PSC 403J Full Study Guide PDF

1) How are the terms "political ethics" and "political corruption" similar and different? Political ethics: ○ focuses on principles rather than subjective facts - moral principles & standards that guide behavior of political actors (eg - politicians or pub officials)...

1) How are the terms "political ethics" and "political corruption" similar and different? Political ethics: ○ focuses on principles rather than subjective facts - moral principles & standards that guide behavior of political actors (eg - politicians or pub officials) Political corruption: (depends on the focus - academic, practical, institutional) - Violation of ethical standards through dishonest/unethical actions for personal gains Similarities: Both involve norms & standards; Both concepts have impact of governance; both involve moral judgment Differences: (nature) Poli Ethics sets standards and poli corruption is a deviation from these standards; (focus) focus on promoting virtuous behavior vs. focus on unethical behavior; (outcome) fosters trust, legitimacy, stronger democratic institutions vs. weakens governance, increases ineq, and can lead to poli instability 2) List and describe the different areas of study in political ethics. Process ○ Which focuses on public officials, and the methods and practices that are involved in political decision-making Transparency & Accountability; Corruption & Integrity; Participation & Representation; Policy Implementation Policy ○ Ethical implications of specific policies and their outcomes Social Justice; Human RIghts; Public Welfare; Environmental Policy Political ○ Ethical dimensions of political behavior and the conduct of individuals and groups within the political sphere Political Leadership; Political Campaign,; Civic Responsibility; Political Discourse 3) Explain the difference between the conceptual definition and the measurement (operational definition) of a concept. Conceptual:  ○ Specifies the meaning of a term, but remains abstract. In this case, political ideology is def as a person’s “set of beliefs about the appropriate roles and goals of government” Operational: ○ assigning numerical values to a concept to enable measurement and comparison (e.g. - Political Ideology - measured using #’s; 1-very lib & 7 - very conservative) 4) Explain what we mean when we say a measure is reliable and valid. (Make sure you clarify the difference between reliability and validity here) Reliable: ○ A measurement is so if it gives consistent and same results over time (consistency over time is key) Validity: ○ A measurement is so if it accurately measures what it is supposed to (e.g.- if a poli ideology measure doesn’t align w/how people perceive ideology, it may not be valid) 5) Identify two potential causes of corruption and explain how and why they cause corruption. Concentration of Power ○ When power is heavily concentrated in the hands of a few or elites w/out effective checks and balances, those indiv’s have more opportunities to abuse their authority Lack of oversight→indiv’s w/power can engage in corrupt practices (embezzling funds, accepting bribes, or using their position for personal enrichment). W/out accountability, leaders are incentivized to prioritize their self interest over pub service Weak Institutions ○ Weak institutions fail to enforce laws, allowing corrupt activities to go unchecked. In countries w/fragile institutions, corrupt indiv’s are less likely to be prosecuted 6) What are the unique consequences of corruption in democratic political systems? Politically: ○ erodes trust in institutions & undermines democracy Economically: ○ depletes national wealth by misallocating resources and discouraging fair markets (discourages econ growth) Socially: ○ damages social cohesion, fostering frustration & apathy among citizens  Environmentally: ○ it allows for harmful projects and unchecked exploitation, particularly in developing countries Overall, it undermines democratic principles, distorts electoral processes, erodes public trust, and weakens institutional checks and balances 7) How are the consequences of corruption unique in developing economies? Stifles economic growth ○ In dev countries, corruption diverts pub resources from essential developmental projects ○ Developing economies depend heavily on pub resources to drive growth and improve living standards Increases poverty and inequality ○ In dev countries, Corruption exacerbates poverty by diverting much needed resources ○ Corruption further concentrates wealth in the hands of elites, increasing inequality. The poor suffer disproportionately from lack of access to basic services Weakens governance ○ In dev countries, Corruption undermines state institutions by undermining their capacity to provide services and enforce laws ○ Weak governance makes it harder to maintain law and order, provide essential services, or collect taxes Discourages foreign investment ○ In dev countries, it can do that and it can undermine effectiveness of foreign aid ○ Investors are reluctant to put money into countries where bribery, extortion, or regulatory inefficiency are widespread, limiting the flow of capital needed for their development. ○ Foreign aid meant to improve development outcomes is often siphoned off by corrupt officials, reducing its effectiveness and making donors hesitant to provide further assistance Can lead to political instability ○ In dev countries, corruption can fuel political instability and unrest by eroding governmental trust & exacerbating social tensions, which can spread widespread disillusionment, which can manifest in social protests, coups, or violent uprisings In short in dev econ’s, corruption stifles economic growth, increases poverty and inequality, weakens governance, discourages foreign investment, and can lead to political instability.  8) Explain the strengths and weaknesses of Transparency International’s GCB measure of corruption. GCB: Global Corruption Barometer Focuses on ordinary citizens’ perceptions of corruption, involving over 160,000 people across 117 countries. It has potential reliability issues, such as urban sampling bias and incomplete data for certain countries Strengths: Valuable tool for assessing public perceptions of corruption on a global scale, and it provides insights into how citizens experience corruption in their daily lives (Useful for identifying trends and public sentiment) Weaknesses: It has limitations due to its reliance on subjective perceptions, potential urban sampling bias, and incomplete data for certain countries Must be interpreted cautiously, w/an understanding that perceptions may not always align w/actual levels of corruption 9) Identify the best measurement (NOT definition) of corruption that we’ve discussed in class and explain why you think it is the strongest. Be sure to address reliability and validity. I might have to go with CPI, the Corruption Perception Index because it uses businesspeople and country analysts and those people might be able to recognize and identify corruption better than say ordinary citizens which the GCB focuses on. It also includes both local and external perspectives to capture different dimensions of corruption. That being said, since it takes data from potential higher ups in society, it might be more prone to corrupt practices, especially if the international organizations/groups they are in are trying to promote a specific agenda or idea. The CPI has high reliability and validity but also has limitations since not all groups cover every country. 10) Define legitimacy and explain how corruption can negatively affect it. Legitimacy: general belief by the public that a gov, poli sys, or auth is right, just/has moral/legal right to govern. It is critical for maintaining order and stability b/c it ensure citizens willingly comply w/laws How corruption can negatively affects legitimacy:  Erodes trust in governments - b/c it shows those in power are acting out of their own self-interest rather than for pub good → disillusionment w/political sys → lower voter turnout, public protests, etc. Distorts Fairness & Accountability: When resources are distrib based on bribes, favoritism, or nepotism, citizens view the gov as unjust → loss of moral auth & legitimacy Hinders economic and social dev: Corruption often diverts resources away from essential services and toward the private enrichment of officials. When people see selfishness is getting in the way of their basic needs not being met, they lose faith in the gov’s capacity to deliver public goods→ further diminishes state’s legitimacy as gov seen as ineffective or self-serving 11) Explain the difference between public opinion-centered corruption and public interest-centered corruption. Public Opinion-centered corruption: Defined by what the public considers corrupt, subject to societal norms ○ Helpful when we are interested in the influence of corruption on legitimacy, since if pub doesn’t see an action as corrupt, then it is unlikely to influence gov legitimacy ○ But, pub opinion fluctuates Public interest-centered corruption: Corruption that harms the public interest, though defining “public interest” is hard 12) Explain the legal definition of corruption and its weaknesses as a definition. Definition of Legal Corruption: ○ Corruption is only defined by actions that are illegal, though this can be limiting Problems w/it: ○ Not every action that is legal is ethical ○ Makes it difficult to compare nations b/c each country will have a different set of laws governing corrupt behavior 13) Explain how Johnston thinks participation affects corruption. If citizens think that their government isn’t acting in their best interest it can lead to disillusionment which can spur them to not want to participate in their country. Since this happens, there aren’t any checks and balances for the government so they can keep on engaging in corrupt practices, and since the citizens aren’t engaging in the government, it encourages the development of non-democratic ideals and practices.  The institutions and norms of low corruption countries not only shape political and economic participation; in a long-term sense they are also the products of such participation. They ratify and enforce underlying settlements regarding the uses, and limits, of wealth and power. they were created and continue to work not just because they are “good ideas,” but because they engage and protect lasting interest in society 14) Explain how Johnston thinks institutions affect corruption. Weak institutions not only allow citizens & officials to seek illicit gains, at time w/impunity; they also create incentives for more corruption as people seek protection in an uncertain environment Strong institutions are supposed to protect economic, political, and property rights, guarantee fair play, justice, and honest procedures, and protect society from abuses by the powerful (but strong political and economic institutions don’t guarantee all is well at other levels 15) How does Johnston think that corruption affects political development? There is little reason to doubt that corruption harms development, feeds on (and reinforces) institutional weakness and unfair political and economic advantages, and creates further political and economic problems. ○ But that view is incomplete: while it is a powerful account at a high level of generality (as in the statistical relationships btw corruption perceptions and development data) it doesn’t tell us much about the underlying causes and contrasting corruption problems found in diverse societies Overall: corruption obstructs political dev by eroding trust, weakening the rule of law, distorting democratic processes, and fostering inequality. It reduces gov efficiency, blocks reform, and can lead to both authoritarianism and political instability. These impacts not only slow political progress but also pose long-term risks to the stability and inclusiveness of the political sys. 16) Why is corruption more prevalent in poor countries, according to Fisman and Golden? Corruption can (and does) happen everywhere. But it happens more often in poor countries, partly because poverty makes corruption more likely and partly because corruption worsens poverty. Overall: the prevalence of corruption in poor countries is driven by a combination of resource scarcity, a lack of investment due to fear of corruption, weak monitoring systems, and the cyclical relationship between corruption and poverty. These factors create an environment where corrupt practices can thrive, making it difficult for countries  to achieve sustainable economic development and improve the quality of life for their citizens. 17) Why does corruption decline as countries get richer, according to Fisman and Golden? As countries become richer, the interplay of improved governance, higher salaries for public officials, greater economic opportunities in the private sector, and empowered citizens creates a framework that discourages corruption. While the process of achieving and maintaining low corruption can be lengthy and uneven, economic prosperity is a crucial driver in fostering an environment where corruption is less likely to thrive. 18) Briefly explain the nature of participation and institutions in countries dealing with Influence Market corruption. Participation: ○ Often mediated by wealth & connections. Politicians may act as intermediaries, “renting” their influence to wealthy individuals or organizations in exchange for legal or illicit contributions. ○ While competitive politics allow citizens to remove corrupt officials, the high costs of campaigning incentivize politicians to sell access and influence to fund their bids for office Institutions ○ Generally strong and well-estab, but they are susceptible to influence from wealthy interests. Corruption operates w/in these institutions rather than circumventing them, targeting specific legislative policies, gov contracts, or policy implementations that benefit influential actors. ○ This type of corruption doesn’t usually disrupt the entire system, as much of it occurs thro formalized and sometimes legal channels, like campaign financing. However, it can still erode trust in public institutions by bending rules in favor of the affluent, which systematically distorts the democratic process Overall: while corruption in these countries is often systemic, it is managed within existing frameworks, leading to relatively favorable corruption scores. However, the dominance of wealthy interests in political decision making can subtly undermine both participation and institutional integrity, affecting long-term political development 19) Briefly explain the nature of participation and institutions in countries dealing with Elite Cartel corruption. Participation ○ Often involves elites from various sectors, including business, military, bureaucracy, and political parties. These elites use corruption as a tool to protect  their existing advantages, preempt competition, and strengthen their influence thro alliances ○ Citizens may have formal avenues for participation, but their influence is limited as elites dominate the decision-making processes, often in ways that reinforce their own power rather than serving the broader public interest Institutions ○ Tend to be less resistant to corruption due to their weaker frameworks ○ B/c power structures are in flux, official positions are valuable but precarious, esp w/rapid liberalization and increased political competition ○ This environ allows elites to bridge pub and priv sectors thro corrupt practices ○ Corruption becomes a systemic mechanism for elites to control resources, policies, and influence, differing from I.M.C. which relies on more stable and institutionalized systems. ○ Here, corruption isn’t simply transactional but integral to maintaining elite dominance amidst institutional instability Overall: in this environ, political participation and institutions function w/in a landscape where competition and institutional fragility coexist. Political and market competition is increasing, but institutions remain weak, allowing elite networks to leverage corruption defensively to secure their positions 20) Briefly explain the nature of participation and institutions in countries dealing with Oligarch Clan corruption. Participation ○ Political comp is marked by personal rivalries among a small # of powerful elites, often tied to business, crime, or influential fam’s. The comp is disorderly & may involve violence, as oligarchs use various means to secure wealth/power ○ Mass followings are cultivated by oligarchs, but these alliances are unstable. Leaders must repeatedly pay for support, which fosters fragmented and shifting factions w/out deep social roots ○ Citizens have limited options for meaningful participation or reform. Due to rigged elections & unstructured competition, it is diff for voters to remove corrupt officials or reward honest governance Institutions ○ Generally ineffective, unable to enforce contracts, protect property rights, or resits elite pressures. This creates a blurred line btw public and private roles, where oligarchs may manipulate regulatory and legal functions for personal gain ○ Law enforcement and the judiciary are weak, which incentivizes the use of private armies or mafia connections to settle disputes, further undermining the rule of law  ○ Civil society and media are constrained by oligarch influence, limited resources, and often face intimidation. This hinders their role as watchdogs and weakens their ability to check abuses Overall: oligarchic corruption leads to unpredictable and damaging outcomes for democratic and economic dev, as institutions are co-opted, pub resources are exploited, and citizens are largely excluded from meaningful political engagement 21) Briefly explain the nature of participation and institutions in countries dealing with Official Mogul corruption. Participation: ○ Limited Civil Society: Civil society is weak/almost non-existent, making it diff for citizens to organize, advocate for reforms, or hold officials accountable. Participation in political processes is often limited to personal followings, patronage networks, or through intimidation, rather than through structured or democratic means ○ Controlled or Suppressed Opposition: Political participation may be tightly controlled, w/citizens facing risks if they oppose or challenge the ruling elites. Where participation exists, it is often orchestrated to support the power structures in place, w/little room for dissent Institutions: ○ Weak: They lack indep and often function as tools for personal enrichment for those in power. They are not built to enforce checks and balances but are instead manipulated by political elites to further their economic interests ○ Personalized Power & Kleptocracy: Political power is highly personalized, often in the hands of a single indiv, family, or small group. It often leads to kleptocracy, where rulers govern w/impunity and exploit the economy for personal gain ○ Military Influence: Military leaders may have significant influence, sometimes even dominating politics. They may back the ruling elites or intervene directly, claiming to address corruption but often entrenching it further Overall: Political participation in such countries is largely orchestrated and restricted, w/citz having limited means to advoc for change. Institutions are weak, serving more as tools for corruption than as enforcers of accountability, and power often rests w/a few indiv’s who exploit the sys for personal gain 22) Name and explain the different types of functionalism. Economic functionalism ○ Creates economic opportunities, b/c it allows those who want to participate in econ exchanges to do so by bypassing excessive gov red tape Integrative functionalism  ○ Provides avenues for new groups in a society to become integrated into the larger community. Also gives them access to policy makers that might not otherwise have (ex-thro bribes) Institutional functionalism ○ Encourages the dev of formal political institutions as well as the dev of political parties ○ Also encourages the dev of a merit-based bureaucracy Administrative functionalism ○ Makes bureaucracies more flexible and provides higher incomes for public servants (ex- thro bribes/other material payoffs), thus leading to more incentives for indiv’s to serve in that capacity 23) How does a close relationship between bureaucrats and elected officials lead to corruption according to the Etzioni Halevy model of corruption? Corruption at the intermediate or indiv level occurs when the bureaucratic elite (unelected officials) are too closely tied to the political elite (elected officials). The bureaucratic elite implement legislation to allocate resources, and if they are controlled by the political elite, they can give preferential treatment to indiv’s or groups, leading to corruption 24) Provide an example of a corrupt ideology and explain how it can lead to corruption. Corrupt Ideologies: Countries w/beliefs in divine determination, absolute power of leaders, or “the ends justify the means” ideology are more prone to corruption. Leaders may view their actions, including bribery, as justified or inevitable Example: ○ Richard Nixon once said “if the president does it, it’s not illegal.” This is a corrupt ideology based on the absolute power of the chosen leader. If the leader takes a bribe, then by his def, it’s not illegal. This logic leads to corruption, particularly on the part of higher ranking political leaders 25) Explain how the after-effects of colonialism can lead to corruption. When imperial powers gave up their colonies, they often gave one native group power and others were at their mercy. B/c those in power didn’t get their positions thro their people, they have to figure out a way to keep their positions over time, and corruption can often help them do that. The new native leaders usually didn’t have an understanding of their role in a modern bureaucratic or political system since they weren’t allowed to participate during the colonial period. Given traditional exchange relationships, they might not consider nepotism, gift giving (bribery), or other acts as forms of corruption Summary  The aftermath of colonialism can create conditions ripe for corruption due to imbalanced power dynamics, a lack of governance xp, and cultural interpretations of corrupt practices. The combination of these factors can undermine the development of effective political systems, leading to persistent corruption as a means of maintaining power and control. 26) How do politicians foster corruption among bureaucrats, according to Fisman and Golden? Patronage Appointments ○ Elected officials often use their authority to appoint loyal supporters to public sector jobs, creating a system where appointments are based on loyalty rather than merit. This practice establishes a network of bureaucrats who are indebted to their political patrons for their positions. Job Security and Pressure ○ Bureaucrats who owe their jobs to politicians may feel pressured to align their actions with the interests of their patrons to ensure job security. This dependence creates an environment where bureaucrats may be compelled to engage in corrupt practices, such as misusing resources to support their patron's re-election efforts. Mutual Dependence ○ There exists a mutual dependence between politicians and bureaucrats in which politicians rely on bureaucrats to deliver political favors and support, while bureaucrats rely on politicians for their jobs and advancement. This interdependence makes it challenging to disrupt corrupt practices, as both parties benefit from maintaining the corrupt status quo. Summary: politicians foster corruption among bureaucrats through patronage appointments that create a cycle of dependency. By appointing loyal supporters to key positions and pressuring them to support their political agendas, politicians perpetuate a system of corruption that undermines accountability and integrity within public institutions. This mutual dependence complicates efforts to address and dismantle corrupt practices, as both parties have vested interests in maintaining the status quo. 27) What causes a high-corruption equilibrium? This arises when weak institutions, entrenched patronage networks, & widespread social acceptance of corrupt practices reinforce one another. Low accountability, econ incentives, and elite control of power perpetuate this sys, making it diff to break the cycle. This creates a self-sustaining loop where corruption becomes normalized and reforms face strong resistance from vested interests 28) Explain how and why corruption affects foreign direct investment (FDI)  FDI involves foreign assets invested in a country’s domestic structures, equipment, and organizations, and is more stable than investments in stock markets. Corruption increases the cost and uncertainty of doing business, making countries w/high corruption less attractive to foreign investors. This effect is stronger when there is a significant diff in corruption levels btw the investor’s home country and the host country 29) What is meant by the “policy effects” of corruption. How and why do those policy effects occur? A scholar argued that corruption could lead to conservative policies b/c citz are less willing to support new gov spending or regulations, believing that funds will be misused. This reluctance disproportionately affects the poor, who rely more on government programs Corruption also shifts political party debates from policy discussions to accusations of corruption, reinforcing the status quo (the systems that are in place at that current time) Additionally, corruption increases the cost of policy implementation, as bribes and inefficiencies consume resources 30) Briefly explain what the results of the Anderson and Tverdova and Seligson studies say about the effect of corruption. Are those findings consistent with the discussion in Fisman and Golden? Anderson & Tverdova ○ Their study spanned 16 countries & found that corruption negatively affects citz views of their democ, w/the impact being more pronounced among those who didn’t support the ruling party. ○ Overall, corruption significantly undermines the attitudes necessary for a well-functioning democratic sys Seligson ○ His study took place in 4 Latin American countries and found that personal experiences w/corruption decreased trust and government legitimacy, even when corruption seemed functional Corruption → Interpersonal Trust → Legitimacy 31) What characteristics of public construction projects make them particularly susceptible to corruption? Complexity ○ Involves various tech specifications, regulation, and standards that may be difficult for outsiders to fully understand. Officials can exploit ambiguity in contracts or regulations to favor certain contractors/manipulate outcomes w/out being easily detected  Discretionary power of officials ○ Including selecting contractors, approving designs, & overseeing project execution → discretion can lead to favoritism Lack of transparency & oversight ○ transparency lack in bidding process, project financing & oversight. W/out transparency, it becomes easier for corrupt practices to occur w/out scrutiny Potential for collusion ○ Btw pub officials and priv contractors to manip bidding process, inflate costs, or deliver substandard work 32) Do you think an activity could be both corrupt and ethical? Provide an example of your answer and explain why or why not. Yes, I do because just because an activity can be seen as not corrupt, doesn’t necessarily mean it's ethical. Example: A gov official uses their influence to secure a contract for a small, struggling business owned by a friend instead of going through a competitive bidding process ○ Corrupt Elements: Favoritism & Lack of Competition ○ Ethical Elements: Intentions & Impact 33) How do Fisman and Golden differentiate centralized and decentralized corruption? Which is “better” and why? Centralized Corruption Control at National Level: In centralized systems, government resources and decision-making are concentrated in the national capital. Politicians at this level are often viewed as corrupt and disconnected from local needs Voter Disengagement: The idea behind moving control to local governments is that ordinary people, through local elections and decision-making, could more effectively oversee the spending of resources that directly impact their lives. Decentralized Corruption Local Elites Capture Resources: Decentralization was intended to break the corrupt equilibrium at the national level by empowering local communities. However, the author points out that local political elites often exploit this system. They may misappropriate resources through theft or redirect funds for personal or political gain, similar to their national counterparts. Limited Transparency for Voters: Local voters face challenges in discerning whether public works are being carried out properly. For example, it can be difficult to determine if a road is built to standard or if funds are being misused until the consequences become  apparent (like a crumbling road). This opacity allows local officials to perpetuate corruption. Which is Better? The author suggests that neither form of corruption is inherently "better." Decentralization was initially viewed as a solution to combat centralized corruption by bringing decision-making closer to the people, thereby allowing voters to hold local officials accountable. However, the evidence indicates that local elites can also engage in corrupt practices, effectively replicating the issues found in centralized systems. Complex Interaction: The author points out that the effectiveness of decentralization in reducing corruption is inconsistent and can depend on various factors, including the capacity of local governments and the engagement of local voters. Conclusion: While decentralization can empower communities and potentially reduce corruption, it often does not fulfill its intended purpose, and local politics can be just as corrupt as national politics. Thus, without effective oversight and accountability mechanisms, neither centralized nor decentralized systems guarantee reduced corruption.