Psy 731 Midterm PDF

G.T. Fechner (1801–87) Psychophysics and Scientific Psychology: Fechner is credited with establishing a scientific approach to psychology, particularly through psychophysics, which aimed to quantify the relationship between physical stimuli and mental experiences. Panpsychism...

G.T. Fechner (1801–87) Psychophysics and Scientific Psychology: Fechner is credited with establishing a scientific approach to psychology, particularly through psychophysics, which aimed to quantify the relationship between physical stimuli and mental experiences. Panpsychism and the Mind-Body Connection: Influenced by mysticism, Fechner believed in panpsychism, the idea that mind permeates everything in the universe. He saw a close relationship between mental and physical events, proposing psychophysical parallelism as the framework for understanding this relationship. Inner and Outer Psychophysics: Fechner distinguished between inner psychophysics (the relationship between the brain and experience) and outer psychophysics (the relationship between external events and experiences), focusing primarily on outer psychophysics. Mathematics and Human Experience: Fechner strongly believed in the application of mathematics to both inorganic and living systems, including human experience. He argued that mathematical laws don't negate individual freedom but define the boundaries within which individuals act. Weber's Law and Sensory Measurement: Drawing upon the work of E.H. Weber, Fechner formulated Weber's Law, which describes the relationship between a stimulus magnitude and the change required for a just noticeable difference (JND) in perception. He developed three psychophysical methods to empirically test this law. Quantity Objection: Critics of psychophysics raised the quantity objection, arguing that sensations, unlike physical stimuli, can't be quantified. They proposed that sensations vary in quality but not magnitude. Experimental Aesthetics: Fechner also explored the psychology of beauty, or experimental aesthetics, contrasting the traditional "aesthetics from above" (philosophical and theoretical approaches) with his preferred "aesthetics from below" (empirical observation of spectators' responses to art). Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Founding Father of Experimental Psychology: Wundt is widely regarded as a pivotal figure in the history of psychology, primarily for establishing the first laboratory dedicated to experimental psychology at Leipzig in 1879. This event is often considered the formal beginning of psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. Influence and Eminence: Wundt attracted numerous students from around the world to his laboratory, shaping the future of psychology through their work. His influence, coupled with his pioneering efforts, earned him the top spot in a ranking of the most eminent psychologists by historians of psychology. Two Psychologies: Wundt recognized that a comprehensive understanding of psychology required both experimental and non-experimental methods. ○ He believed that laboratory experimentation was suitable for investigating simple psychological processes, like sensation and perception.  ○ For complex psychological processes such as language, thought, and cultural influences, he advocated for naturalistic observation and analysis of cultural artifacts. This approach led to his development of cultural-historical psychology. Wundt's Experimental Psychology Influence of Chemistry: Wundt's experimental approach drew inspiration from chemistry, particularly the search for basic elements. Just as chemists break down substances into their constituent elements, Wundt aimed to analyze human experience into its fundamental components. Introspection as a Scientific Method: Wundt recognized the potential of introspection—the examination of one's own mental processes—as a method for studying consciousness. However, he was aware of its subjective nature and potential biases. To address these limitations, he emphasized the importance of controlled conditions and rigorous training for participants. Inner Perception: Wundt distinguished between self-observation—casual and prone to bias—and inner perception—a more structured and deliberate observation of one's mental processes under controlled conditions. He considered inner perception as a more reliable form of introspection for scientific inquiry. Metronome Experiment: The sources illustrate Wundt's approach through a metronome experiment. This experiment, replicable with a partner, demonstrates how the same physical stimulus (metronome beats) can lead to different psychological experiences (perceptions of rhythm and associated feelings). It highlights the active role of the mind in shaping our experiences. Apperception: The metronome experiment illustrates the concept of apperception, a central idea in Wundt's psychology. Apperception refers to the process of organizing and making sense of individual sensations into a unified whole. It is an active process that goes beyond the passive reception of sensations, shaping our perception and understanding of the world. Creative Synthesis: Wundt argued that our experience is not merely a sum of individual sensations but a creative synthesis of these elements. Through apperception, we actively combine, organize, and interpret sensations, creating a coherent and meaningful experience. Stages of Experience: Wundt described the flow of experience as a sequence of stages: 1. Apprehension: Individual impressions enter consciousness. 2. Span of Apprehension: The number of impressions we can hold in consciousness at one time, which Wundt estimated to be around six. 3. Apperception: We focus our attention on and process the apprehended impressions, organizing them into a unified whole. Tridimensional Theory of Feeling: Wundt investigated emotions using variations in the metronome's rhythm. He proposed a tridimensional theory of feeling, suggesting that any feeling can be mapped along three dimensions:  1. Pleasantness-Unpleasantness 2. Tension-Relaxation 3. Excitement-Depression Emotion as a Central Aspect of Mental Life: Unlike some other psychologists who focused primarily on cognitive processes, Wundt considered emotion as a fundamental aspect of all mental life. He believed that emotions influence our perceptions, thoughts, and actions. Volition (Will) and Emotion: Wundt saw a close relationship between volition (acts of will) and emotion. He argued that volitional acts are often driven by emotions, distinguishing between impulsive acts (based on a single, strong emotion) and voluntary acts (arising from conflicting emotions and requiring deliberation). Wundt Curve: This curve describes the relationship between the intensity of a stimulus and its pleasantness. It proposes an inverted U-shaped relationship, where moderate stimulus intensities are generally the most pleasant. This concept has implications for understanding aesthetics, preferences, and the appeal of novelty. Psychophysical Parallelism: Wundt, like Fechner, believed in psychophysical parallelism—the idea that mental and physical events occur together. However, he argued against a strict point-for-point correspondence between mental and physical events. He emphasized that mental events have their own laws of organization and cannot be entirely reduced to physiological explanations. Cultural-Historical Psychology Beyond the Laboratory: Wundt acknowledged the limitations of experimental methods for studying complex mental processes shaped by culture and history. This realization led him to develop cultural-historical psychology. Study of Cultural Artifacts: Wundt's cultural psychology focused on studying the products of human culture, such as language, myths, art, religion, and social customs. He believed these artifacts provided insights into the collective mind and the higher mental processes that are not easily accessible through individual introspection. Language as a Cultural Product: Wundt considered language as a particularly important cultural artifact, reflecting a culture's thought processes. He proposed a theory of language production and comprehension based on the concept of apperception, where speaking and understanding involve moving between general ideas and specific words. Rejection of Child Development as a Method: Wundt rejected the study of child development as a way to understand the development of thought. He argued that children develop within specific cultures, making their development a product of those cultures rather than a universal process. Wundt's Legacy Reactions and Reinterpretations: Wundt's work faced criticism and reinterpretation, with some later psychologists distorting or rejecting his ideas.  Renewed Appreciation for Cultural Psychology: In recent times, there has been a resurgence of interest in Wundt's cultural psychology. Modern scholars recognize its significance in emphasizing the influence of social and historical factors on the human mind. Other Psychologists of the Time The sources also briefly discuss other prominent psychologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries: Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909): ○ Experimental Study of Memory: Pioneered experimental studies of learning and memory using nonsense syllables to control for prior knowledge. ○ Forgetting Curve: Developed the concept of the forgetting curve, demonstrating that forgetting is most rapid immediately after learning and then slows down. ○ Remote Associations: Proposed the idea of remote associations, suggesting that associations are formed not just between adjacent items in a list but also between distant ones. Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930): ○ Paired Associates Method: Invented the paired associates method, a technique still used today to study learning and memory. Franz Brentano (1838–1917): ○ Act Psychology: Focused on mental acts (e.g., judging, sensing, loving) and their intentionality—their directedness towards an object. His work laid the foundation for phenomenological psychology. The Würzburg School: ○ Systematic Experimental Introspection: Emphasized the study of complex mental processes using a form of introspection called systematic experimental introspection, or retrospection. ○ Imageless Thoughts: Challenged the assumption that all thought involves imagery by suggesting the existence of imageless thoughts. ○ Determining Tendencies: Introduced the concept of determining tendencies, unconscious mental sets that guide our thinking based on the task at hand. The Renaissance, meaning "rebirth," marked a renewed interest in classical ideas and a questioning of medieval thought. This questioning spirit, as described by historian Alexandre Koyré, led to doubt and a search for new foundations of knowledge. René Descartes (1596–1650), a key figure of this era, sought to establish a foundation for knowledge through rationalism. He famously doubted everything until he arrived at the undeniable truth: "I think, therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum). This realization formed the basis of his philosophy, emphasizing the mind's capacity for reason. Descartes believed that clear and distinct ideas, including innate ideas, originate from God, contrasting with the empiricist view.  Descartes' dualism proposed a separation of the mind and body, with the mind being immortal and the body a mechanical entity. He suggested the pineal gland as the point of interaction between these two distinct substances. This model, though influential, presented the mind as a "ghost in the machine," as philosopher Gilbert Ryle later described it. Descartes' mechanistic view of the body compared it to a machine, influencing thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, who saw bodily functions as analogous to springs, strings, and wheels. This perspective led to attempts to simulate human behavior through machines, like Jacques de Vaucanson's mechanical duck. However, Descartes believed human language and adaptability set us apart from machines and animals. He considered animals to be complex machines lacking souls. The source highlights three questions arising from Descartes' ideas: ○ Can machines truly replicate human behavior? ○ Are there fundamental differences between humans and other organisms? ○ What ethical considerations should guide animal research? Darwin Early Life and Influences: Darwin's early life, like those of many innovators, was marked by both privilege and loss. His family's intellectual tradition provided him with a foundation, while the death of his mother at a young age may have fostered independence. His time at Cambridge, though seemingly typical of many undergraduates, potentially provided a framework for his future work. The Voyage of the Beagle (1831-1836): Darwin's voyage on the Beagle was a pivotal period where he served as a naturalist, observing diverse species and geological formations. This experience gradually replaced his initial passion for hunting with a deeper appreciation for observation and reasoning about the natural world. Influence of Charles Lyell: Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, which argued for an ancient Earth shaped by natural forces, had a significant impact on Darwin. Lyell's ideas provided a historical context for understanding changes in species distribution over time, leading Darwin to consider how populations adapt to their environments. Darwin's Finches and the Galapagos Islands: The Galapagos Islands, particularly Darwin's observations of finch species with distinct beak adaptations, are often associated with his theory of evolution. However, it's crucial to note that Darwin didn't formulate his theory during the voyage. While the finches later became a compelling example of evolution, they weren't initially central to his thinking. Development of the Theory of Evolution: Upon returning to England, Darwin grappled with various ideas about species change. Jean Baptiste Lamarck's theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, though influential at the time, was ultimately  superseded by Darwin's theory. Influence of Thomas Malthus: Thomas Malthus's work on population growth, particularly his argument that population increases geometrically while food supply increases arithmetically, profoundly influenced Darwin. Malthus's ideas highlighted the concept of competition for limited resources, which became a cornerstone of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Natural Selection: Darwin's theory of evolution, published in On the Origin of Species (1859), centers on the principle of natural selection, or the survival of the fittest. This theory posits that individuals within a species exhibit variations, and those with advantageous traits are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on those traits. This process, occurring over generations, leads to the evolution of new species. Darwin vs. Lamarck: It's important to distinguish Darwin's theory from Lamarck's. While Lamarck believed that acquired traits during an organism's lifetime could be inherited, Darwin proposed that variations are random and those proving beneficial are "selected" naturally through differential survival and reproduction. Alfred Russel Wallace and the Publication of Darwin's Theory: In 1858, Alfred Russel Wallace independently developed a theory of evolution strikingly similar to Darwin's. This prompted Darwin to finally publish his ideas, which he had been developing for over two decades. They jointly presented their findings to the Linnean Society in 1858. Darwin's Impact on Psychology: Darwin's ideas revolutionized not only biology but also had a profound and lasting impact on psychology. His work led to the development of comparative psychology, emphasizing the study of animals to understand human behavior. The concept of individual differences, central to Darwin's theory, also became a significant area of study in psychology. His work further influenced research on emotion, instincts, sexuality, and child development. Central questions in psychology 1. Where does knowledge come from? 2. Is the mind separate from the body? Epistemology - Branch of philosophy concerned with theories of how we acquire knowledge - Addresses where knowledge comes from Theories - Nativism: notion that some knowledge is innate - Empiricism: knowledge is acquired via experience  - Rationalism: reason is the source of knowledge (mind has innate capacity to organize info from the senses/ senses are insufficient for knowledge) - Authority: we apply all of our knowledge from a perceived higher power Mind-body problem - Is the mind separate from the brain? - Monism, dualism, pluralism Monism: one fundamental reality, everything is related and completely interconnected. Mind and body are connected and the same - Materialism: all real things are composed of matter. Hence mental activity is reduced to physical, chemical or physiological processes. Pavlov, Helmholtz, Watson. Mind=body - Idealism: mental experience is all that matters. The only reality we have access to is our mental reality. Plato, Leibniz, Berkeley, Fechner. Only mind. Dualism: two realities, mind and body are not one. - Interactionism: mental and physical events are real. Mental events influence other mental and body events, and vice versa. Separate but related. - Psychophysical parallelism: mental and physical events are real. Mental events influence mental events, physical events influence physical events, do not influence each other. Completely separate.