. 3. CHALLENGE - opportunities for growth EXHAUSTION that may nonetheless be - Physiological defenses break down, fraught with disruption and resulting in greatly increased uncertainty vulnerability to serious or even life-threatening disease. Organs such SOURCES OF STRESS as the heart that are vulnerable genetically or environmentally (from STRESSORS smoking, too much lifelong - Events that often lead to stress cholesterol intake etc.) are the first to go during this stage. LIFE EVENTS - One of the most significant sources STRESS AS A TRANSACTIONAL PROCESS of stress is change. Virtually any event that requires someone to Richard Lazarus developed his transactional model of stress. According to make a readjustment can be a this view, stress is typically a transaction stressor. The Holmes–Rahe scale between the individual and the measures stress related to 43 environment. Stress entails an individual’s common life events that require perception that demands of the change and adaptation. An environment tax or exceed her available important feature of the psychosocial resources. That is, stress Holmes–Rahe scale is that it includes depends on the meaning of an event to the individual. both negative items (e.g., death of a spouse) and positive items (e.g., marriage) that can be stressful. 2 STAGES IN THE PROCESS OF STRESS AND COPING CATASTROPHES - are stressors of massive proportions PRIMARY APPRAISAL caused by nature, such as tsunami, - the person decides whether the or by humans, such as the civil wars situation is benign, stressful or irrelevant DAILY HASSLES SECONDARY APPRAISAL - are ‘the irritating, frustrating, - the person evaluates the options and distressing demands that to some decides how to respond degree characterize everyday transactions with the environment. Lazarus distinguishes 3 types of stress STRESS AND HEALTH 1. HARM/LOSS - Stressful events obviously can have - as when a person loses a a substantial impact on loved one or something psychological well being greatly valued, such as a job PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS Stress can also affect other psychological functions, such as COPING (COPING MECHANISMS) memory. Stress interferes with the - This resiliency in the face of stress functioning of both of these reflects the ways people deal with structures: prefrontal cortex and stressful situations hippocampus. Chronic stress leads to - are the ways people deal with permanent cell death and a stressful events reduction in the size of the hippocampus 1. Problem-focused coping involves Extreme stress in a child’s social changing the situation. environment, such as abuse or 2. Emotion-focused coping aims to neglect, can alter gene expression. regulate the emotion generated by a Biological changes in the brain can stressful situation lead to mental and physical disorders, emotional dysregulation, SOCIAL SUPPORT behavioral difficulties, and - refers to the presence of others in disorganization and dysfunction of whom a person can confide and neural systems in the brain. from whom the individual can expect People under stress often suffer from help and concern. In humans and headaches, depression and other other primates, lack of social health problems such as influenza, support predicts disease and sore throat and backache. mortality. THE BUFFERING HYPOTHESIS Stress impacts health both directly and indirectly. Directly, it can reduce the body's - proposes that social support ability to fight illness. Indirectly, stress protects people against the harmful may prompt behaviors that weaken effects of acute stress. An alternative defenses or expose the body to harmful hypothesis suggests that social agents. Individuals under stress often support is a continuously positive engage in unhealthy behaviors such as force that makes the person less increased alcohol consumption, smoking, susceptible to stress. reduced sleep, and less exercise compared to their non-stressed counterparts. Lesson 5 The Future of Health Psychoneuroimmunology explores how Psychology psychosocial factors impact the immune system. Stress can negatively affect physical health directly by weakening the The future of health psychology is poised for immune system and indirectly by advancement, focusing on promoting influencing behaviors that compromise the positive health behaviors and aiding body's defenses or expose it to pathogens. individuals in coping with the consequences Personality factors, including negative affect (neuroticism), hostility, suppressed of illness and health-compromising hostility, and pessimism, contribute to behaviors. Technological innovations, stress levels and influence overall health. particularly computer-based services, will play a crucial role in enhancing the efficiency of health psychologists' services. The use of Lesson 4. Coping computers allows clients to access health PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS information, such as pain management, - include the wide range of emotional remotely. Health psychologists are and behavioral abnormalities that increasingly utilizing the internet to provide affect people throughout their lives information on health prevention. Additionally, they will be involved in guiding MENTAL DISORDER individuals on distinguishing between - the existence of a clinically medically sound advice and myths available recognizable set of symptoms and online. behaviors, which usually need treatments (including hospitalization at times) to be alleviated. A mental disorder can be considered as a MODULE 10 serious departure from normal PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND functioning — behavior that causes TREATMENT distress to the individual and impairs their ability to function as usual. Lesson 1. The Cultural Context of Lesson 3. Contemporary Approaches to Psychopathology Psychopathology PSYCHOPATHOLOGY PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE - problematic patterns of thought, feeling or behavior that disrupt an Psychodynamic theorists distinguish individual’s sense of wellbeing or three broad classes of psychopathology that social or occupational functioning form a continuum of functioning, from the least to the most disturbed: neuroses, LABELLING THEORY personality disorders and psychoses. - similarly argues that diagnosis is a way of stigmatizing deviants. Both 1. NEUROSES approaches have some validity but - problems in living, such as understate the realities of mental phobias, constant self-doubt illness. and repetitive interpersonal problems such as trouble Lesson 2. Mental Health and Mental with authority figures. Disorders Neurotic problems occur in most, if not all, people at different points in their lives MENTAL HEALTH and usually do not stop - a state of emotional and social them from functioning wellbeing in which individuals realize reasonably well. their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work 2. PERSONALITY DISORDERS productively and can contribute to - characterized by enduring their community maladaptive patterns of thought, feeling and MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS behavior that lead to chronic disturbances in PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS interpersonal and treatment addresses problems involving occupational functioning. emotionally charged stimuli. Alternatively, a People with personality cognitive perspective explores disorders often have psychopathology through dysfunctional difficulty maintaining cognitions, like low self-efficacy and meaningful relationships negative self-perceptions. Clinicians target and employment, interpret irrational beliefs and maladaptive cognitive interpersonal events in processes perpetuating dysfunctional highly distorted ways, and behavior and emotions. For instance, may be chronically depressed individuals exhibit heightened vulnerable to depression and attention to negative words, while those with anxiety. anxiety disorders notice potential threats and interpret ambiguous information 3. PSYCHOSES negatively. Personality disorder patients are - gross disturbances involving particularly sensitive to threatening a loss of touch with reality. A interpersonal events, such as ridicule or person who is psychotic may abandonment. hear voices telling him to kill himself or believe (without BIOLOGICAL APPROACH good reason) that the secret service is trying to In understanding psychopathology, mental assassinate him. Neurotic health professionals often transition from a symptoms (such as phobias) psychological to a physiological perspective. may occur in more severely Practitioners across theoretical frameworks disturbed individuals, and assess patients for potential biological psychotic states can occur contributions to their symptoms, including episodically (i.e., genetic vulnerabilities and childhood head periodically, in discrete injuries. The biological approach focuses on episodes) in people who are the brain's circuitry as the source of mental otherwise relatively healthy. disorders, examining neural circuits, such as Many people with bipolar the amygdala and frontal lobes, to disorder (manic depression), understand conditions like anxiety. The for example, are largely diathesis–stress model, embraced by various unimpaired between theorists, suggests that individuals with an episodes. underlying vulnerability, whether biological or environmental, may exhibit symptoms COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE under stress, with upsetting adult events activating these vulnerabilities. In clinical psychology, practitioners often identify as cognitive-behavioral, combining SYSTEMS APPROACH classical and operant conditioning with a cognitive-social perspective. They focus on Most systems clinicians adopt a family specific processes, such as pre-anxiety systems model, which views an individual’s thoughts or physiological symptoms symptoms as symptoms of dysfunction in the associated with conditioned emotional family. In other words, the identified patient responses. From a behavioral standpoint, (the person identified as the one who needs PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS help) is the symptom bearer (the person Lesson 4. Descriptive Diagnosis: The displaying the family’s difficulties), but the DSM real problem lies in the family, not primarily in the individual. For instance, disruptions in a child's behavior at school may be linked to Descriptive diagnosis involves categorizing marital problems in the parents, with the mental disorders based on clinical child serving as a symptom bearer for the syndromes, which are clusters of symptoms family's difficulties. Marital problems are typically occurring together. Before the found to exacerbate various psychological 1950s, there was no standardized set of and physical conditions. diagnoses, leading to varied terminology and a lack of empirical investigation. The Family systems theorists identify family introduction of the Diagnostic and Statistical homoeostatic mechanisms, methods used by Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) by the family members to maintain equilibrium, American Psychiatric Association in 1994, such as managing tension levels or now in its fifth edition (DSM-5), provided a preserving a marriage. Psychological common framework for researchers and symptoms are seen as dysfunctional efforts clinicians to make diagnoses. The DSM-5, to cope with disturbances in the family, released in 2013, brought significant changes where the individual plays a role in to diagnostic categories. alleviating tension. 3 SECTIONS OF DSM-5 The focus extends to family organization, including roles, boundaries, and alliances. 1. The first section offers instructions Family roles involve individuals playing parts on how to use the manual; in repetitive family interactions, and while 2. The second offers classifications for role-playing is common, it becomes mental disorders; pathological in certain contexts. Role 3. The third section is based on other reversal, where a child takes on the caregiver disorders for which there is role for a parent, is noted, especially among preliminary scientific evidence but those with a history of abuse, emerging as more research is required before early as the preschool years. formal classification EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE Descriptive diagnosis, exemplified by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Evolutionary psychologists offer three Disorders (DSM), provides a standardized explanations for psychopathology: first, as method for diagnosing mental disorders, random variations susceptible to elimination transcending theoretical orientations. through natural selection; second, as Despite its attempt at an atheoretical outcomes of population pressures favoring approach, even descriptive diagnosis is not specific gene rates, functional or entirely free from theoretical biases. The dysfunctional based on individual gene DSM-IV, following a disease model of combinations; and third, as maladaptive psychopathology, categorized disorders tuning of typically adaptive psychological narrowly, often resulting in diagnoses labeled mechanisms due to environmental factors. as 'not otherwise specified' (NOS) due to - overlapping symptoms. The DSM-5 maintains a categorical classification but introduces PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS changes based on current research, offering struggling with a specific life event without a broader range of disorders. an Axis II diagnosis. Despite the inclusion of intellectual disability, researchers often Unlike the DSM-IV multiaxial system that treated "Axis II" and "personality disorders" considered biological and social contexts, as synonymous, as personality disorders DSM-5 combines axes into a non-axial were more common in psychiatric system, emphasizing a dimensional populations. approach. This recognizes that mental disorders exist on a continuum of severity, DSM CONTROVERSIES and symptoms often overlap across The original DSM faced criticism for diagnostic groups. The move towards a diagnosing schizophrenia with dimensional perspective aims to capture the questionable validity and relying complexity of mental disorders and heavily on unsupported acknowledges the influence of various psychoanalytic terminology. factors, including medical conditions and DSM-II stirred controversy by environmental stressors. classifying homosexuality as a Axis I - clinical syndromes for which a sexual deviation, leading to its patient seeks treatment, such as depression removal in the 1973 reprint due to or schizophrenia. social and academic backlash. Axis II - personality disorders and mental DSM-III, released in 1980, was retardation (now termed intellectual considered a significant step disability in DSM5). forward, though concerns were Axis III - general medical conditions that raised about the medicalization of may have been relevant to understanding the new system. the person’s psychopathology (such as DSM-IV faced criticism for its diabetes or hypothyroidism, which can affect increased size and number of mood). diagnostic categories, reaching Axis IV - psychosocial and environmental almost 900 pages in 1994. stressors (life events such as the death of a The linkage between diagnosis and family member that could be contributing to funding for services became more emotional problems). apparent, raising concerns among Axis V - patient’s current level of functioning clinicians, consumers, and (on a scale of 0 to 100) and the highest level community groups. of functioning the patient had attained DSM-5, while not significantly larger during the past year. than DSM-IV, collapsed some disorders and separated major The distinction between Axis I and Axis II in depressive and manic episodes from the multiaxial system of diagnosis was based their corresponding disorders. on the assumption that Axis I represented Two controversies surrounded the state disorders, reflecting the patient's release of DSM-5: the integration of current condition, while Axis II captured trait autism spectrum disorders and the disorders, representing enduring issues with removal of the bereavement the person's functioning. For example, a criterion from major depressive severely depressed individual (Axis I) might episode and disorder. also have an enduring personality disorder Concerns about DSM-5 include contributing to vulnerability or could be potential underdiagnosis for certain PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS individuals and the impact on - Moderately intensive support services due to changes in therapy, one to three times diagnostic criteria. per week, in which the The removal of the bereavement patient discusses issues that criterion in DSM-5 received mixed come to mind while sitting reviews, with debates over its face-to-face with the validity and potential implications therapist for normal grief reactions. COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL - Attempts to change problematic Lesson 5. Treatment of Psychological Disorders behaviors and cognitive processes. SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS - Classical conditioning - defined as the branch of the technique in which the profession that is associated with therapist induces relaxation delivering psychological services in a and encourages the patient health care setting. to approach a phobic - much of the practice takes place in a stimulus gradually in hospital or mental health facility. imagination Much of the work involves assessment of conditions and the EXPOSURE TECHNIQUES development of intervention - Classical conditioning strategies. technique in which the therapist exposes the VARIETIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL patient to the feared object TREATMENTS in real life, either all at once (flooding) or gradually PSYCHODYNAMIC (graded exposure) - Attempts to change personality patterns through insight (using free OPERANT TECHNIQUE association and interpretation) and - Therapeutic approach in the therapist–patient relationship which the therapist induces (analysis of transference). change by altering patterns of reinforcement and PSYCHOANALYSIS punishment - Intensive therapy, three to five times per week, in which PARTICIPATORY MODELLING the patient lies on a couch - Cognitive–social technique and talks about whatever in which the therapist comes to mind, using free models behavior and association encourages the patient to participate in it PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOTHERAPY SKILLS TRAINING PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY FINALS - Cognitive–social technique - Attempts to change problematic in which the therapist brain physiology responsible for teaches behaviors necessary psychological symptoms to accomplish goals, as in social skills or assertiveness training COGNITIVE THERAPY - Therapeutic approach aimed at altering problematic thought patterns that underlie dysfunctional feelings and behavior HUMANISTIC - Attempts to restore a sense of genuineness and attunement with inner feelings GESTALT - Focuses on the ‘here and now’ and brings out disavowed feelings CLIENT-CENTERED - Uses empathy and unconditional positive regard to help patients experience themselves as they really are FAMILY AND MARITAL - Attempts to change problematic family or marital patterns, such as communication patterns, boundaries and alliances GROUP - Attempts to use the group process and group interaction to help people change problematic patterns, either with the help of a therapist or through self-help BIOLOGICAL PRESCILLA ROSE D. OBLEPIAS