Post_Mauryan_to_Harsha.pdf

CHAPTER 04 - Post Mauryan to Harsha Chapters Covered Chapter 8-Villages, Towns, and Trade Chapter 9-. New Empirees and Kingdoms Introduction to Iron Tools and Agriculture Iron Usage in the Subcontinent: The use of iron began around 3000 years ago in the subcontinent. Significant colle...

CHAPTER 04 - Post Mauryan to Harsha Chapters Covered Chapter 8-Villages, Towns, and Trade Chapter 9-. New Empirees and Kingdoms Introduction to Iron Tools and Agriculture Iron Usage in the Subcontinent: The use of iron began around 3000 years ago in the subcontinent. Significant collections of iron tools and weapons found in megalithic burials. Iron Tools: Growing use of iron tools around 2500 years ago. Important tools included axes for clearing forests and iron ploughshares. Ploughshares were essential for increasing agricultural production. Irrigation: Apart from new tools, irrigation systems helped increase production. Developed irrigation works: canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes. Flourishing villages supported kingdoms. Social Structure in Villages Southern Villages (Tamil Region): Vellalar: Large landowners. Uzhavar: Ordinary ploughmen. Kadaisiyar/Adimai: Landless laborers and slaves. Northern Villages: Grama Bhojaka: Village headman, hereditary position, often largest landowner. ○ Responsibilities: collecting taxes, functioning as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Grihapatis: Independent farmers, smaller landowners. Dasa Karmakara: Landless workers working on others' fields. Craftspersons in Villages: Included blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, and weavers. Earliest Tamil Literature: Sangam Literature: Composed around 2300 years ago in Madurai's poet assemblies (sangams). Tamil social terms (vellalar, uzhavar, kadaisiyar, adimai) found in Sangam literature. Trade, Coins, and Economic Activities Coins: Punch-marked Coins: Used for about 500 years. Rectangular, square, or round; made from metal sheets or flattened globules. Stamped with symbols, not inscribed. Other Means of Exchange: Sangam poems mention trade exchanges like paddy for salt. Trade Goods: Imports: Wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold, and silver coins. Exports: Himalayan plants, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk, and perfumes. Shrenis: Associations of craftspersons and merchants. Provided training, procured raw materials, distributed finished products, and served as banks. Significant Trade Routes: Involved maritime and overland trade. South India known for gold, spices (pepper considered "black gold"), and precious stones. Many Roman gold coins found in South India. Trade in Sangam Poems: Description of goods brought to ports like Puhar: horses, black pepper, gems, gold, sandalwood, pearls, corals, foodstuffs, pottery. Urban Centers and Craftsmanship Mathura: Important for over 2500 years due to its trade routes from northwest to east and north to south. Fortified city with shrines, Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and Krishna worship centers. Produced fine sculpture and had numerous inscriptions recording donations. Arikamedu: Coastal settlement (in Puducherry) important for trade between 2200 and 1900 years ago. Findings include Mediterranean pottery (amphorae, Arretine Ware), Roman lamps, glassware, and gems. Evidence of bead-making and dyeing vats found. Crafts and Pottery: Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW):  ○ Hard, metallic-looking, wheel-made pottery with a shiny black surface, exposure to high temperatures, and a fine black slip. Cloth manufacturing : centers in Varanasi (north) and Madurai (south). Political Dynamics and Kingdoms Southern Kingdoms: Muvendar: The term "Muvendar" refers to the three ruling families: Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, prominent around 2300 years ago. Had power centers inland and on the coast; important cities: Puhar (Cholas) and Madurai (Pandyas). Satavahanas: Dynasty in western India, most important ruler: Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. Known as lords of the dakshinapatha, sent armies to eastern, western, and southern coasts. Kushanas: Ruled central Asia and northwest India around 2000 years ago. Major centers: Peshawar and Mathura; Taxila included. Controlled parts of the Silk Route, facilitating trade and collecting taxes, tributes, gifts. Silk Route: Enabled trade from Central Asia to Roman Empire, with branches reaching Indus seaports. Key Points Summary Iron and Agriculture: Early use and importance of iron tools like ploughshares. Development and significance of irrigation systems. Economics and Trade: Types and uses of early coins (punch-marked). Trade dynamics, including role of shrenis and major goods exchanged. Social Structure: Social hierarchy and roles in northern and southern villages. Contribution of craftspersons to village economies. Urban and Political Dynamics: Importance and features of urban centers like Mathura and Arikamedu. Prominent dynasties: Muvendar, Satavahanas, and Kushanas. Important Terms & Concepts Iron Tools: Axes, ploughshares, sickles, tongs. Social Classes: Vellalar, Uzhavar, Kadaisiyar, Grama Bhojaka, Grihapatis. Trade Goods: Imports (wine, copper), Exports (cotton, silk). Key Urban Centers: Mathura, Arikamedu. Notable Dynasties: Muvendar (Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas), Satavahanas, Kushanas. New Empires and Kingdoms Prashastis and What They Tell Us Introduction to Prashastis: Prashastis are special inscriptions composed in praise of kings. They provide valuable insights into the rulers' achievements and the socio-political environment of their times. An exemplary prashasti is that of Samudragupta, inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad and composed by Harishena, a poet and minister at Samudragupta’s court. This prashasti is a testament to the greatness and valor of Samudragupta. Samudragupta’s Prashasti: The prashasti praises Samudragupta as a formidable warrior, a learned king, and the best of poets, equating him to the gods. It describes his charming body covered with countless battle scars from various weapons, showcasing his bravery and skill in battle. The inscription is composed of long, elaborate sentences that depict Samudragupta's prowess and qualities in vivid detail. Policies Towards Different Rulers: Samudragupta's prashasti outlines his policies towards different types of rulers: 1. Rulers of Aryavarta (shaded in green on the map): Nine rulers whose kingdoms were annexed into Samudragupta’s empire. 2. Rulers of Dakshinapatha (marked with red dots): Twelve rulers who surrendered after defeat and were allowed to rule again. 3. Inner Circle of Neighboring States (marked in purple): Included regions like Assam, coastal Bengal, and Nepal, which brought tribute and followed his orders. 4. Rulers of Outlying Areas (marked in blue): Descendants of the Kushanas and Shakas, and the Sri Lankan ruler, who submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage. Samudragupta’s multifaceted approach towards different regions and rulers highlights his strategic acumen in consolidating and expanding his empire. Genealogies and Samudragupta’s Ancestry Family Background: Samudragupta's lineage is noted in his prashasti. His great grandfather and grandfather are referred to as maha-rajas, while his father, Chandragupta, was the first to bear the title of maharaj-adhiraja. His mother, Kumara Devi, hailed from the Lichchhavi gana. These genealogical details indicate the gradual rise of Samudragupta’s family to prominence. Vikram Samvat: The Vikram Samvat era, beginning in 58 BCE, is traditionally linked to Chandragupta II’s victory over the Shakas, where he assumed the title Vikramaditya. Chandragupta II, Samudragupta’s son, also figures in later genealogies, noted for his Western India expedition and defeat of the Shakas. Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita Biographical Source: We learn about Harshavardhana, who ruled nearly 1400 years ago, through his biography, the Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta. This biography, along with accounts from the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang, provides a detailed portrait of Harsha’s reign. Harsha's Reign: Harsha was not the eldest son but became the king of Thanesar after the deaths of his father and elder brother. He later took over Kanauj and successfully led an army against Bengal. Despite his victories in the east and his successful annexation of Magadha and Bengal, Harsha faced resistance in the south from the Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II, who prevented him from advancing into the Deccan. Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Pulakeshin’s Prashasti Important Dynasties: Two prominent dynasties in South India during this period were the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. The Pallavas' kingdom extended from Kanchipuram to the Kaveri delta, while the Chalukyas were based around Raichur Doab. Both dynasties often raided each other's prosperous capital cities and governed significant territories. Pulakeshin II: Pulakeshin II, the best-known Chalukya ruler, is known from a prashasti composed by his court poet Ravikirti. This prashasti traces Pulakeshin’s lineage over four generations and highlights his significant military campaigns along both coasts and his victory over Harsha, noted poetically as “Harsha was no longer Harsha!” Pulakeshin also attacked the Pallava king at Kanchipuram, although this victory was short-lived as both dynasties were eventually succeeded by the Rashtrakutas and the Cholas. Administration of Kingdoms Administrative Posts: Like earlier rulers, land revenue remained crucial for administration. Some new developments included hereditary posts, ensuring that sons often succeeded their fathers. For instance, Harishena, a poet, and chief judicial officer (maha-danda-nayaka), inherited his post. Important officials often held multiple positions, such as the roles of kumar-amatya (important minister) and sandhi-vigrahika (minister of war and peace). Local Administration: Local administration involved influential figures like the nagara-shreshthi (chief banker or merchant), sarthavaha (leader of merchant caravans), prathama-kulika (chief craftsman), and the head of the kayasthas (scribes). Despite these effective policies, powerful men sometimes established independent kingdoms. Military Leaders (Samantas): Kings maintained organized armies with elephants, chariots, cavalry, and foot soldiers. Military leaders, known as samantas, were granted land instead of salaries and maintained troops. They could become independent if the ruler was weak, posing a challenge to centralized control. Assemblies in Southern Kingdoms Types of Assemblies: The inscriptions of the Pallavas mention several local assemblies: 1. Sabha: Assembly of Brahmin landowners operating through sub-committees overseeing irrigation, agricultural operations, local temples, and infrastructure. 2. Ur: Village assembly found in areas without Brahmin landowners. 3. Nagaram: Organisation of merchants. These assemblies, often dominated by wealthy landowners and merchants, continued to function over centuries. Ordinary People in the Kingdoms Depictions in Literature: Plays and other accounts provide glimpses into the lives of ordinary people. Kalidasa’s plays, such as "Abhijnana Shakuntalam," depict court life and social interactions, with kings and Brahmins speaking Sanskrit while others speak Prakrit. These plays highlight the social stratification and everyday activities of different classes. Accounts by Fa Xian: The Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian noted the harsh treatment of untouchables, who were required to live on the outskirts and used wooden signals to avoid contact with others. Descriptions by Banabhatta: Banabhatta’s accounts offer vivid descriptions of the king's army on the move, detailing the extensive equipment, animals, and supplies transported. Villagers had to provide hospitality, gifts, and meet the king to present complaints. The army's passage often resulted in destruction and disruption for the local populace. Key Points Summary Prashastis and Inscriptions: Provide details about rulers' conquests and socio-political environments. Important Kingdoms and Rulers: Gupta dynasty: Samudragupta and Chandragupta II. Harshavardhana's reign and conflicts. South Indian dynasties: Pallavas and Chalukyas, with attention to Pulakeshin II. Administration and Military: Hereditary posts and combined roles for officials. Organized armies with autonomous military leaders (samantas). Assemblies and Local Governance: Various assemblies: sabha, ur, nagaram, involving local administration by wealthy landowners and merchants. Socio-Cultural Aspects: Accounts from plays, inscriptions, and travelers highlight everyday life, social hierarchies, and administrative practices. Important Terms & Concepts Prashasti: Inscriptions praising kings. Genealogies: Family lineage records in prashastis. Samantas: Military leaders granted land rather than salaries. Sabha: Assembly of Brahmin landowners. Ur: Village assembly in non-Brahmin areas. Nagaram: Organisation of merchants.