Linguistics Exam Prep (November 4th) PDF

**Preparations for Linguistics exam scheduled Monday November 4th** *Transcribed from T.M. Adnibi's handwritten notations* **Linguistics^CM^** JAURIBERRY, Thomas PhD. ***Reminders*** : A **language** is a complex system of signs used for communication among humans. A **dialect** is a subtype o...

**Preparations for Linguistics exam scheduled Monday November 4th** *Transcribed from T.M. Adnibi's handwritten notations* **Linguistics^CM^** JAURIBERRY, Thomas PhD. ***Reminders*** : A **language** is a complex system of signs used for communication among humans. A **dialect** is a subtype of one language associated with a particular region or speakers of a certain social class/group. An **accent** is a particular manner of speaking often identified with a region or social group and concerns exclusively pronunciation. Phonemes are the basic contrastive units of sound and are written in between slashes /i/ Phone is a phonetic realization of a given phoneme and is written in between brackets \[o\] An allophone is a phonetic variant of one phoneme A monophthong is a vowel sound which remains stable throughout its utterance. A diphthong is a vowel sound whose beginning sounds different than the end of its utterance The distribution of allophones can be categorized in two groups : Complementary distribution concerning allophones whose appearance depends on the phonetic or phonological context Free variation which refers to when multiple allophones appear in the same context **II/ How Accents Differ** - Systematic differences which are phonological - Realization differences which are phonetic - Lexical and incidental differences which are etymological - Phonotactic differences which are structural 2.1) **Phonetic realization** e.g. "snow, coat, nose" RP ɘU GA o Scottish o **L-Velarization** Before a vowel /l/ clear L; but after a pause or a consonant it's a DARK L In General American /l/ is always a DARK L, unlike Irish English where /l/ is always a clear L In Scotland /p,t,k/ are not aspirated (^h^) /r/ is usually a postalveolar or retroflex approximant in English. \[ɹ\] e.g. "sorry, great" \[t\] in RP English e.g. "city" "better" \[?\] in Non-standard English \[d\] or \[ɾ\] in General American 2.2) **Phonotactic Distribution** Rhotic vs Non-Rhotic accents of English /r/ in prevocalic position "red", "great", "sorry" /r/ in postvocalic position In Non-Rhotic accents the /r/ is absent e.g. "car", "farm" In Rhotic accents the /r/ is present e.g. "car" : /Kar/ Rhotic accents are mainly found in North America, Scotland, Ireland Non-rhotic accents are mainly found in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and England 2.3) **Phonemic systems** Number and type of phonemes in the inventory e.g. foot boot in Scottish English only one vowel for both centralized U food vs good = systemic difference All accents of English and also GA make a difference between pairs such as ; stalk vs stock Scottish English : velar fricative /x/ "lock" vs 'loch" 2.4) **Lexical Distribution** Selected phonemes in particular words or sets of words e.g. either = /ai/ or /i:/ ? tomato = /a:, ae; ei/ ? Lexical set BATH BATH = TRAP /ae/ or PALM /a:/? Eye rhymes = usually looks like it should rhyme Ear rhymes : sound similar (e.g. "packed", "fact") **III/ The Standard Accents : RP, GA and their lexical sets** RP = 'Queen's English, BBC English, Oxford English' Standard Accent of Britain and England Not a regional accent but a social one Non-rhotic variety; if no following vowel, /r/ is not pronounced General American = standard variety in North America, "television newscast", "network standard" Rhotic accent e.g. car = /kar/, card= /kard/ Not regional but social accent / oʊ/ The phoneme /əʊ/ in RP, is /oʊ/ in GA with a more retracted origin of the diphthong e.g. "no, know, code" /ɒ/ does not exist in GA words that have it in RP. Usually instead have /ɑ/ or /ɑ:/ in GA. e.g. "god" = /gɑ:d/ **T-Flapping** In intervocalic positions (=Vowel T Vowel), when the 1^st^ vowel is stressed , /t/ is often voiced and often flapped. E.g. "city" = /sɪdi:/ or /sɪɾi/ in GA. **\[ɾ\] = a flap** **Yod-dropping** After alveolar consonants (=//), a formerly present /j/ is normally dropped or deleted in a stressed syllable. "suit" = /sjut/ \> /sut/ "new" = /nju/ \> /nu/ "attitude" = /'ætɪ, tjud/ \> /'ætɪ,tud/ **L-Velarization** (more subtle difference) The distinction between clear L and dark L in RP is mostly absent in GA. /l/ is always a dark L in General American e.g. "low" /ləʊ/ in RP but in GA /ɫoʊ/ **Lexical Distribution differences** Choice in phonemes e.g. words like tomato or either In this letter sequence 'nt' the /t/ is dropped and isn't replaced with a glottal stop. e.g. "mountain dew" = /maʊn: dʊ/ city = /sɪti/ RP /sɪɾi/ GA new = /nju:/ RP /nu/ GA better = /'betɘ/ RP /betər/ GA far = /fɑ:/ RP /fɑr/ GA playing = /pleɪɪɳ/ RP /pɫejɪɳ/ GA **Lexical Sets on Moodle doc** **IV/ Rhotics & Rhoticity** **Types of rhotics : /r/ sounds** - - - - - 1. **Trills ("le R français") /R/: Uvular trill** 2. **Taps and Flaps** 3. **Approximants /ɹ/** - Prevocalic positions - Postvocalic positions **T to R rule** observed in Northern England mainly /t/ replaced by /r/ "Get up" or "Shut up" (linking "r" effect) **Variants of /r/** Regional accents STANDARD form is the postalveolar approximant \[ɹ\] found in British and American English Alveolar tap \[ɾ\] found in Scottish English , as well as certain places in Northern England + dispersed in Wales Uvular Trill \[R\] or uvular fricative \[ʁ\] found in Northumbria and Scotland (dying feature) Newer emerging form among younger speakers found in the South of England : \[ʋ\] **Derhoticization** A gradual process , lost of postvocalic /r/ , began in England in the 1600s or 1700s Nowadays postvocalic /r/ is disappearing in the West Country, as well as among the Working Class in Scotland American English ; postvocalic /r/ is still present = PRESTIGIOUS RHOTICITY British English : PRESTIGIOUS Non-Rhoticity Opposite trajectories observed between these varieties The derhoticization process e.g. "near" 1\. /niɹ/ 2\. /niəɹ/ 3\. /nɪəɹ/ 4\. FINAL RP form /nɪə/ with no /ɹ/ "before" 1. /bɪfɔɹ/ 2. /bɪfɔəɹ/ 3. /bɪfɔə/ 4. FINAL RP form /bɪfɔ:/ omitted /ɹ/ and monophthong /ɔ:/ replaced /ɔə/ **V/ The British Isles** *Reminder* : an **isogloss** is a geographical line representing a linguistic divide on a map. - **The North-South Divide** Northern varieties : "foot" -- "strut" lexical set comprises **one vowel /ʊ/** Southern varieties : "bath" -- "trap", **two different vowels** : /bɑ:Ɵ/ and /tɹap/ A speaker is most likely southern if when the words "trap", "bath and "foot", "strut" are spoken one can discern the following vowels : /ʊ/ and /ɑ:/. The southern speaker pronounces "foot" with a /ʊ/ vowel sound and the word "strut" with a /ʌ/ vowel sound. The southern speaker distinguishes between the vowel /a/ in "trap" and the vowel /ɑ:/ in "bath". Conversely a speaker is most likely northern if when the same words are pronounced the vowels /ʌ/ and /a/ are heard instead of the ones heard in southern speech. The northern speaker utters the vowel /ʊ/ in both "foot" and "strut" and utters the /a/ vowel in both "bath" and "trap". Northern accents are stigmatized as being the product of poverty and a salient mark of rurality, perhaps even lack of education or illiteracy. In general they're regarded as inferior and without prestige. **London accent and dialect : Cockney** This accent shares many of its features with other accents. It's the traditional accent found in the working class. It's a southern accent of English : /ʌ/ + /ɑ:/ distinction. /a/ is realized as a \[ɛ\] or as a diphthong \[ɛi\] e.g. "cat", "back" **H-dropping** is almost invariably absent e.g. "hat", "house" **T-glottaning :** t-stop as a glottal stop \[ʔ\] Very common feature in London speech. Accompanies /p/ between vowels. Represents /t/ between vowels and before a pause. **TH-fronting** The contrast between /Ɵ/ and /f/ is variably lost: /Ɵ/ becomes /f/ e.g. "three", "thin" **DH-fronting** The contrast between /ð/ and /v/ is variably lost e.g. "together", "brother". Initially, /d/ or zero is more likely e.g. "they", "the". **The Diphthong Shift** RP /i:/ Popular London /ɪi/ Cockney /əi/ RP /eɪ/ Popular London /ʌɪ/ Cockney /əi/ RP /aɪ/ Popular London /ɑɪ/ Cockney /ɒɪ/ RP /ɔɪ/ Popular London /ɔɪ/ Cockney /oɪ/ RP /aʊ/ Popular London /æʊ/ Cockney /æ:/ RP /əʊ/ Popular London /ʌʊ/ Cockney /aʊ/ Certain diphthongs are markedly different in their realization "face" /eɪ/ is /æɪ/ "goat" /əʊ/ is /ʌʉ. "price" /aɪ/ is ɑɪ/ "mouth" /aʊ/ is /æə/ and may trigger intrusive /r/ e.g. "how about, now and" **L-vocalization** In word-final or preconsonantal position, /l/ is vocalized. \[ʊ\], \[o\], \[w\] e.g. "milk", "table" After /ɔ:/ , /l/ is absent e.g. "Paul" **Final -ow reduction** \[əʊ\] is reduced to schwa This pronunciation of "fellow" is reflected in variant spellings like "fella" or "feller" and "potatoes" being reduced to "taters" **Estuary English** found in the Southeast of England Close to Cockney, less TH-fronting and frequent T-glottaling and L-vocalization. **Liverpool/Scouse accent, dialect** It's a northern accent, so no difference between vowel sound found in "put" /ʊ/ and sound found in "putt" /ʌ/. (= strut and foot) /a/ occurs in words like "dance", "daft" (bath = trap) "book" and "cook' both have /u:/ Unlike other northern accents, but commonly with the Newcastle accent, the final vowel of words like "city" is /i/ No contrast between "fair" and "fir", "square = nurse" Vowel: usually a \[ɛ:\], sometimes a \[ɜ:\] Glottal stops are relatively rare in Liverpool English. But more frequent among young working class speakers. /p,t,k/ are frequently aspirated or affricated "can't" = /kxɑ:nr/ "straight" = /streɪts/ "back'= /bækx/ In final position, /p,t,k/ may be fully spirantised (= become only fricatives ) \[Ø, s, x\] /r/ is usually a \[ɾ\] tap /h/ is often absent but occasionally appears /eɪ/ and /əʊ/ ("face" and "goat") are narrow diphthongs **Manchester : the Mancunian accent** It's a northern accent Boot = strut Bath = strap "book" and "cook" both are pronounced with the /ʊ/ vowel "happy" = \[ɪ\], \[ɛ\] is a frequent pronunciation H-dropping is frequent Like Liverpool, Lancashire and West Midlands varieties, /ɳ/ is usually \[ɳg\] but also \[n\] o, -ing e.g. "thinking". Darl L everywhere in onset and coda positions, and may be vocalized in coda positions \[w\] **T-Glottaling** Very common in preconsonantal and intervocalic positions e.g. "butties", "naughty" /r/ may be tapped \[ɾ\]; particularly intervocalically e.g. "story", "scariest", "encourage" but also in word-initial consonant clusters "throw" Newcastle, the Geordie accent **The North East** The Geordie accent Newcastle English, "Tyneside English" Newcastle and surrounding region /ʊ/ foot = strut NO SPLIT /ə/ bath = strap /p,t,k/ : are either a glottal stop \[ʔ\], but often a combined glottal and oral plosive called 'glottal reinforcement' There is no H-dropping in Newcastle English, though a common feature for Urban English. /l/ is a clear L in all positions in Newcastle but is quite dark in the rest of North East. /r/ is mostly an approximant \[ɹ\] or a tap \[ɾ\] in onset clusters "great" and intervocalically "very", "sorry" Intrusive /r/ is avoided In broad Geordie, spoken by older speakers, NURSE = NORTH /ɔ:/ like "work", "first", "short" In a less broad accent, NURSE = \[ɜ:\] or ??? In Darlington or Middlesborough, they are slightly more open "face" = \[ɛ:\] and "goat" = \[ɔ:\] LettER : very open and often very back : \[ʌ\] or \[ɐ\]. "happy" is \[i\] not \[ɪ\] 'years' = NURSE Feautures because why not I guess ? 'face' = \[e:\] 'goat'= \[o:\] 'foot' = 'strut' /ʊ/ 'fleece' = \[ɪi\] 'bath' = trap = /a/ Muffin = /mʊfɪn/ Darlington, Middlesborough, Sunderland, Newcastle, Hartlepool are all in the North East of England. **Scottish English** Found in Scotland /i/ /ɪ/ /ʉ/ /e/ /ɛ/ /o/ /ɔ/ /ʌ/ /a/ /æ/ /ʌʉ/ /ɔe/ are the existing vowels in Scottish English. ( /y/ le U français) /ɜ:, ɪə, eə, ʊə/ do not exist in Scottish English though found in RP English Cot = caught = /o/ Foot = goose, pull = pool, /ʉ/ fronted Trap = palm = bath (pam = palm) = /a/ Start = /ar/ Face = /e/ Goat = /o/ Strut = /ʌ/ Lot = thought= /ɔ/ Kit = /ɪ/ but retracted, centralized Scottish English is a RHOTIC variety "car" = /kar/ RP er = ɜ: ɪr = ɜ: ur= ɜ: Scottish ɛɹ , ɪɹ, ʌɹ (RARE) Scottish nowadays ɛɹ, ʌɹ For many scottish speakers there are different pronunciations possible for words like 'fern', 'fur', 'fir' **Scottish Vowel Length Rule (SVLR)** a. All vowels are SHORT unless followed by /v, ð, z, r/ or morpheme boundary b. Rule does not apply to 'ki' and 'strut', always short This means that vowels are only long if they have /v, ð, z,r/ or a morpheme boundary directly following Bead \[bid\] vs sleeve \[sli:v\] Mood \[mʉd\] vs smooth \[smʉ:ð\] Lace \[les\] vs maze \[me:z\] Need \[nid\] vs knee d \[ni:d\] Crude \[krʉd\] vs crew ed \[kɹʉ:d\] Scottish English /r/ has various phonetic realizations \[r\] = alveolar trill (extremely rare) \[ɾ\] = alveolar tap \[ɹ\] = postalveolar approximant Witch vs which in Scottish English /wɪtʃ/ /ʍɪtʃ/ (special pronunciation ???) Lock vs loch = /lɔk/ vs /lɔx/ Frequent T-Glottaling found in Glasgow (VowelRVowel = VRV)