Policy Analysis Presentation PDF

Public: available to everyone, for people good, by government. CH 1 Policy: Anything that you can use to regulate or structure something Public Policy: in a specific area to regulate made by policy makers. Policy Analysis Federal gov. State gov. Local gov. What Public...

Public: available to everyone, for people good, by government. CH 1 Policy: Anything that you can use to regulate or structure something Public Policy: in a specific area to regulate made by policy makers. Policy Analysis Federal gov. State gov. Local gov. What Public Policy examine? What government do Why they do it What difference it makes (if rule implemented or not) Public policy tells us what to do and what not to do. What government choose to do and not to do. Environmental policies (smoking), Social Policies (dress code), Economic policies (income taxes), Political Policies, Purchase Public Curment. Why Study Public Policy? To understand their daily process. Ex: Covid cause and consequences like use and body bags they don’t have time to process. Policy can have good and negative effects. What other measures replace spending or complement? Tax fees and structure , depend on the values of who control the cabinet and who leads. Values will direct how the money is going. Government body (agency, uni , seha, department) we learn about their values safety Policy analysis studies and explains what policies do, using research and data, without suggesting changes. Policy advocacy pushes for specific changes or policies, trying to influence decisions through persuasion. Difference: Analysis is neutral and focused on understanding. Advocacy is biased and focused on action. Overlap: Advocates may use analysis to support their goals, but decisions are made by politicians, not analysts. Policy Analyst: A policy analyst researches, evaluates, and advises on policies based on data and evidence. Their goal is to provide an objective analysis of policy options and outcomes. Policy Advocate: A policy advocate promotes specific policies, aiming to influence decision-makers to adopt their preferred policies. They focus on persuading others, often driven by specific values or interests. Overlap: Both roles involve understanding policy issues, analyzing information, and communicating with decision-makers. They may also both conduct research and develop policy proposals. Differences: A policy analyst focuses on objective, evidence-based analysis without promoting a specific agenda, while a policy advocate actively supports a particular policy outcome based on a set of values or interests. Q: Why study Public Policy? Understanding of government institutional and purposes and related to why they do it what they do and what difference it makes and focusses on the causes and consequences of government actions. Q: Evaluate the use of government spending as an indicator of priorities. Ggovernment prioritize several actions and decide to spend money on them , spending would be one indicator how gov give portieres one action to another but they have to discuss and evaluate the actions they take.  Ex of policy: Food stamps: welfare policy give cards to help people buy groceries who are eligible don’t have enough money. CH 2 Models of Politics Uses of Models why we learn them: they all complement each other not compete no better than other Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy. Identify important aspects of policy problems. Help us to communicate with each other by focusing on essential features of political life. Direct our efforts to understand public policy better by suggesting what is important and what is unimportant. Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its consequences. The Policy Process: help us understand the activities involved in policymaking (The process model views policymaking as a series of political activities) congress executive, then court, then president sign it. 1. Problem identification (defining problems in society that deserve public attention) could exist before but added 2. Agenda setting (capturing the attention of policymakers) different group will advocate for something on media (ex: LGBTQ, abortion) 3. Formulating proposals (devising and selecting policy options) 4. Legitimating policy (developing political support; winning congressional, presidential, court approval) 5. Implementing policy (creating bureaucracies, spending money, enforcing laws) 6. Evaluating policy (finding out whether policies work, whether they are popular)  Models to help us understand political life: Ex of policy: Food stamps: welfare policy 1. Institutional model ‫التأثير المؤسسي‬ give cards to help people buy groceries 2. Rational model ‫التخطيط العقالني‬ who are eligible don’t have enough money. 3. Incremental model ‫التدريجية‬ 4. Group model 5. Elite model ‫النخبة‬ 6. Public choice model 1) Institutional model: institutions implement and form policies, focuses attention on the effects of political and governmental institutions on public policy. (both the Congress and three-quarters of states must consent to any changes in the Constitution itself) the constitution brings the policies 2) Rational model: :maximum social gain, weigh cost & benefits, no policy is implemented if cost exceeded the benefits. Benefits must exceed our cost then policy is published. Obstacles to rational policymaking: Many conflicting benefits and costs cannot be compared or weighed; for example, it is difficult to compare or weigh the value of individual life against the costs of regulation. Policymakers may not be motivated to make decisions on the basis of societal goals but instead try to maximize their own rewards—power, status, reelection, and money. 4) Incremental (gradual) model: past policy but make a little change over time. views public policy largely as a continuation of past government activities with only incremental modifications. It’s conservative (meaning it’s restricted with the past rules) problem: covid pandemic they have to act quickly they don’t have basis 5) Group theory: interest and actions are central fact of them they have a specific interest they share to push for the policy. views public policy as the outcome of the struggle among societal groups. Between groups The task of the political system is to manage group conflict by: 1. establishing rules of the game in the group struggle 2. Arranging compromises and balancing interests 3. Enacting compromises in the form of public policy 4. Enforcing these compromises The group model assumes that public policy is a balance of interest group influence; policies change when particular interest groups gain or lose influence. 6) Elite Theory: The elite model views public policy as the preferences and values of the nations governing elite. Leaders & rich people powerful. Assumes that the masses are apathetic and public policy effect what elite want and belief in. 7. Public Choice Theory: individuals who have specific interest. They're concern in their wellbeing and get advantages and benefits economic point view. Gov must perform specific functions (goods and services) that they can’t do and apply to everyone. Ex: lobbying public advocacy. Within a group 8. Game theory: portrays policy as the outcome of interaction between two or more rational participants. Each country have specific interest problem, and they compete or work together. Involved in choices that are interdependent. Q: How can we tell if the models are helping or not? Q: considering their shortcoming (from the different models), why do policy analysis rely on models? One policy can use more than one model, even though it has some flaws Simplify and clarify our thinking Identify important aspects of policy problems. Help us to communicate with each Direct our efforts to understand public policy better Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its consequences. Q: Which of these models seem most in conflict with another model or models? Which seem most compatible? Conflict: Elite & Group theory (because elite just their own individuals & in the interest of group people), rationalism & incrementalism (rational gains more than cost & already have it and small changes, Elite & Public choice theory (higher power and those individuals) Compatible: rationalism & institutionalism (policy implemented by a specific institution, as a vehicle to apply policies the rationalism) Institutionalism & group theory (using institutions as a vehicle to implement policies) CH 3 Policymaking Identifying a specific problem as a Process Focus on how policies are made rather than on their content or their causes and consequences. See if the policy legitimate Could be the first step too, like Incrementalism , evaluate current policy and could identify policy problem 1. Problem Identification: Deciding what the problem is more important than the solution. Media will help in identifying the problem and agenda setting, and steps can intervene and overlap not necessarily have steps but have a formal step. 2. Agenda Setting: Bottom up approach: focuses on public opinion have power in creating policy , because in decision making process the’re on the bottom have less influence. (they Up to Bottom approach: Elite impact on people and make policies based on their interest. Political entrepreneurship, try to make their interest people’s interest to win based on their agenda. President and White house staff, make them be re-elected and their reputation. Mass Media: news are being biased 3. Formulation Policy: Goal develop action recommendation to resolve national problems, making policies into law. Interest groups: lobby is a job in US, gov institution assigned lobbies in sate level, to advocate for them. Think tanks ? Interest groups Policy Legitimation: The Proximate Policymaker: These are people who directly make policy decisions, such as the President, Congress, courts, and federal agencies. Their actions are the most visible part of policy-making, but they are just the final step in a much longer process that involves many groups like corporations and interest groups. Constituency Influence: Congress members like to Congress' Role: Congress is central to making laws. The Constitution gives see themselves as independent thinkers, but they are Congress the power to create policies on issues like taxes and trade. However, influenced by their voters. However, since many voters other institutions like courts and government agencies also play a role in ensuring don’t pay attention to their voting records, the government’s actions are legitimate (lawful and accepted). representatives often act on their judgment or align with their party, unless an issue becomes highly The Lawmaking Process: The process of passing a law is complicated. Many bills publicized. are introduced, but very few are actually passed. For example, in a typical two-year session of Congress, only around 800 bills out of 10,000 introduced get enacted. Contributor Influence: Running for office is expensive, This complexity makes it easier to block changes than to make them. and members of Congress rely heavily on donations from corporations, unions, and wealthy individuals to Party Influence: Political parties have a significant influence on how members of fund their campaigns. These big donors often get Congress vote. Members often stick with their party when voting on bills, and this access to politicians, expecting their views to be partisanship has increased in recent years. heard in return for their financial support. Presidential Influence: Presidents are expected to present policy ideas and work with Congress to pass laws. However, a president’s success depends on whether their party controls Congress. For example, President Obama had more success in passing his policies when Democrats controlled both the House and the Senate. 5. lobbying 6. Budget: congress divide their annual bills to cover each area. Supplementary appropriation: president request extra money from. Presidential: Leader have 10 days to approve or veto them. Eexecutive orders: leader drive from constitution, supreme court has to approve Bureaucracy: any gov institutions under structure of public to implement the law. From president to the offices to the agencies. CH 4 Policy Evaluation Governments don’t know what they do, They don’t know the consequences of the policy. 2 to 3 ways to evaluate policies, government or researches, or own consulting companies. Policy evaluate the Outcome is the impact of policy, output like the numbers that’s working. Gov. use output as indicators that policy is working. To support argument and outcome. Policy evaluation: a systematic examination of a policy's effectiveness, including its impact on target groups, spillover effects, and both immediate and long-term costs. (is the objective, systematic, empirical examination of the effects ongoing policies and public programs have on their targets in terms of the goals they are meant to achieve) The impact of a policy is all its effects on real-world conditions, including: Impact on the target situation or group Impact on situations or groups other than the target (spillover effects) not targeted group Impact on future as well as immediate conditions (indirect cause) Direct costs, in terms of resources devoted to the program Measuring Impact, not output: The distinction between "policy impact" and "policy output" is crucial. While policy output refers to government activities, such as spending per target group or statistics on welfare and education, these figures do not truly reflect the effectiveness of policies. Simply counting outputs, like benefits paid or arrests made, offers little insight into real issues like poverty or crime. To assess policy impact, we must focus on the societal changes resulting from government actions, rather than just the quantity of those actions. Measuring actual outcomes is essential for understanding the effectiveness of public policy. Target & not targeted group: intend to serve them in the policy ex: welfare programs: condition of infrastructure who benefitted from the program even if they’re employed not targeted. Short term and long term goals: short term goal earn education daycare immediate education goals spend time, long term to get them in the right track to go universities prepare them to be good students. Calculating net benefits and costs: The Symbolic Impact of Policy: public perceptions and attitudes toward these policies often matter more than their actual effectiveness. (good intentions more than tangible impact) Even if policies fail to achieve tangible results like reducing poverty or crime, their good intentions are valued. Popular programs may not yield significant benefits, but they reflect societal aspirations and help maintain order. The evolution of political discourse has shifted from "who gets what" to "who feels what," highlighting the importance of government communication alongside actions. Current policy analysis tends to prioritize government actions over rhetoric, which may be a limitation in understanding the full impact of policies. (problem gov looks at the image not at the policy itself) less attention to what government say about the policy. What they usually do, and what they can do but not necessarily do it. 4.3 what gov usually do to evaluate effectiveness. 4.3 Present what can gov can do. Government agencies review the effectiveness of their own programs. These reviews forms are: what they usually do (output-based measures) Hearings and reports: how many people served all written simple hear what they talk about Site Visits: visit specific agencies to see how program is running, following guidelines. Social worker go to houses to make sure the child isn’t abused. Program Measures: number of something, these program measures rarely indicate what impact these numbers have on society. Showing number not the effectiveness Comparison with professional standards: compare ourselves to ideal standards Evaluation of citizen’s complaints: meaning if people are not satisfied that policy isn’t working. Surveys of public opinion: how do they evaluate the work of government. Congressional Investigations: congress Facebook hearing more complicated. Talk about issue in public, address problem or test effectiveness. or identify problem. Programme Evaluation: What governments can do Common evaluative methods often fail to assess the balance of costs and benefits, as administrators rarely calculate the cost- effectiveness of services or societal changes. To truly understand the impact of government programs, more sophisticated and expensive evaluation methods are needed. Systematic program evaluation should involve comparisons (what actually happen & what could’ve happened)to determine what changes can be attributed directly to the program, as opposed to external factors. This requires not only measuring actual outcomes but also estimating what would have happened without the program, ensuring that any observed differences are genuinely due to the program itself. Its hard to know the effect and factors effect policy Key Evaluation Methods: 1. Before vs. After Comparisons: This method compares data from before a program's implementation to data after it has been implemented. However, it is difficult to determine whether changes are due to the program or other external factors. 2. Projected Trend Line vs. Postprogram Comparisons: This method projects past trends into the future and compares them with actual outcomes post-program. The differences can be attributed to the program itself. This is more effective than the simple before-and-after approach but requires more effort. 3. Jurisdiction Comparisons (With vs. Without Programs): state wise it could only be after the program Comparing data from regions with and without the program provides insights into the program's impact. However, differences between jurisdictions (e.g., socioeconomic factors) can make it hard to attribute changes solely to the program. Examining both jurisdictions before and after the program helps mitigate these issues. 4. Control vs. Experimental Groups: The classic research design involves selecting identical control and experimental groups, implementing the policy in the experimental group, and comparing outcomes. This method provides the most accurate estimation of the program's effects by accounting for other societal changes. Comparisons between control & experimental groups before & after program implementation The classic research design involves selecting control and experimental groups that are identical in all respects. The policy is applied only to the experimental group, while both groups are measured for preprogram performance to ensure similarity. After the program is implemented, changes in the experimental group are compared to those in the control group. This design is favored by researchers because it allows for the most accurate estimation of changes attributable to the program, minimizing the influence of external factors. Experimental policy research Many policy analysts believe that policy experimentation is the most effective way to assess the impact of public policies. This approach relies on key characteristics of experimental research, such as the systematic selection of experimental and control groups, applying the policy only to the experimental group, and carefully comparing the outcomes between the two groups afterward. However, government-sponsored experimental policy research also brings up several important questions. (experimental group exposed to the policy to see the direct effect of policy) A bias towards positive results First, there are concerns that government-sponsored research may be biased toward producing results that support popular reform proposals. Social scientists, often with liberal and reformist values, might be inclined to favor findings that back liberal reforms. Successful experiments that show positive results can enhance the careers of researchers, while unsuccessful ones may lead to less recognition. When research findings support their expectations, social scientists may readily accept and publish them. However, when results are negative, they might feel compelled to reanalyze or reinterpret the data, potentially leading to data manipulation. Unlike in the physical and biological sciences, where replication deters misconduct, social experiments are often difficult to replicate, and the incentives for social scientists to produce original, impactful research can encourage questionable practices. The Hawthorne effect People often alter their behavior when they know they are being observed, a phenomenon known as the "Hawthorne effect." For instance, students typically perform better when new elements are introduced in the classroom. This effect can make new programs or reforms seem more successful than their predecessors, even if the improvements are solely due to the novelty itself. The term originates from experiments conducted at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company in Chicago in 1927, where it was observed that worker output increased with any change in routine, including even dimming the lighting. Try their best when they know they’re beign watched ends positive results. Generalizing results to the nation Another challenge in policy research is that results from small-scale experiments may not accurately reflect outcomes of large-scale nationwide programs. For instance, an earlier experiment involving a few families suggested that a government-guaranteed income did not alter recipients' work behaviors—they still sought jobs and accepted employment. However, later studies questioned these findings and predicted that a nationwide guaranteed income could lead to significant changes in work behavior. If implemented nationally, such a program could shift cultural standards and create work disincentives, potentially underestimating the expected costs of an economy-wide initiative. How to move from simple indicators to get more deeper In evaluation Ethical & legal issues Experimental strategies in policy impact research raise important ethical questions. One major concern is whether government researchers have the right to withhold public services from individuals to create a control group for experimentation. In medical research, where treatment decisions can have serious consequences, ethical guidelines have been developed. However, in social experimentation, it is more challenging to justify denying benefits to control groups chosen to be similar to experimental groups. Beyond the legal and ethical dilemmas, there are also political difficulties in providing services to some individuals while denying them to others. A lot of approvals in experimenting on idividuals Political interpretations of results Finally, it's important to recognize that the political environment significantly influences policy research. Politics determines which policies and alternatives are studied, and it can also impact the findings and their interpretations, often for politically motivated reasons. Despite these challenges, the benefits of policy experimentation are considerable. Committing to large-scale programs in areas like education, welfare, housing, and health can be very costly for society, making it essential to have a clear understanding of what actually works before implementation. (government try to limit one or two groups to see the impact on the policies outcome.) Office work for federal government, agencies that hold government accountable (Management budget )(gov agencies use logic into the process, select and choose alternative approaches when implementing policy look at other options, controvirsal because how individual measure, limitation to convert numbers to real numbers but it gives) Benefit-Cost analysis of federal regulations Ideally, government agencies should: (A) propose regulations based on a reasoned determination that benefits exceed costs (B) minimize societal burdens while achieving regulatory goals (C) choose regulatory approaches that maximize net benefits across economic, environmental, public health, safety, and equity dimensions (D) explore alternatives to direct regulation, including economic incentives (E) utilize the best methods to accurately quantify expected benefits and costs. Report findings to congress, Why it still fails although we have offices? There are issues in evaluation approaches itself, still it have problems it fail to evaluate the policies. Why often fails; 1. Unclear goals (objectives and target groups or spillover) 2. Limited recourses (limited money, limited personnel need to do the evaluation) 3. Biased toward positive results (don’t want to show the negative results) Beracrats explaining: No single indicator No results now but there will be in the long run Limits of public policy: 1. can’t be measured 2. Goc don’t have enough capabilities 3. Gov have they’re own interest 4. Solve for one group and leave the other 5. Stop gov into evaluating and implementing policy 6. Rational and social/economic difference impact policy 7. Policy doesn’t mean solving all problems 8. Doesn’t structure for completely rational model limit our abitility to study our political CH 5 American Federalism Most nations have local government units (states, provinces, regions, cities, counties, towns, villages). Decentralization of policymaking is necessary in many countries. True federalism requires both national and subnational governments to have separate, autonomous authority. Both levels of government should elect their officials and levy taxes independently. Federal powers must be constitutionally guaranteed and require consent from both national and subnational populations for amendments. The U.S. has over 90,000 separate governments, with more than 60,000 able to levy taxes. Government types in the U.S. include states, counties, municipalities, school districts, and special districts. Only national and state governments are recognized in the U.S. Constitution; local governments are subdivisions of states. States have the authority to create, change, or eliminate local governments through state laws or constitutional amendments. Federalism: a pact between national and state government. Why Federalism? 1. Protection Against Tyranny: The Founders recognized that republican principles (elections, representative government, political equality) alone do not protect individual liberty. These principles may make elites more responsive but fail to safeguard minorities or individuals from government overreach. The primary goal of the Constitution was to balance popular government with protection against "unjust and interested" majorities. The Founders believed that popular control is essential, but "auxiliary precautions" are also necessary. Federalism was seen as a key method to limit the power of government. The system was designed to incorporate "opposite and rival interests" to create checks on government officials and entities. 2. Policy Diversity: State and local governments may be better suited to deal with specific state and local problems. Washington bureaucrats do not always know best about what to do in Commerce, Texas, for example. 3. Conflict Management: Federalism helps manage policy conflict by allowing states and communities to pursue their own policies. This approach reduces pressure on the national government to make all decisions. It enables citizens to address issues at state and local levels. 4. Dispersal of Power: power is not controlled by one person Federalism disperses power, serving as protection against tyranny. The distribution of power supports pluralism in the U.S. State and local governments contribute to the success of pluralism. They provide a political base for opposition parties after national election losses. 5. Increased Participation: Federalism increases political participation by allowing more individuals to run for and hold office. Nearly a million people hold political office in local governments (counties, cities, townships, etc.). Local leaders are often seen as closer to the people than national officials. Public opinion polls indicate that Americans find local governments more manageable and responsive than the national government. 6. Improved Efficiency: Federalism improves efficiency by distributing governance across multiple levels. Although 90,000 governments may seem inefficient, centralizing all activities in Washington would create significant bureaucracy and delays. Central control over local services (police, schools, roads, etc.) would lead to increased red tape, confusion, and inefficiency. 7. Ensuring Policy Responsiveness: please their own citizens and respond to their needs Federalism encourages policy responsiveness by having multiple, competing governments. These governments are more attuned to citizens' views compared to a centralized government. The variety of local policies allows for a better alignment with citizens’ preferences. People and businesses can relocate to areas that match their policy preferences, enhancing accountability. Mobility fosters competition among states and communities to improve services and lower costs. 8. Encouraging Policy Innovation: Federalism fosters policy experimentation and innovation. Once seen as progressive, federalism has laid the groundwork for significant programs like the New Deal. Many federal initiatives (income tax, unemployment compensation, Social Security, etc.) originated at the state level. States have adopted various aspects of the current liberal policy agenda (health insurance, child-care programs, etc.). Based on their citizens needs being innovative. The term "laboratories of democracy," attributed to Justice Louis D. Brandeis, highlights the value of state- level experimentation in addressing social and economic issues. Q in Midterm: What is considered not/is an advantage of federalism. Politics and Institutional Arrangements Political conflict over federalism aligns with traditional liberal and conservative divides. Liberals: democrat Advocate for enhanced national government power. Believe government can address societal issues like discrimination, poverty, and health care. View state and local governments as slow and unresponsive. Argue that unequal services across states exacerbate social inequality and that a strong national government can ensure uniform standards. Conservatives: republic Seek to return power to state and local governments. Are skeptical of the effectiveness of the national government in solving problems. Often argue that "government is the problem, not the solution." Critique excessive regulation, high taxes, and inflationary spending as threats to individual freedom and economic growth. Support a smaller, more controllable government that is closer to the people. - Power Element: state have power over federal government. - People take advantage of policy cuz its different between one state and another Institutional Arenas Debates about federalism are primarily about policy rather than constitutional issues. People focus on which level of government (national, state, local) is likely to enact their preferred policies. Political scientist David Nice describes intergovernmental politics as managing the scope of conflict to achieve desired policy outcomes. Most citizens and politicians are uninterested in abstract discussions about government responsibilities; they care about the policies themselves. Advocating for centralization in Washington often reflects a desire for national elites’ policy preferences over those of local officials. Federal intervention is defended based on the belief that Washington’s goals and priorities should apply nationwide, rather than on constitutional grounds. Dispersal Tax players: - Every state has their own tax 5.4 not included (overtime the constitution have changed over time over 200 years. Federalism Revived Devolution: Government force state to do things but not going to provide support. (passing down of responsibilities from the national government to the states) power Supreme Court: have control over decisions and deny decisions from states Obamacare: affordable act force all citizens to have health insurance, states have to force them and the federal. Money and power flow to Washington - Federal grant money (lobby go to dc to bring money to their state) welfare money, (transportation federal and state pay for it) help give them money, and if not follow role they will take back money. - Federal grant purposes Unfunded mandate: impose heavy costs on states and communities no federal funding. Funded mandate: they have to do it mandatory and support them give them money. States battle back: state challenge those decision by federal government. Ex: Merijuana some states its legal and some not. Union Power: big group of people protest to challenge the state. Also can be union in private sector, like airline, pilots and workers have strike to raise their pay, so they stopped flying. Big impact in federal and state level. 5.11 not included Comparing Public Policies Q: all states in United nations have 5% income tax. False Tax Variation between states (Hawaii is the highest) Spending in education (New York highest) based in income CH 7 Welfare Inequality Rationalisim example In reality, Policy process isn’t rational but those different process and progress Any program the gov try to implement they ‘ll depend Based on age income color other economic factors depend on the specific program. And the evaluation, we’ll see if we met our goals. Obstacles of why the policy process isn’t rational: 1. Contrasting definitions of poverty constitute one obstacle to rational policymaking. Official government sources define poverty in terms of minimum dollar amounts required for subsistence. In recent years about 12 to 15 percent of the population has fallen below the official poverty line. (who decides who’s poor or not, hard to determine by income, economic factors inflation, hard to determine the poverty line, there’s rules in gov. (Why the poor poor? Low productivity, economic stagnation contribute more people under poverty line, Discriminations black earn less the whites, black half they’re faultlazy, Disintegrating Family Structure inherit poor naturally. 2. Contrasting explanations of poverty also make it difficult to formulate a rational policy. Is poverty a product of a lack of knowledge, skills, and training? Or recession and unemployment? Certainly the disintegration of the traditional husband–wife family is closely associated with poverty. How can the government devise a rational policy to keep families together, or at least not encourage them to dissolve? Make childcare affordable 3. Government welfare policies themselves may be a cause of poverty. Poverty in America had steadily declined before the development of Great Society programs, the relaxation of eligibility requirements for welfare assistance, and the rapid increase of welfare expenditures in the 1970s. To what extent do government programs themselves encourage social dependency and harm the long-term prospects of the poor? People will stay under the poverty line in purpose to have free things, so they don’t have to work, so this encourages poverty. 4. The social insurance concept was designed as a preventive strategy to insure people against indigence arising from old age, death of a family breadwinner, or physical disability. But the Social Security “trust fund” idea remains in name only. Today each generation of workers is expected to pay the benefits for the next generation of retirees. Disability claims have soared in recent years. (Insurance created to help people after they’re older after 60, not implemented to really help the people intended to help) 5. Unemployment compensation was designed as a temporary partial replacement of wages for involuntarily unemployed workers. During the Great Recession, Congress extended unemployment payments well beyond the 26 weeks that most states had established as the maximum length of compensation. (created temporary to help people, like Covid 19, give them and just let them go on their own) 6. The federal government also pursues an alleviative strategy in assisting the poor with a variety of direct cash and in- kind benefit programs. The SSI program provides direct federal cash payments to the aged, blind, and disabled. As a welfare program, SSI is paid from general tax revenues, and recipients must prove their need. The largest in-kind welfare programs are federal food stamps and Medicaid. (cash in program government provide, health insurance older) medicare for those who don’t have income. 7. Welfare reform in 1996, including a two-year limit on cash assistance and work and school requirements, appears to have reduced cash welfare rolls substantially. But some people are not capable of moving from welfare to work. (programs have reforms and limit time ti get assistance its not free money for lifetime) 8. The working poor are helped by the federal minimum wage and by the Earned Income Tax Credit. (gov set a minimum wage like 8 dollars to pay workers not less than that.) 9. Inequality in America is worsening over time. The top 20 percent of households now receive over 50 percent of the nations total household income. The bottom 20 percent receive only about 3 percent. (no middle class, either poor or rich) 10. However, America continues to enjoy considerable income mobility, with people moving up and down the income ladder over time. Well over half of the people in the lowest income quintile will move upward in less than a 10-year