Pol201 Notes Compilation PDF

Creation of the 3 worlds of development 3rd world → french idea least developed, lesser human cold war ○ east and the west ○ not aligned w cap or comm ghana and sk had same gdp in 1960, now sk is more similar to canada transformation of the 3rd world →...

Creation of the 3 worlds of development 3rd world → french idea least developed, lesser human cold war ○ east and the west ○ not aligned w cap or comm ghana and sk had same gdp in 1960, now sk is more similar to canada transformation of the 3rd world → how its become more over 100m black people in the americas, brought over from africa led rise to colonialism decolonised → we gave you independence liberation → we fought for it, we gained it = context of colonisation vs decolonisation concept of devt is highly controversial, contested, complex, and ambiguous idea of devt is ideologically driven and associated with the west and western discourse (idea of progress, reason, universal modernity, industrialisation, and capitalism) ○ rationality is also associated ○ modernity is believed to have started w the french revolution in 1789 first time where the french separated church and state, introduction of secularism ○ we’re currently in post-modernity we feel we’ve passed it full implementation of capitalism, industrialization emergence of the middle class many agree that development encompasses change in a variety of aspects of the human condition, probably meaning a “good change” ○ some people say gender equality is good, some say it isnt ○ what one person think is fair, another may not think so meaning of devt long term process of structural societal transformation 3 worlds during the cold war era first world = west ○ g8 - na, western europe, japan, australia, nz ○ share liberal democracy and capitalism ○ political stability at least since 1945  ○ high degree industrialisation and urbanization ○ relatively better redistribution of wealth ○ large middle class, modern and large cities, and highly educated population 70-80% = middle class in africa, many people only have 2y education vs us; 15-16 minimum second world = comms, china is still sort of communist ○ former socialist countries including ussr, ee, cuba, nk, and some african countries ○ centralised and command economy ○ vanguard party without political pluralism ○ some degree industrialized ○ underwent radical transformation since 1989 berlin wall fell, germany was reunited ○ some countries went up and others struggle in their transition to liberal democracy and market economy ○ only nk and cuba could claim loyalty to socialist identity/ideology ○ china has one party, but does not fully apply dont have as many natural resources, but still one of the most prosperous countries in the world confusious economy, adopts some liberalism theres no formula to transform ur economy didnt follow 5 stages laid out, didnt follow us or uk -. no one size fits all ○ people didnt like comm bc it didnt go w consumerism ○ russian economy didnt fully transform and privatise, still a mix, but not socialist either russia still has the most natural resources but has not transformed into a capitalist economy third world - “developing nations’, not aligned ○ defined as group of countries w colonial history and in process of dev econ and socially from status characterised by low incomes, dependence on ag, weakness in trading relations, social deprivation for large segments of society and restricted political and civil libs ○ have primary product dependency → e.g. only coffee, oil → commodities have unstable prices monocultures ○ struggling political systems ○ def based on the idea of development ideologically driven + associated w the west and western discourse idea of western modernity = context ○ outdated def bc many countries have come a v far way ○ all countries of the south except aus, nz, japan developing countries aren't at the same level of socio ec dev ○ third world is residual category invented by eurocentric division of the globe into 3 worlds of development ○ coined in context of cold war (bipolar conflict, 45-90)  started in 1947 many countries were becoming independent not socialist or capitalist alfred sovee - compared to french revolution ⇒ nobility, clergy, people == estates ○ corresponded w decolonisation and the emergence of new nation-states, advent of globalisation and technological rev which made the world smaller place after ww2 ○ european traders came up w the name ‘middle-east’ ○ newly industrialised countries → succeeded in dev hk thailand, sk, taiwan, (vietnam, malaysia == close) = asian tigers posted = include human and social capital → 1980s social focus of the 80s revolutions truman point 4 speech idea of containment → help them they cant cause us problems they are poor and stagnant, theyre primitive → helping them helps us ○ solve immigration by helping those countries elevate themselves the focus became the fight against communism → went to korea shortly after customary intl law → not formal, but established what is the developing world 3rd world is nebulous concept regrouping all countries of the global south, small big rich and poor rich diversity of human exp and social org ○ social - family structure, relationship formation vast variety of political orgs dual society- signs of material wealth coexist w poverty and basic survival ○ india - most billionaires after us, both 4mill people make below $2 a day ○ a characteristic of development = size of middle class ⇒ 60-70% only reason why china still developing 700k moved upwards from poverty to middle class in a couple of decades needed a century and a half to create a middle class chinese communism was diff from russian communism, chinese comm = maoism, based more on peasants long march. mao went to countryside1` vast variety of political organisations concept adn meaning of 3rd world  3rd world was invented by eurocentric div of globe into 3rd world of dev and often loaded w negative meanings and implications alfred sauvy in 1952 countied teh concept by borrowing from tiers etat = third estate sauvy used concept to draw parallel w pre revolutionary france which referred to teh bottom layers of the social pyramid beneath the clergy and the nobility sauvy used it in teh context of the cold war 3rd world - diversity large countries ○ china, indonesiea, brazil, mexico oil rich/opec ○ arab states, nigeria, venezuela nics/tigers ○ hk, singapore, sk ○ miracles bc not that many natural resources landlocked states ○ bolivia, paraguya, botswana, chad, zambia, nepal, bhutan small island states ○ atlantic, indian, pacific, caribbean and mediterranean ○ huge diversity in these japan - meiji revolution 1860s, become developed to cope w the rest of the world industrialising restored emperor common characateristics of the 3rd world political independence ○ w exception of few countries, 3rd world countries experienced colonialism at some stage of their history ○ latin america got independence in early 1900 (1808-1820) except cuba - later in 1800s ○ still some islands e.g. Guadeloupe, Martinique, and French guinea, which are not yet sovereign guadeloupe folks are voting for fascists, but people generally do not want independence - will lose tourism plus french connections ○ independence came thru constitutional negotiation or armed struggle quit india movement ○ numerous negative legacies of colonialism and imperialism reflected in artificial boundaries, poverty, political violence, and dictatorship kashmir → couldve been sorted out, as well as ind - pak rivalry, bc of the way england left created internal hostility rwandan genocide → anywhere Europeans went  europeans created long-lasted problems in many countries scramble for africa - made by europeans, 57 countries split up based on europeans desires dictatorships → euros created dictatorship and ruled as such, arbitrary, dictatorship in those countries now is modelled after that poverty ○ most impt indicateor of commonalities ○ low per capita income ○ high unequal distrib of wealth although some have relatively more equitable income distribution ○ poor infrastructure and limited modern tech ○ low consumption of energy ○ unemployment, substandard housing, poor health conditions and inadequate diet 40k children die every day bc of malnutrition unemployment → haiti 90%, what are they going to do except violence no hope, no way of moving up ○ problems of landownership or govt land ownership policies taxation and welfare programs avg incomes ○ poor by intl standards ○ are found in low income and lower middle income category industrialisation ○ dependence on ag - low income and poverty subsistence farmers → dont have motor tech, will use bare hands to make ag ○ more labour force is engaged in agriculture (60.5% compared to 14.4% in developed nations) ○ exception to this is asian tigers service sector development integration into world economy ○ high level of dependence on the export of a very small no of commodities (mono-culture) ppd kilo of coffee = paid 10c ○ primary commodity producers and dependence of ag ○ trade is generally conducted w the first world countries ○ developing countries produce 80% of global output and account for only 17% of world trade social well being ○ inequalities in social well being as indicated by health and ed are also found between urban and rural areas and between men and women ○ poverty in rural areas, malnutrition, lack of ed, life expectancy, and substandard housing ○ gender gap - women do worse than men in terms of health, nutrition, and ed regime types  ○ authoritarianism and soft state ○ dictatorship of all types, military, neo patrimonial, theocratic, transitional, democratic, liberal or communist, totalitarianism lack of national integration ○ intl division along ethnic, religious, and cultural lines due colonoial arbitrary division of borders and peoples by european colonialism e.g. africa ○ absense of common and referent/core culture to unite people composing the nation high pop growth compared to teh growth of the gnp ○ rapid urbanisation and rule exodus beyond the capacity of cities to accommodate ○ development of ashanty towns, slums, and high unemployment, urban poverty and criminality labelling in intl development new label - new industrialised countries (nics) — emerging markets nic status is determined by 4 criteria ○ manufacturing contribute 30% of gdp ○ manufactured goods are 50% of exports ○ more people are employed in industry than ag ○ per capita income of us $2,000 as of 1991 new label: developing still defined in opp to ‘developed’ classification is determined by gdp: per capita gdp as a ‘statistical illusion’ world bank classification ○ low income countries ○ developing countries lower middle income countries upper middle income countries ○ high income countries ○ oecd high-income countries new label: 4th world ○ poorest of the poor ○ ‘failed states’ ○ aboriginal people societies ○ other labels two-thirds wrodl majority world south/global south ○ summary labels, words, talks abt development tend to be ethnocentric, mask power relations, and create only the illusion of reform nonalignment movement and the cold war  started in bandung - 1955 key figures - leaders of early, successful anti-colonial movements ○ nehru (india), sukarno (indonesia), nasser (egypt) committed to democracy, modernisation, and peace in line with un version of universalism india as early model gandhi- non-violent resistance political obj - right of independent judgement, the struggle against imperialism and eno-colonialism, and the use of moderation in relations with all big powers ○ didnt want to be influenced by us or russia ○ were struggling against imperialism and neo colonialism origins of nam non-aligned movement is a movement of 115 members representing the interests and priorities of devleoping countires == 118 now movement has its original in the asia-africa conference held in bandungs indonesia in 1955 meetings was convned upon the invitation of the pm of burma, ceylon , india, indonesia, and pakistan conference brought together leaders of 29 states from africa and asia to discuss common concerns and to develop joing policies in intel relatiosn discussed various issues including apartheid in sa and palestine were mostly socialist/communist nehru, nkrumah, nasser, sukarnu, tito problem w the 3rd worldism end of the second of the cold war and the end of the 3rd world the stratification of the third world over the last 50 yrs the impact of globalisation and its diff impacts on the various parts of the former 3rd world term 3rd world has become pejorative associated w negative connotation - famine, abject poverty, bloody war, epidemic diseases what term to use? developing countries/world, the global south and the maj world? least developed countries - diplomacy countries? debate whether it should be kept and abandoned after 89, pointless a lot of countries had developed and become quite rich  Imperialism, colonialism, and decolonisation periodisation of euro colonialism 1. 1520-1570: construction of spanish colonial system in mexico 1. result of columbus 2. first colonisatoin 2. 1630-1680 - establishment of caribbean plantation economy 1. establishment of transatlantic slave trade 2. after europeans discovered africa 3. 1760-1830 - onset of european territorial rule in asia 1. india 4. 1880 - 1900 - new wave of colony formation in the old world 5. 1900 - 1930 - heyday of colonial export economies 6. 1945 - 1960 - the second colonial occupation of africa rise of europe and imperialism 1492 - 2 major developments 1. discovery of americas by columbus followed by population movement motivated by 3 gs: gold, god, glory mixed population bc no women on ships, so intermingling ie rape 2. defeat of arabs in spain and end of feudalism and centralisation of state which laid the foundation for the creation of national states development of mercantalism, accumulation of gold silver, and slave labour connecting 3 continents (americas, europe, africa) - the atlantic slave trade mercantalism - early type of capitalism, maximise exports minimise imports 1648 - policy 1497 - vasco da gama travelled to india good to africa, exchange for slaves, slaves to us colonies, brought back goods trade looked like this for 300 yrs some people died, 60%, 10-15million? hard to estimate slave = commodity, use as desired, sold, exchanged, coffee, sugar, cattle, rice, tobacco africans participated in slavery, leaders exhanged humans for cigarettes, entire economy based on this partition of africa 1885-1900 how slavery came to end development of industrailisation no need ofr slave labour, didnt need, redundant abolition movement  1807 in the uk, stayed in the us until 1860 → american civil war people were like this isnt great in us = promised independence and rights, but never gave slave revolt the haitian people fought back against plantation owners resistance was always present, but end of 19thc was v important some people were miserable after slavery bc they didnt have anything to live off of, nothing to eat african americans are suing the govt → legacy of slavery afro-brazilians also suffering 3 periods of imperialism 1. 1492 - 1776 - global expansion 2. 1776-1870 - british dominance and the withdrawal of other imperialists 3. 1870-1949 - the new imperialism (high imperialism) ○ new imperalism started in teh middle of the 19th c. quick and explosive, and competitve, involving britsh french beglians germans italians and portugeuse, as well as americans and japanese ○ highlight of new imperalism was the scramble for africa (1875-1900) symbolised by the berlin conference where europeans divided africa into colonies on the map imperalism - a political system by which colonies are ruled form a central seat of power in the pursuit of largely if not entirely economic goals an economic system in which a state purses external investment and penetration of markets and sources of raw materials imperialism = napoleon, nationalism political subjugation thru colonialism is only one form this domination may take imperialism without colonies? usa in latin america and the caribbean ○ monroe doctrine - holds any intervention in the political affairs of the amercas by foreign powers is a potentially hostile act against the us ⇒ “our area, you cant come in” ○ america used to defend its own interests idea changes over time colonialism and colony colonialism refers to political social economic and cultural dom of a territory and its people by a foreign power for an extend period of time - foreign occupation and control colony - a colony is a new political org created by invasion (conquest and/or settlement colonisation_ but built on pre-colonial conditions. its alien rulers are in sustained dependence on a geo remote mother country or imperial center, which claims exclusive rights of “possession” of eth colony neo colonialism -is the process by which rich powerful developed states sue economic, political and informal means to exert pressures on poor, less powerful, underdeveloped states colonialism hasnt ended, independence is nominal influence over weak states creole motives of european colonialism 1. economic theory ○ hobson’s theory overproduction and under consumption wrote book called imperialism industrial capitalism was creating more than people were acc using need to search for markets ○ lenin’s theory of monopoly capitalism: “imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism” written in 1917 2. social darwinism, emphasising the alleged superiority of european race over other races ○ herbert spencer said “survival of the fittest”, said white men are on the top of the social hierarchy ○ if you can go colonise, why not, its ur right ○ white mans burden = white men have a moral duty to go and colonise nations 3. evangelical christianity ○ churches established before colonisers came and settled ○ prepping the lad for colonialisation ○ used as distraction, way to bond w natives, while they colonised behind them 4. social atavism ○ for the pleasure of going and colonising, they had the means, so they wanted to ○ psychological theory ○ prof isnt convinced by this 5. diplomatic theory - balance of power, national prestige, and global strategy ○ if the french colonised somewhere, then the british did too ○ british were more proud than anyone else ○ ‘sun doesnt set in british empire’ ○ e.g. british only wanted to colonise yemen and mediterranean sea to control and use the red sea and suez canal so that they wouldnt have to go all the way around africa to get to india european motives for colonisation  nationalism after french rev soc ec opps ○ many people in tunis and algeria were quite poor, didnt have much ○ many opp humanitarian reason ○ bring meds, hospitals, schools ○ british built roads and railways in india places to dump unwanted/excess population ○ sa and aus how were the euopeans able to conquer africa they knew more abt african politics, land and people thanks to explorers, missionaries, merchants etc ○ new where the weaknesses were ○ how to become friends w people medical tech - europeans were less fearlful abt african diseases since middle of 19th c more material adv that they could spend millions of pounds on overseas campaigns and africans cant sustain any military invasion military tech, maxim guns, heavy artillery ○ maxim guns were the most efficient political and military weakness of african societies ○ no states ○ kingdoms and sultanates, not enough resistance, couldnt raise a big enough army ○ ethiopia never colonised, fought europeans off. fought off since hannibal, defeated italians in adawa scramble for africa 1880-1900 ⇒ berlin conference 1884-1885 convened by german chancellor, otto von bismarck 14 european major powers attended no african leader was invited to thsi meeting africa was divided on teh map without considering any cultural, religious, and ethnic differences of african societies sets ground rules for occupation and colonisation ○ became international law berlin act defined “the sphere influence” yet some countries were on the verge of confrontation in teh scramble for africa (e.g. fashoda, sudan in 1898) only liberia and ethiopia were not colonised ○ liberia not invade dbc theoretically defended by us began as a project of american colonisation society, which believed black people would face better chances for freedom and preosperity in africa than us glorifying and justifying european colonialism europeans justified colonisation as a “civilising mission” and white mans burden, which would benefit the colonised madagsacar guy → no one asked what we wanted types of colonies 1. exploitation colonies 1. more abt exploiting for resources 2. british didnt have enough resources to fully settle → 4000 officers and 600 indian princes 3. diff is spanish american, where european immigration led to an urban mixed society with a dominating creole minority 2. maritime enclaves (result of fleet actions) 3. settlement colonies - result of militarily supported colonisation processes 1. “new england” type - displacement and even annihalation of economically dispensable indig pop e.g. british new england colonies, canada, and australia 2. “african” type - economic dependence on an indigenous labour force - algeria, southern rhodesia, south africa 1. really hard to get independence bc colonisers didnt want to leave 2. many africans became rich bc they took adv of this, but most africans did not see any benefit 3. independence did not result in equality or equity in any way 3. “caribbean” type - import of slaves e.g. barbados, jamaica, saint domingue, virginia, cuba, brazil methods of colonial rule in africa, france, and uk from abt 1900 4 main theories of colonial administration emerged 1. france: assimilation, association, and direct rule ○ assim was abosrption of africans to euro culture and euro acceptance of the africans as a partner in govt, business, and missionary enterprise ○ policty of assimilation failed and replaced by policy of association which appeared to be economical, practical, and effective ○ portugal had similar policy called assimildos in portugal, you dont have equal rights. in france, was not abt skin colour but more abt culture, treated equally ○ evolved = civilised, according to them ○ anyone assimilated went to assimilated courts, treated french. anyone who was indigenous went to indigenous courts. treated diff ○ recruited francophiles as leaders when they left 2. uk - indirect rule ○ indirect rule was based on ethics, tradition and theory and cheap  ○ didnt get rid of tradition or culture, let local authorities function, just had to swear allegiance to british crown ○ decentralisation and continuity ○ cooperation and evolutionary change ○ indirect rule was vague, paternalist, and filled with entrenched racism and unsuccessful except in few places like uganda and northern nigeria decolonisation/liberation decolonisation/liberation is the opposite of colonisation i.e. ending colonial rule surrender of external political sovereignity, largely western european peoples plus emergence of independent territories decolonisation took place mainly after 1945, 1947-1965 w more than 80 countries gaining independence between 1945-1980 india was first to be free in 1947 and followed by other asian and african countries from 1940s and 1970s why did it end ○ development of anti-colonial natinoalism and national liberation movements in reaction to european domination and imperialism (asia and africa) ○ eocnomic and political consequences of ww2 ○ ideological and philosophical opposition of us and the ussr to classical colonialism ussr supported independence of countries, us was more abt self determination atlantic charter - stalin conditioned independence of colonies at the end of the war, not up to liking of the british. this was meeting w churchill in halifax ○ success of asian nationalism (india, burma, sri lanka) jinnah, nkrumah, all western educated ○ question of profitability of colonies (cost to run colonies) uk economy incredibly damaged, quit india movement accelerated after this became incredibly evident ○ un and its charter which followed the atlantic charter of 1941 made colonialism illegal decolonisation/liberation war negotiation vietnam[france] india/pak algeria [france] → was considered part of france bc of geography, not much of africa colony kenya[britain] indonesia  mozambique and angola [portugal] philippines zimbabwe (white settlers) leadership of liberation struggles western educated middle class charismatic some supported violence and others non violence e.g. jinnaj, kenyatta (kenya), minh, nkrumah, gandhi  Theories and practice of development 1 - modernisation, dependency, and radical theories what are development theories development tends to mainly track western progress and growth growth in econ thought → adam smith, karl marx, keynes (state intervention → new deal) sets of props that aim to explain how devt has taken place in past and how it may occur in the future includes analyses of how devpt problems have come abt and best ays to deal w these problems no fixed def of devpt, no single theory to it highly interdisciplinary in nature, involving examination of transformations in politics, economy, society, culture → anthro, pol sci, econ how to overcome structural problems chronological typology of theories thomas hope et al identified 4 more phases of evolution 1. modernisation theories - particularly influential in 40s and 50s 2. dependency theories, impt in 60s and 70s 1. why some countries failed to develop e.g. latin america 3. neo-liberalism and structural adjustment, emerged in 80s and 90s 1. imagines context of global context, oil shock, inflation, unemployment, alongside many conservative leaders e.g. reagan and thatcher → keynes became less popular 2. s/a force countries to adopt some econ policies to help them develop, washington consensus 4. post development, in the 90s 1. post modernism, moving beyond grand narratives 2. post structuralism, post marxism 3. challenge old ideas origins of devt theories pioneer theorists and thinkers ○ marx, weber, durkheim, mauss, darwin, parsons birth of development theory - post ww2 world reality and intl politics ○ what to do w newly liberated countries ○ were supposed to be modern states but they dont know what to do next, give a model ○ supposed to help them and give them an idea of what to do next war of liberation and newly created states were in search of model of devpt  technological transform drew world together and made it more interdependent cold war ○ bipoloarisation of world politics and competition between socialist and capitalist ideologies ○ devpt theories arise to explain changing western societies ○ unchanging non-western societies were used as comparative resources in explaining modernity ○ dt was created after it was noted that the problems of the south were specific and diff from those that europe and the us had historically experienced ○ why did europe and the us develop so fast? what did the west do right if u like us, ur like us → modernity → integration → us canada and us are an extension of europe us grew incredibly fast considering it was only created in late 1700s modernisation theory modernisation assumes that devpt is a + and irreversiable process thru which all societies eventually pass → cant avoid devpt in south in second half of 20th c was expected to mirro rthat of the earlier evolution of europe and us moreover, itw as thought that the only way to develop was thru the diffusion of western capital tech and the adoption of western values = modernity ○ e.g. can lend money ○ value trade ○ west can guarantee u teh resources you need to follow the european example 2 main influences ○ evolutionary theory and diffusionist theory ○ diffusion = one set of values is superior and will overtake those of another → should be imitated ○ evolutionary theory ww rostow - stages of econ growth (60s) macroeconomic theory to direct investment in order to increase per capita income ○ us, uk did this ○ need to bring a cultural revolution, which created inertia to bring change problem of relating econ to social and political forces how west had become advanced while other areas of world had not a non-communist manifesto - idealist theory to challenge marx’s comm manifesto was capitalist dick sucking → we wont fall to communism 5 stages of econ growth rostows unilinear model of devpt mass consumption = mass purchasing of goods, indictator of when they are developed five stages 1. trad society - low levels of tech 2. preconditions for take off - creation of national state, trade expensaion, increases in invt 3. take-off, higher productvitiy in tuesday adn agricutlure than poopulation grwoth 4. drive to maturity - greated tech devpt and integraation into the world economy 5. high mass consumption society -higher incomes and consumption beyond basic needs, comparative advantage → trade good that you have, more of than other people → creates teh middle class critcisms of modrenisation theory eurocentric/ethnocentric - overlooks sophistication of many non-western societies ○ no country starts “at 0” policies formulated in modernisation tradition were not working → limited ec growth and persistence of povery neglected to take global historical devpt, especially history of colonialism into account blames victims for lack of devpt, emphasis of internal factors, value systems colonialism under devpt if u follow what we dok, youll have an example dependency theory counter modernisation tehory developed in latin america by ‘dependedentistas” unlike modernisation, dependency takes into consideration the historical and global context - particularly colonialism in explaining the problems od devpt dependency theorists aruged tha tthe lack of eocn development and widespread poverty in teh south, and in latin america in particular, was caused by teh exploitative influence of western advanced nations argued that the growth of advanced countries was only poss bc of teh active exploitation and udnervept of the developing world blames west for what devellopn=ig devpt happened at an expense e.g. slavery claims that lack of devpt is due to neo-colonialism ‘informal imperialism” criticises modernisation theories assumptiosn and focuses on the capitalist world system rather that on single countreis aruges that rather than focusing on underdevelopment as an original stage, attention must be paid to a single and integrated historical process which produced diff outcomes for diff parts of the world system frank argued that this theft is continuining thru the policies and imf and thru the activities of multinational corporations origins of dependency theory raul prebisch’s ecla manifesto was invited to give talk to explain why latin american economy wasnt developing notions of centre core adn periphery criticised theories of trade and comparative advantages trade process produced declining terms of trade for the peripheral countries supported latin american industrialisation criticised advanced countries for keepign for themselves the fruits of tehcnological progress price doesnt rise → declining terms of trade, esp bad for countries that trade in commodities structure of world trade system facotrs of economic problems beyond teh reahc of loval govts no local instruments for preventing econ trheats (depression) preconditions for economic growth are not universal realisation of the separate industrialised countries and the underdeveloped countries realisation of the geography of poverty centre is developed nations, periphery is colonised or poorer nations depicts imports and exports frank’s hypotehses abt development and underdevelopment developing nations considered as satellites, metropolis - developed countries h1 - national development is limited by satellite statues h2 - development of satellites is greatest when ties to metropolis is weakest h3 - development of satellites is choked off with incorporation into the trade and investment system h4 - regions that are most underdeveloped today are those that had the closest ties to the metropolises in the past ○ e.g. countries that had the strongest trade ties w the west people became developed at the expense of others must be delinked for satellites to grow criticisms of dependency theory  dependencys (frank’s) assumption is too simplistic and overgeneralises classical dependency approahces also fail to provide specific causes of underdevelopment beyond the fact that they originate in the west and the functioning of the capitlaist systems concepts such as core and periphery are little diff from terms such as traditional and modern beyond criticism of the role of the west, practical policy measures were scant no workable solution presented this points the finger at western countries → says only they made all teh mess and problems for devpt ignores internal conflicts, class, corruption etc, within devptl nations hopelessly ridged (particularly frank) insensitive to variations within the third world (corrected by cardoso_ degrees of dependency → not black and white belittles the real achievements of the 3rd world (devpt of underdevelopment or extraverted devpt diff between dependency and modernisation schools core-periphery NOT modernity tradition radical neo-marxist NOT evolutionary functionalist origin of problem external NOT internal international linkages harmful NOT beneficial pessimism abt devpt potential NOT optimism delinking and socialist revolution NOT greater integration with west both failed tho world system theory (wst) suceeded dependency theory → is marx adjacent wallerstein believed that the periphery was being exploited by richer countries (core countries) between core and periphery, there are semi-peripheral countries that import raw materials from the periphery and hi-tech goods from the core and export semi-manufactured goods to the core and industrial products to the periphery split into 3 blocks → core, semi-periphery, periphery = world division gives hope for some nations to be able to move up - mobilisation marxism karl marx  dialectical materialism historical materialism - historical determinism - the communist manifesto (1848) five modes of modes production - primitive, slave, feudal, capitalist, and socialist according to marx, capitalism has several defining characteristics marxist understanding of capitalism ruling class, bourgeoisise or capitalists who own the means of production working class/proletariat (laborer) who seels his labor to survive production system based on teh exploitation of labor “surplus value” by the bourgeoisie to form teh accumulated capital to drive teh systm polarising of society into two hostile classes, capitalist, and the proletariat shift in devpt discourses and policies 1. shift from phys capital to social capital/human capital 2. shift from national security to comprehensive security (environmental and human) 3. shift from eocnomic devpt to human development/poverty alleciation 4. agropolitan and bottom up devpt 5. participatory devpt - grassroots civil society 6. rights based apprach to depts- human rights, human welfare, basic needs 7. indigenous knowledge and culture 8. empowerment and structural transformation causes of paradigm shift in 80s over hte last 20 years - change since the 80s 1. failure of devpt in south and growing diversity of (under)development experiences 2. postmodernist critique on the social sciences in general and on the normtative characteristics of development studies in particular 3. the rise of globalisation in its discursive as well as its ontological appearance  Role of foreign aid in dvpt and poverty alleviation money injected → but what acc happened to it, how was it used what is foreign aid oecd def - overseas development assistance, oda refers to loans and grants to developing countries which fulfil 3 critereia ○ loans and grants must come from public sector ○ must be granted w aim of fostering ec devpt ○ must be concessional and contain a grant element of at least 25% tech coop included in aid military aid is excluded ○ de facto included in a lot of places tho wealthy nations provide medical, technical exchange in reality, more generous when vested interests → usa = pak and egypt when fighting terrorism, pk got 10m, egypt = middle east security. ○ ethiopia = second largest recipient justification foreign aid supplements local savings ○ hlps infrastrucutre spending e.g. in education, build potential enhances investment which makes possile expansino in productive capacity furnishes forex for essential imports such as machinery, fuel and food aid builds large construction projects ○ usually dams origins of foreign aid oneof teh most original political innovations of 20th c since late 40s, developed countries allotted around $1 trillion to development cooperation associated w creation of welfare state (30s and 40s), establishment of un system, creation of world bank, and launching of marhsall plan (48-52) become well entrenched as a pillar of modern north-south relations many observers regard as an integral part of customary intl law wealthy nations didnt have welfare state before 30s and 40s ○ great depression meant difficulty meeting the challenge ○ fdr and keynes → new deal market economy and generous welfare system in many developed countries un ○ support human dvpt  ○ unesco, who, unicef ○ started to give technical support to devping nations ○ high comm for refugees world bank and imf ○ imf is more monetary ○ world bank for more long term solutions marshall plan ○ most of the country was in ruin after ○ europe tired, couldnt maintain colonies ○ communism was prone to spread, but containment ○ 13billion given ○ french built rainways, british renovated factories, germany completely destroyed and then renovated and recovered by 82 ○ created consumerism and allowed for the spread of american products, using the american dollar ○ france and italy couldve fallen to communism, but aid precented ○ named after george marshall, but called the european recovery plan ○ soviet union refused to take money bc they were asked to open the book and show where the money was being spent, but all teh other european countries were allowed to freely spend ○ 400m yugoslavia bc not tied to soviet union categories 1. humanitarian aid ○ short term relief assistance with temporary aims to lessen sufferings of indivs sturck by natural or man made disaster 2. developmental aid - aims at long-term goals: boosting econ growth in a given country or region sources ○ us give more e.g. if can gives 10, us gives 100 ○ bilateral aid - between two govt ○ multilateral - 3 tiered structure - aid funds from an nations flow into a centralised agency that distributes an dmanages the programs e.g. un or eu eu tends to give quite a lot ○ “common pool” - a pool of donor nations provide for budget of a nation e.g. can and us helped haiti donors major orgs ○ world bank group, imf largely behind globalisation called colonisers, esp imf, bc of the policies and requirements set  ○ european devpt fund (edf) ○ us development agency for intl devpt (usaid) multi billion budget CIDA - canadian international development agency aid to nations ○ un tech agencies including unicef, who, undp, fao the un ‘begger’ = have to keep asking member nations for money, take from richer countries and distribute ○ a lot dedicated towards vaccination ida - international development agency theoretical perp on foreign aid 1. realists ○ consider dvpt assistance as foreign policy tool that can be useful as either a carrot or a stick → vested interest, only bc u want smth out of it ○ aid priorities are driven primarily by the perceptions of the political and military strategic impt of the recipient states ○ realists hold that the fight against poverty ultimately is a duty incumbent upon each state, not on the intl comm or intl org ○ used as a way to promote ur own interests, ur own security in foreign states 2. idealist paradigm and neo-idealists ○ liberals ○ assert overriding impt of humanitarian need as the cornerstone of many foreign aid programs ○ stress potential utility of fa for ameliorating 3rd world poverty and promoting broadly shared ec devpt ○ scholars are optimistic abt potential utility of fa for ameliorating 3rd world poverty and promoting broadly shared ec devpt ○ hope tha in teh future those countries will reciprocate, buy into their economies ○ will promote global trade → goals of liberals, truman ○ try and promote democracy and a market economy → foreign election interference ⇒ doing this for ‘human dignity/human rights” ○ support tech trade and trade devpt, think of it as a way of spreading and sharing prosperity ○ e.g. japan and sk → america benefited bc contained nk 3. the neo-marxist paradigm ○ foreign aid plays role of capitalist exploitation in enhancing power of elites in teh industrialised and developing countries ○ fa constitutes extension of highly exploitative n-s relationships that either preserve or widen ec disparities between wealthy states and poor countries ○ dependency thinkers and other critics in the n and south viewed aids as an instrument of domination and exploitation ○ doubt it could be effective means of alleviating 3rd world poverty, noted that it benefited privileged elites in south as well as donor countries  ○ e.g. elites in africa have benefitted most from the aid ○ diff from realists = realists are selfish, believe that u shouldve send fa if it doesnt benefit ur own national security, marxists believe that the concepts of fa is capitalist by nature and exploitative, believe instead in empowering people to overthrow system 4. critics of aid and globalisation ○ argue the project of intl coop for dvpt and globalisation are shown to be masks for an entirely diff projects: us imperialism ○ foreign aid first emerged in teh form of a system designed to ensure teh ec dominance of the us and advance its geo-political interests ○ in this system economically backward countries were cast in the role of exporters of raw materials needed for the industrial centre were of teh empire ○ us controls imf and world bank → unless the authorise, they dont get the loans → global economy depends on their approval ○ argue that this era of globalisation is not equity, creates disparities between nations and within them ○ china is creating its own “china” in africa → outsourcing and using cheap labour in africa, chinese labour is now too expensive, so theyll produce in africa instead aid to africa a lot of countries w historical and cultural connection to africa tend to be mroe generous w aid characteristics of donors why do nations give aid ○ unselfish - promote a better world, customary intl law ○ selfish - strategic, political, commercial, and other interests ○ focus on recipient side - the issue of needs versus potentials humane obj - canada, netherlands, scandinavian countries → no ideological or political interests, but economic interest e.g. canada has been exploiting minerals in africa and latin american countries assist w democracy and good governance and promoting respect for human rights and poverty reduction (us, britain) usa aid is motivated by both selfless and selfish goals - national security concerns eocnomic obj - germany and japan mission to maintain close relationships (france and britain) ministry of colonies in france, ministry of corporations now after independence japan invests everywhere bc of economic benefits e.g. japanese cars, very popular, same w germany ⇒ known for product quality of cars us prefers to disburse aid mainly on bilateral basis thru 2 agencies ○ usaid-1961 ○ millennium challenge corporation (mcc - 2004)  usaid has emphasised that us fa has 2 fold purpose of furthering americas foreign policy interests in expanding democracy and free markets while improving lives of the citizens of the developing world ○ america doesnt always want democracy - overthrew chile govt and replaced w authoritarian regime, silent in other cases eg saudi canada aid disbursed mainly thru cida - 1968 france aid mainly to former african colonies, administered by french development agency - 1941 british aid is administered by the dept of rintl dvpt (dfid), headed by cabinet minister un target is to give 0.7% of gni - only norway, luxembourg, sweden gave more than supposed to, gemany and uk give 0.7, us gives 0.18, canada gives 0.26 who is aid given too? dac disbursement 60-03, sub saharan africa got 26%, which is the most. moyo claims that fa underdeveloped africa aid effectiveness white man’s burden and moyo (dead aid: why aid is not working and how there is a better way for africa) = both show lack of effectiveness of aid moyos argument ○ complaint abt how west is patronising africans 1. conditional aid is very common 2. unless u do x, u wont get money 3. esp france ○ documents specific ways in which aid has harmed africa ○ offers entrepreneurial alt for africa’s path from now on ○ argues that the past 50 yrs, more than 1T in dvpt related aid has been transferred from rich argues for it all to end in abt 5 yrs ○ calls for business w china instead has the assistance improved the lives of africans ○ no, recipients are nto better off, but much worse off across continent intl devpt aid mostly failed to induce growth in african nations, snyder (93) found that aid is only effective in small countries also found aid is only effective in small countries found that no matter if aid was conditional or not, it was unable to change the recipients policies → there should be aid selectivity burnside and dollar (2000) found that aid was largely irrelevent ot the recip nations, only those nations w good econ policies got smth out of it 1. lack of progress in 3rd world countries reflects factors that cant be overcome by aid 2. capital can be secured w out aid, govts can use capital productively and attract investment or borrow money from abroad  3. aid doesnt descent indiscriminately on teh population who may need it most but goes directly to the govt 4. aid can therefore increase the patronage and power of an unpopular govt ○ e.g. if u dont vote for me, there will be no dispersal of aid, bargaining chip 5. aid breeds dependency and promotes belief that ec improvement depends on circumstances and influences outside ones control 6. influx of money from aid drives up exch rate and adversely affects inflation at home and foreign trade competitiveness trends in foreign aid and development economics stabilisation and structural adjustment from early 90s ○ conditionality as the key means to implement aid agreements and pursue policy changes ○ conditionality has long been controversial, , w some see it as an unacceptable interference with sovereighnty aid fatigue from late 80s aid selectivity ○ favouring countries who had already demonstrated a commitment to sound devpt policy and good gov, rather than using conditionality-based leading as an instrument to try to achieve those ends ○ written by technocrats - u dont spend ur money in any way other than the way described current trends and controversies where should aid go? ○ to poorest countries who need it most, or countries w good gov, where aid can be used more effectively to whom whould oda be given ○ govts ○ ngo ○ private sector is harmonisation of aid programs among donors realistic since they empower recipient govts in teh design and implementation of national dvpt strats altho these govts lack capacity and are prone to corruption should aid be focused on eliminating poverty or or promoting ec growth  global debt crisis, neo-liberal reforms, and their consequences promise of devpt trusted that nations would pay back in 70s, the mounting debt burden got worse in 80s, debt crisis global context of third world cris roots of debt run back to 73-34 when oil prices soared triggered unprecedented expasion in intl lending, mainly commercil lending or recycled petro dollars 73 adn 79 oil crises saw sharp increases in oil prices ○ oil importing countries ran up huge import bills, in turn oil exporting countries had huge build up of deposits in intl banking systems debt crises of late 70s and early 80s sparked widespread use of neo-liberal policies promoted by imf and world bank prompted by suez canal crisis 47-73 ⇒ golden age of captialism ○ high econ growth ○ people were have kids ○ stagflation thatcher and reagan came in, had their own policies to deal, conserve values immediate causes of debt crisis in aug 82, debt crisis recognised when mexico announced moratorium on foeign loan repayments brazil and other countries announced they were unable to meet schedule of paying debt ○ ir shot up, global demand for exports from developing countries fell ○ deep recession of 80-81 made it impossible for developing countries to generate sufficient income to pay back loans ○ commodities prices depreciated → primary product dependent countries therefore further struggled to pay back debts, contributed to recession ⇒ lack of econ growth ○ had to go to imf and world bank to try and solve, generate some kind of income structural adjustment programs (SAPs) most indebted countries sought to reschedule their loans in consultation with the world bank and imf policy response of intl financial institutions (IFIs) was in from of saps and structural adjustment loans (SALs) saps, were conditional ⇒ promoted by reagan  saps aimed to maximise prospects for, and amounts of repayments by debtor countries, w little thought for national repercussions of these repayments for heavily indebted nations dictat → imposed, no opportunity to negotiate saps essence of saps is to reshape economies of developing countries in favour of free market, reducing overall govt intervention in economy structural adjustment in practice means that loans are granted, but w conditions of structural economic reforms attached overall aim of adjustment programs is to reduce balance of payments deficit by increasing exports and reducing imports in conjunction with economic restructuring to allow new growth ○ reduce imports, increase exports a lot more ○ in practice, very difficult to grow those industries based firmly on free market principles - deflation, devaluation, decontrol, privatisation, two main types of measures were implemented removing restrictions on foreign investments in industry and financial services to make local prod of goods and delivery of services more efficient, owing to presence of foreign competition devaluating local currency relative to hard currencies like dollar to make exports more competitive privatising state enterprises and embarking on radical regulation to promote allocation of resources by market instead of by the govt black market trading of dollars two phases of reforms 1. short term stabilisation measures are implemented usually associated w imf ○ designed to stop economic conditions from deteriorating further such as public sector wage freezes, reduced govt subsidies, and currency devaluation ○ devaluing currency → makes exports cheaper and more internationally competitive, also makes foreign investment more attractive ○ acts as short sharp shocks to economy, often result in recession, but aimed at curing most impt economic problems ○ supposed to be temporary 2. stabilisation followed by long term adjustment measures aimed at improving economic efficiency by changing structures within which transactions take place, associated mainly with world bank ○ such measures include export, downsizing the civil service, eocnomic liberalisation, privatisation and reduction in taxes ○ saps redefined to consider social dvpt as well as economic needs, and after3-4 years, followed by economic recovery programmes (ERP) in later periods  ○ many countries had adopted keynesian policies → plenty of govt support to induce economic growth → had to cut down bc of measures ○ reduce tax = trickle down economics = reaganomics, only 9000 people acc got richer rich got richer, poor got poorer 73 oil crisis g7 meeting in paris, suggesting deregulation meant to be temporary, but has lasted for 5 decades consequences of structural adjustment welcoming of inequalities reduced purchasing power for poor (increased prices, withdrawal of subsidies, freezing of wages) downsizing of public sector lowering safety net and widespread increases in poverty user pays in health care ⇒ HIV funding reduced, condemned many societies to suffer economic growth in some cases, but stagflation in many areas people in urban areas have suffered more than those in rural areas as they lost their jobs or as salaries were eroded while they had to pay more for g/s ○ those in rural areas also suffered bc they were largely limited to subsistence farming declining role of state due to reduced income and consequent provision of welfare to population alternative to saps extensive criticism of impact of saps, world bank and other devpt banks have changed policies to make them more socially aware and oriented towards poverty reduction saps replaced by poverty reduction strats as part of highly indebted poor country initiative, 1996 (HIPCs) policy encourages indiv countries to design own strats for poverty reduction in return for debt relief ○ but they need to be approved ○ if they dont like the strat, its not approved some say hipcs initiative is little diff from saps, w only terminology changed if govt wants debt relief (linked w previous adjustment loans they have problems repaying), now expcted to draft poverty reduction strategy papers (PRSPs) ○ drafts produced in consultation w civil society and must cover poverty issues and policies over 3 years ○ time frame, together w low strategy will be budgeted ○ prsps are encouraged to use participatory assessment techs to discover how the poor really experience poverty  ○ still in early days, poverty focused approach already provoked criticisms, mainly on the grounds that the hipc initiative is diff to spas debt relief status dec 200 = 17 countries have been granted us 11b to relieve, spread over 25 years uganda, mozambique, guyana, significant resources directed towards solving problems in education, health, agriculture, infrastructure g7 pledged to return all bilateral payments from hipc countries countries of hipcs sustainable debt loads defined on imf term debt service targest, at 20-25 % exports are twice what in ww reparations debt relief merely removes undiscounted debt from books ○ audiuous bail → borrowed by colonisers, but new independent countries had to pay off gives imf/wb even greater policy influence only 40% relief counted as additional resources in feb 2001, diwan of wb admitted hipc intiative is more helpful to multilateral orgs than to poor countries neo-liberal ideology term used to describe broad social, cultural, and political changes, that have taken place in structures of western style capitalism since late 70s ideological shift that revolves around relationship between states and markets hayek and friedman are two of its key political theorists ○ chicago school of econ = big source of neoliberalism anglo/american pedigree = thatcher and reagan were its most enthusiastic policial proponents “neo-liberalism” mainly used by those who oppose ascendency of neo-liberalism 4 factors 1. loss of faith in neo-keynesian econ in late 70s and intellectual influence of new classical economics and principle of macro econ as dom paradigm for diagnosing economic problems and prescribing economic solutions 2. major industrial nations, strong political attack on big govt as being both incompetent and oppressive, twin concepts of efficiency and market forces put forward 3. some thought state was problem, not solution to econ development → anti-big govt, “incompetent”/oppressive 4. elections in major industrial nations voted in major voices = thatcher, clark, reagan, kohl ○ clark, canadian, conservative ○ france had strong left, communist policies neoliberal ideology neoliberalism draws on neo-classical economic of adam smith and modernisation theory of 50s gain focused indiv is led by invisible hand to promote end which has no part of their intention, not always worse for society (externalities?) ○ promotes interest of society more effectively when acting in self interest than why acc trying to promote it rosseau stages of growth basic tenets of neoliberalism deep faith in markets as best allocator of resources in society belief that govt intervention in markets is always bad, markets work best when left alone to self regulate ○ non market considerations e.g. inequality, poverty, should not intrude belief in long term, reliance on market forces will bring prosperity, liberty, democracy, peace of whole of humanity globalism links these ideas to globalisation ○ convergence encompassed in saps policy prescriptions of neoliberal globalisation project liberalisation (free markets) deregulation of markets and business ○ lower corp tax, financial dereg removal of govt controls on wages, prices privatisation of state enterprises and functions business friendly investment climate ○ devaluation of currency ○ no minimum wage ○ no benefits ○ allow mncs to come in and do wtv ○ race to bottom ○ sweatshops = ignoring human rights to allow countries to come, to keep current mncs elimination of tariff and other barriers to free trade ○ juxtaposes the conditions that allowed imposing countries to grow ○ obv only applies to poorer nations ○ protectionism does boost growth substantially “indiv responsibility” rather than provision of services by state washington consensus basic rule (williamson, 90)  1. budget deficit - should eb small enough to be financed without recourse to the inflation tax 2. public exp redirected from politically sensitive areas that receive more resources than economic return can justify, toward neglected field w high economic returns and potential to improve income distribution, such as primary ed, health, infra 3. tax reform - broaden tax base and cut marginal tax sales 4. financial liberalisation - involving ultimate obj of market determined interest rate 5. unifed er at level sufficiently competitive to induce rapid growth in non trad exports 6. quantitative trade restriction to be rapidly relaced by tariffs which would be progressively reduced until uniform low rate in range of 10-20% achieved 7. abolition of barriers impeding entry of fdi 8. privatisation of state enterprises 9. abolition of regulation that impede entry of new firms or restrict competition 10. provision of secure property rights, esp to informal sector original wash augmented previous, plus consensus corp gov anti corruption flexible labour market wto agreements fin codes and standards prudent capital account opening (prudency principle) nonintermediate er regimes independent central banks/inflation targeting social safety nets targeted poverty reduction what to do abt debt what opps does debt produce under what conditions should countries repay debt what message would 100% debt forgiveness send russian rev bolsheviks forgave all debts of capitalist businesses  agreement to pay tsar govt debt ○ intergenerational debt video - susan goerge on neoliberalism 200b every year, south money flow to north binge borrowing, overuse credit, put under austerity and saps weight on poor to repay usually used for military purposes, not productive purposes recolonisation → classical colonialism is too visible, can be thru debt ○ vote in one way at un, or repay this much debt  Ethnicity ethnicity - term used in 14c concept used to refer to pagans, or just anyone not christian used to refer to indigenous people and immigrants racialised in 20th c in us, used to refer to immigrants of non northern or western european descent - folk immigrants = visible minority associated w ancestry, people w common ancestry, same history 1. somalis → descended from somal, common father 2. stress imptnce of history, most often migration and settlement, but also political passage, be it escape from oppression or colonisation of new territory 3. common to many def is the sharing of culture, most notable of which is language immigration creates ethnic groups ⇒ people from diff groups settle somewhere for extended periods of time ethnicity can be divided on religion, language 1. many ethnic groups are known by same name of lang spoken e.g. french. spanish common heritage, historical memories, commonality in culture ethnic groups can call their place of origin their homeland → if no homeland, no nationalism 1. zionism = idea of homeland for the jews 2. herzl coined zionism, creating homeland for judiasm 3. lived there 2000 yrs ago. 4. sri lanka - tamil people 5. all abt who was “first” here characteristics of ethnicity = 3 1. ethnicity rests upon variable list of shared cultural attributes e.g. lang, ancestry and kinship, cultural practices, symbolic repertoires, modes of religious observation collective proper name myth of common ancestry shared historical memories which could lead to ethno-nationalism one or more differentiating elements of common culture association w a specific homeland sense of solidarity for sig sectors of pop 2. ethnicity defined by active consciousness of collective selfhood 3. ethnicity defined by boundaries. “they” constitute the “us”, whom one is depends upon whom one is not ethnicity is abt othering perception of ethnicity 1. primordialism  view that ethnic groups are ancient and immemorial kinship groups and thus given facts of life ummutable, unchangeable, fixed linked to modernity people who believe ethnic identity is primordial ancient kinship groups, permanent, unchangeable ethnic groups are more fundamental than other types of identiy conflict based on ethnicity is inevitable ethnicity is not subject to rational cost/benefit calculations - it belongs to realm of emotion 2. modernism/instrumentalism - nominalism (ethnic identification is used on order to achieve specific goals) despite some basis, ethnic identities and histories are usually created and embellished by entrepreneurial politicians, intellectuals, and journalists flexible, manipulative, multivocal, ever-changing perception of identity 3. constructivism - dominant paradigm - ethnic groups are artificial constructs of modern elites for most scholars, ethnic identity is usually a social construction rather than inherent or primordial characteristic 4. marxism ethnicity is epiphenomenal, secondary to deeper forces = material interests emphasis on class identity and universalism/cosmopolitanism, not other forms of identity ethnic identifications = false consciousness revolution against bg would end ethnic based thinking belief that people wouldn’t fight bc of ‘brotherhood/comrade’ neglecting is discounting cosmopolitanism artificial creation of ethnicity some ethnic classificatiosn were initially imposed by outsiders (belgians in congo with non-existent “myth of bangala” many africans attribute consistent legacy of ethnic conflict to legacy of euro colonialism that was decided in berlin conf identities and histories are usually created and embellished by entrepreneurial politicians, intellectuals and journalists many states are multiethnic and multinaitonal and out of 191 independent state 82% contain 2+ ethnic gruops no country really homogenous → somalia is homogenous tho, 100% muslim state ethnic/ethnonational conflict levels 1. relative harmony  ○ less common in third world w exception of countries like brazil and island of caribbean 2. uneasy balance ○ strained relationsihp between principal ethnic groups (malaysia and trinidad-tobago) 3. enforced hierarchy ○ political and economic powers concentrated in hands of ruling elites e.g. apartheid system in south africa, indian pop in latin america 4. systemic violence ○ characterised by deep ethnic resentments and massive violence or civil war ○ e.g. chechnya, lebanon, bangladesh, rwanda, sudan ○ rwandan genocide hunter gatherers and the tutsis tutsis seen as diff, taller, physical diff idea that the tutsis are smarter, better id card distributed based on iq, ethnicity ethnicity used as dividing line despite speaking same language planned, intentional, regardless of how many un minimised as a tribal struggle initially ○ un only has 3 recognised genocides, rwanda, bosnia, cambodia sources of ethno-political conflict ethno-political conflicts stem from wide range of ideological, demographic, religious, ethnic (identity), economic, social-structural, political conditions ○ resources scarcity, demographic stress, geopolitical and env factors → resource scarcity is most impt ○ revolts caused by ethno-nationalism and quest for self determination or separation, indigenous rights, recognition, respect as well as contention for power and access to resources ○ ethno-nationalism - ideology of uniting an ethno-cultural group w territory by way of genealogy i.e. one dominating ethnic group defines the national content conventional explanations ○ nationalistic ethnic hatred → taught by social media, in school ○ colonial legacy ○ failed states and civil disintegration ○ structural, political, economic, and social factors ○ culture and perceptual factors perception abt “the other” ○ bad neighbours and bad leaders ○ greed and grievance narrative causes of internal conflict  ethnic groups seeking greater autonomy or striving to create an independent state for themselves e.g. kurds in turk, chcehens in russia internal battles fought to gain control of existing state religious conflict involving especially intra-religious armed disputes between 2+ sects of same religion “failed states” = authority of national govt collapsed, armed struggle has broken out between competing ethnic militias, warlords, criminal org seeking to obtain power and establish control of state causes of civil conflict relative deprivation ○ internal violence is reaction to frustration and relative deprivation - people’s perception they are unfairly deprived of wealth and status that they deserve in comparison w advantaged others ○ people’s expectations of what they deserve rise more rapidly than their material rewards, probability of conflict grows ○ applies to most countries in global south today, distribution of wealth and opp = vv unequal geopolitical env factors ○ prob of country undergoing civil issues affected by key chars of geo pre-con, such as low supplies of crop lands and freshwater ○ geo location of rich natural resources influences odds of civil war secessionist revolts ○ seeds of civil strife often sown by national independence movements ○ most rebellions have been driven by quest thru guerrilla warfare to win broad public support, create political wing, present alt system of governing, build intl legitimacy manifestations and consequences of ethnic problems emerging culture of violence and civil wars attempts at secession problem of refugees, genocides, mass killings slowed devpt efforts and stagnated econ growth problems of political instability emergence of ethnic ideology practices that might create nationalist grievacnes creation of “official” language banning of certain forms of cultural expression e.g. music, dress → zia ul haq = banning sari, made it a “hindu” clothing + imposed hijab/parda req on tv  preferential employment opps preferential political opps changing of place names → land is an impt aspect of identity spread of ethno-political conflicts currently abt 250 active ethno-political movements using various forms of protest and rebellion nationalist conflicts occurs in all regions of world trends = armed conflicts in sub saharan africa 126 wars involving state in 3 2countries 6 between states, 120 within long duration - 10+ yrs for 10 countries cease fires and peace accords broken sub-regional spillovers high human cost on civilian pops = 1m+, mass dislocation more ‘non-state wars’ than state wars