Political Parties PDF

## 2 Political Parties ### The UK's system of parliamentary democracy provides a wide range of political parties for the electorate to choose from. ### The functions and features of political parties **Features** The United Kingdom is a representative democracy, which means that we vote for MPs...

## 2 Political Parties ### The UK's system of parliamentary democracy provides a wide range of political parties for the electorate to choose from. ### The functions and features of political parties **Features** The United Kingdom is a representative democracy, which means that we vote for MPs to make decisions on our behalf. They are then made accountable to us in regular general elections. In theory, it would be possible for voters to elect independent politicians with their own individual manifesto commitments, but since the English Civil War British politics has gradually developed according to a party system. In elections we generally select from a choice of political parties that represent the spectrum of political ideas from left to right (Table 2.1). **Key term** * **Party system** There are several party system models, ranging from one-party dominance to a multiparty sharing of influence. A two-party system (duopoly) means that power is shared between two leading political parties. A two-and-a-half-party system means that a smaller party may hold the balance of power. | Left-wing political ideas | Right-wing political ideas | | :--------------------------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Those on the left of British politics have a positive view | The right wing of British politics focuses more on the importance of giving the individual as much control over their own life as possible. | | of the state and a collectivist view of society. | Right-wing politicians reject left-wing attempts to encourage greater equality and believe that the free market operates best when there is as little government interference as possible. | | They believe that the government should reduce | Governments should aim to keep taxation as low as possible and trade union influence needs to be limited in order to encourage the smooth operation of the market. | | inequality and encourage social cohesion by providing an | Companies operate most efficiently when there is competition, so nationalised firms are best privatised. | | extensive welfare state. | Although economically libertarian, the right wing is socially conservative and so emphasises the importance of a shared national identity and encourages traditional lifestyles. | | The wealthier in society should pay a higher share of the | | | cost of this through redistributive taxation. The government | | | should also play a major role in the economy through the | | | nationalisation of key industries. | | | Left-wing politicians have generally enjoyed a close | | | relationship with the trade union movement since the | | | unions also represent the economic interests of the | | | working class. | | | Socially, the left embraces multiculturalism. It is also | | | socially libertarian and so supports giving alternative | | | lifestyles equal status with more traditional ones. | | A political party comprises members who share a similar political ideology. This does not mean that they will agree about every political opinion, but their basic political ideology will be similar. For example, Conservatives are united in their belief that taxes should be kept as low as possible because it is the individual's money rather than the state's, while members of the Labour Party believe in the importance of the government encouraging social justice. However, within a party, different factions will emphasise different elements of its ideology. Right-wing Conservatives, for example, are likely to favour as small a state and as low taxation as possible, which put them at odds with the Johnson government's increase in taxation to pay for extended public investment. The left wing of the Labour Party, represented by Momentum, strongly favours nationalisation and uses the language of class conflict, which is far removed from Sir Keir Starmer's more inclusive ideology and recognition of the free market. **Key terms** * **Right wing** Right-wing political beliefs derive from liberal and conservative ideology. These include a liberal focus on the importance of limiting excessive government, keeping taxation low and protecting individual liberty. The right also emphasises conservative values such as law and order and the importance of national sovereignty and strong defence. * **Left wing** The left wing emphasises the importance of creating a fair and equal society through positive state intervention. This includes higher taxes on the wealthier, extensive welfare provision and greater state influence in the economy. The left wing is also socially progressive and favours an internationalist approach to global problems. Adversary politics is used to denote a period when there are vast ideological differences between the two main parties. Consensus politics is used when they are so ideologically similar that their policies are very similar. | Knowledge check | Answer | | :--------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | 1 Define parliamentary democracy. | A system of government in which the executive branch of government is accountable to the legislature and the head of government, the prime minister in the UK, is also the leader of a political party. | | 2 Define right wing. | A broad term used to describe those who believe in individual liberty and free markets with a limited role for the government in managing the economy or welfare. | | 3 Define left wing. | A broad term used to describe those who believe in creating a fair and equal society through government intervention and a more interventionist approach to managing the economy and social welfare. | | 4 What is redistributive taxation? | Taxing those who earn a lot more heavily than those on lower incomes to redistribute wealth and ensure greater equality. | ### The functions and features of political parties **Knowledge check** | Knowledge check | Answer | | :----------------------------------------------------------------------------- | :----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | 5 Define adversary politics. | Politics are adversarial when the two main parties have very different values, often leading to a situation where the opposition is likely to routinely oppose the government's policies. | | 6 Define consensus politics. | Politics are consensual when the two main parties have broadly similar values and agree on most policy positions. This can lead to the opposition supporting the government's policies rather than routinely opposing them. | | 7 When has politics been consensus? | The 1950s, when Hugh Gaitskell (Labour) and R.A. Butler (Conservative) held similar views on economic and social issues, leading to the invention of the term 'Butskellism'. | | 8 When has politics been adversary? | The early 1980s, contrasting the socialism of Michael Foot (Labour) with the free-market reforms of Margaret Thatcher (Conservative). Also, the 1980s saw a period of strong opposition to Conservative policies, exemplified by the miners' strike in 1984-85. | | **Key term** | **Mandate** If a political party wins a general election, it can claim the legitimate right, or mandate, from the electorate to try to implement its manifesto promises. | | | Table 2.2 explains the difference and gives examples. | | Consensus politics | Adversary politics | | :-------------------------------------------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Consensus politics means that there are many philosophical and policy similarities | When politics is adversary, this means that the main parties are divided by fundamental philosophical and policy differences. | | between the main political parties. The opposition may therefore be able to | The opposition will routinely oppose the policies of the government since they are so ideologically and practically opposed to them. | | support some government policies. | The early 1980s provides a good example of adversary politics since the socialism of Labour leader Michael Foot (1980-83) was fundamentally at odds with the free-market reforms of Margaret Thatcher. As Labour leader, Jeremy Corbyn (2015-20) pursued socialist policies that placed Labour in direct conflict with the Conservative Party. | | In the 1950s the shared commitment of the Labour chancellor of the exchequer, | | | Hugh Gaitskell, and the Conservative chancellor of the exchequer, R.A. Butler, to | | | full employment and a mixed economy led to the invention of the term 'Butskellism' | | | Tony Blair embraced traditionally Conservative principles such as the free market | | | and low taxation during his time as Labour leader (1994-2007) | | ### The functions and features of political parties **Knowledge check** | Knowledge check | Answer | | :---------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | 5 Define adversary politics. | Politics are adversarial when the two main parties have very different values, often leading to a situation where the opposition is likely to routinely oppose the government's policies. | | 6 Define consensus politics. | Politics are consensual when the two main parties have broadly similar values and agree on most policy positions. This can lead to the opposition supporting the government's policies rather than routinely opposing them. | | 7 When has politics been consensus? | The 1950s, when Hugh Gaitskell (Labour) and R.A. Butler (Conservative) held similar views on economic and social issues, leading to the invention of the term 'Butskellism'. | | 8 When has politics been adversary? | The early 1980s, contrasting the socialism of Michael Foot (Labour) with the free-market reforms of Margaret Thatcher (Conservative). Also, the 1980s saw a period of strong opposition to Conservative policies, exemplified by the miners' strike in 1984-85. | | **Key term** | **Mandate** If a political party wins a general election, it can claim the legitimate right, or mandate, from the electorate to try to implement its manifesto promises. | | | Table 2.2 explains the difference and gives examples. | **Functions** **Selecting candidates** A key function of a political party is to select candidates to fight local, regional, mayoral and general elections. In order to contest a general election, applicants have to be a member of the party and then go through a national selection process to become an approved candidate. If they pass this, they can apply to a constituency party that will then choose the individual it considers has the best chance of increasing the party's share of the vote. Once a candidate wins a seat, they can claim to have an electoral mandate to represent that seat in the House of Commons. However, the local party does not have to automatically endorse its MP as the candidate for the next general election if their views are too opposed to those of local activists. Instead, it can open up the field to other candidates. This mechanism is rarely used. In 2022, the Labour MP Sam Tarry, who had been sacked as a shadow minister by Sir Keir Starmer on the grounds that he was out of touch with the leadership, was deselected by his Ilford South constituency. **Providing the personnel of government** By providing candidates for election to public office, political parties contribute the personnel for government. This can be in a local, devolved or national executive. For example, in 2010 the membership of the parliamentary Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties provided the membership of the coalition government. **Electing a leader** The members of a political party also play an important role in the election of the party leader. In the Conservative Party, for example, the parliamentary party will agree on two MPs, whose names then go forward to party members to decide between. In 2022, the party membership voted for Liz Truss (57%) over Rishi Sunak (43%). However, the influence of party members can be side-stepped. This was the case in 2016 when Andrea Leadsom withdrew from the contest, ensuring that Theresa May became Conservative leader, and prime minister, unopposed. This was strikingly also the case in 2022, when Conservative MPs united behind Rishi Sunak as party leader, so preventing the party membership from electing another leader after the Liz Truss debacle. Under Ed Miliband, the Labour Party also adopted one member, one vote. The current rules state that if an MP can secure the backing of 10% of the parliamentary Labour Party, their name will go to the party membership to vote on (Table 2.3). | Table 2.3 2020 Labour leadership contest | Share of the vote (%) | Contender | | :---------------------------------------- | :------------------- | :----------- | | | 56 | Sir Keir Starmer | | | 28 | Rebecca Long-Bailey | | | 16 | Lisa Nandy | **Policy formulation (the manifesto)** Political parties determine the policy commitments that will be put in the party manifesto. In the Labour Party, a National Policy Forum consults with party members over the development of policy. Before the 2017 general election the National Policy Forum and the elected National Executive Council worked closely with the leadership and senior members of the parliamentary party to 'aggregate' a manifesto that fairly represented the political opinions of the Labour movement. At all levels the party will ensure that members, elected representatives, affiliated organisations and, where practicable, the wider community are able to participate in the process of policy consideration and formulation. _Clause V, Labour Party Rule Book (2018)_ The Conservative Party also encourages consultation and discussion among its membership, although the manifesto is more likely to be drawn up by senior members of the party. More decentralised parties such as the Liberal Democrats and the Green Party give the party membership the final decision over what appears in the party manifesto. Table 2.4 summarises the path from manifesto to mandate. | Table 2.4 Manifesto and mandate | | :--------------------------- | | Manifesto | | A political party will publish its | | manifesto during a general | | election campaign. This sets | | out what it will seek to | | achieve if it is able to | | form a government. | | If a party wins a parliamentary | | majority in a general election, | | it can claim the legitimacy to | | carry out its manifesto | | commitments. | | These manifesto promises will | | form the core of the monarch's | | address at the beginning of | | the new parliament. | | Mandate | | If a political party has won a | | general election, it can be said | | to have a mandate to govern | | the country. This means that | | it has the authority to try to | | enact its manifesto | | commitments. Having won a | | majority in the 2019 general | | election, Boris Johnson's | | government could legitimately | | fulfil its manifesto | | commitment to enact | | legislation withdrawing the UK | | from the EU. | | If no party has achieved a | | parliamentary majority, then | | a coalition (2010) or a | | minority (2017) government | | will be established. In these | | circumstances the principle | | of the mandate does not | | operate smoothly since the | | government cannot rely on an | | unequivocal electoral | | mandate from the public. | | A government can also claim a | | 'doctor's mandate', which | | means that it can propose | | measures not included in | | its manifesto in response to | | changing political | | circumstances. For example, | | within weeks of being | | elected in 2019, the | | Johnson government had to | | introduce legislation to | | respond to the Covid-19 | | pandemic. | **Knowledge check** | Knowledge check | Answer | | :----------------------------------------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | 9 Define manifesto. | A document that sets out a political party's policy commitments ahead of a general election. | | 10 Define mandate. | An authority given by the electorate to the party that wins an election to enact its manifesto promises. | | 11 What is the difference between a majority and a minority government? | A majority government has more than half the seats in the House of Commons, whilst a minority government has less than half the seats and has to rely on the support of other parties | | 12 List three functions of a political party. | Selecting candidates, providing the personnel of government, formulating policy and drafting a manifesto. | ### Debate: Do political parties help or hinder representative democracy? | Help | Hinder | | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Representative democracy could not function without political parties. If politicians simply represented | Political parties reduce voter choice by requiring voters to associate themselves with the manifesto of a political party even though that manifesto might not fully represent their political views. For example, in 2017 you might have voted Labour because you fully supported the party's policies on taxation and yet regarded their policies on nationalisation and defence much less favourably. A political party often can only partially represent one's political views, so limiting the individual's choice | | their individual views, it would be very difficult to establish a government since its members would not be | The freedom of action of MPs is reduced because although they could argue that they have their personal mandate, the party whips expect them to support the programme of their political party. As Benjamin Disraeli once said, 'Damn your principles. Stick to your party.' Political parties can be criticised for suffocating genuine debate in a representative democracy by monopolising political decision making | | united by one political ideology. | The 'spirit of faction' that political parties create has also been criticised for creating a confrontational and negative approach to government. Political parties too often focus on their differences and fail to work together, which can create a dangerously polarised society. The gulf between the Democrats and the Republicans in the USA today, which has even led to temporary shutdowns in government, illustrates how negative party animosities can be. On the other hand, the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition lasted the full term of a parliament, demonstrating what can be achieved when party differences are kept to a minimum | | Political parties develop/aggregate coherent political programmes through discussion. The way in which | | | political parties then issue manifestos enables voters across the whole country to make the same rational | | | choices about who they will vote for. | | | Without political parties, voting in elections would be more complicated because voters would no longer | | | be able to associate a candidate with a particular party manifesto. | | | Political parties select suitable candidates to stand for public office. Without political parties, wealthy | | | individuals with populist agendas might find it easier to access power, with potentially dangerous | | | consequences for UK liberal democracy. | | **Help :** * Opposition political parties can hold a government accountable for its policies in a way that would be impossible for individual representatives. * Political parties are vital in organising parliamentary business. If they did not exist, representative bodies would become confused and disorganised. * Mobilising consent for government. **Hinder :** * Political parties give excessive power to the party membership. By selecting the party leader, the membership effectively determines the choice of who will be prime minister in the general election. * The way in which the main political parties benefit from disproportionate funding also ensures that they can monopolise political decision making. **How parties are funded** The way in which political parties are funded is highly controversial. In some countries the state itself funds its political parties. However, in the UK political parties have always relied on a great deal of private funding, although they do have some limited access to public funds to subsidise policy development and parliamentary scrutiny. A leading criticism of the private funding of political parties is that wealthy vested interests can 'bankroll' a political party to achieve their own political objectives. * Policy development grants allocate £2 million to all the main parties so that they can employ policy advisers. * Short money, named after the Labour politician Ted Short, is allocated to the opposition parties for their work in the House of Commons based on the number of seats they have (Table 2.5). The leader of the opposition is also funded almost £800,000 for the running of their office. * Cranborne money, named after the Conservative peer Lord Cranborne, subsidises the work of scrutiny carried out by the opposition parties in the House of Lords. These subsidies do not cover campaigning and election expenses. For these, a political party depends on the subscriptions of its party members, as well as individual donations from benefactors (Table 2.6). The Conservative Party has traditionally received large-scale donations from big businesses that see a Conservative government as being in their best interests. | Table 2.5 Short money allocation, 2021-22 | | :------------------------------------------ | | Opposition party | Short money | | Labour Party | £6,602,347 | | Scottish National Party | £1,117,489 | | Democratic Unionist Party | £195,870 | | Liberal Democrats | £903.753 | | Green Party wted girtenoitaler & s£181,907 | | | Plaid Cymru | £104,683 | | Social Democratic and Labour Party | £104,683 | **Knowledge check** | Knowledge check | Answer | | :---------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | 13 What is the role of party whips? | To discipline MPs and ensure they vote with the party line by pressuring them to attend and vote in important parliamentary votes. | | 14 What is Short and Cranborne money? | Funding provided to opposition parties to cover the costs of parliamentary research and scrutiny. Short money covers MPs, while Cranborne money covers Peers. | | 15 Where do the Conservative and Labour parties acquire most of their funding from? | The Conservative Party receives most of its funding from wealthy donors and companies, whilst the Labour Party's funding is heavily reliant on trade unions. | | 16 List two important requirements of the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act. | The Act introduced an independent Electoral Commission to regulate party funding, and it imposes limits on the amount that can be spent by parties during an election. | **In Focus :** Membership of the Leader's Group is open to those who have donated £50,000 to the Conservative Party. Members attend regular lunches and dinners with senior members of the Conservative Party. There is no evidence that wealthy donors have used this access to direct Conservative policy. However, critics claim the insider status that businesspeople can automatically expect as a result of substantial donations discourages transparency and creates too close a relationship between Conservative politicians and their financial backers. ### Debate: Should political parties in the UK be state funded? | Yes | No | | :-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | :----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | During the 2019 general election, the Conservative and Labour parties were responsible for 80.5% of total campaign spending. This disproportionate | In a free democracy, people should be able to financially support any cause they wish. Political parties are no different from charities or pressure groups. | | influence is reinforcing a duopoly in the UK. | If the state were to fund political parties, as occurs in some countries, it would be controversial to decide how much each political party could claim. For | | The public funding of political parties would create a more level playing field so that smaller parties would not be so disadvantaged in elections. This | example, if funding was based on existing electoral success, this could reinforce Conservative and Labour dominance. | | would provide the electorate with a fairer choice. | Philosophically, state funding might also suggest that political parties were somehow servants of the state, which might limit their political independence. | | The way in which they are funded connects Labour and the Conservatives to the trade unions and big business. If this connection was broken by public | In the 2019 general election, 87 political parties (many of them fringe or extremist) received more than 500 votes. It would be controversial to decide | | funding, then both parties would be more responsive to the wider public. | which would receive funding and how much. | | Despite the cash for honours scandal (2006-07) there have been further examples of big donors to political parties being awarded peerages. In 2021, | In 2019, despite the Brexit Party spending £4,150,000 (13.5% of total spending), it won no seats. The Scottish National Party received £24,929 in | | Peter Cruddas, a former Conservative co-treasurer who has donated £3 million to the Conservative Party, was recommended for a peerage by Boris | donations (0.1% of total spending) and won 48 seats. This suggests that the disproportionate financial influence between political parties has little impact | | Johnson. The public funding of political parties would remove the potential for claims of corruption and help to restore public trust in politicians. | in terms of electoral success. | | The cost of state funding of political parties would be comparatively small (the Phillips Report recommended £25 million). The required increase in | All political parties raise money through charging membership dues. If they were publicly funded there would be less of an incentive for them to | | taxation would thus be comparatively small. | encourage political activism and engage with the public. | | State funding of political parties would encourage greater transparency and trust in politics. | | ### Established political parties **The Conservative Party** **Traditional conservatism** The origins of the Conservative Party can be traced back to the English Civil War. During this conflict, the royalist supporters of the monarchy and the established Church of England resisted giving Parliament greater influence and providing the public with greater freedom of worship. Those who supported the Crown were siding with the status quo against what they feared would become violent and destabilising change. This conservative fear of the violence that sudden change can unleash is reflected in Thomas Hobbes' masterpiece _Leviathan_ (1651). Hobbes had lived through the English Civil War and so knew first-hand what can happen when government breaks down. His view of human nature was also very negative and so he argued that if there was not a strong government to control its citizens and resist dangerous innovation, anarchy would ensue, ensuring that property would not be safe, violence would be endemic and 'the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short'.