Physiological Psychology PDF

8. Urogenital System: reproductive organs and urinary tract. INTRODUCTION NEUROPHYSIOLOGY PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY...

8. Urogenital System: reproductive organs and urinary tract. INTRODUCTION NEUROPHYSIOLOGY PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY Focuses on understanding how the nervous system The study of the physiological basis of human and supports behavior, perception, and cognition. animal behavior, combining principles from both psychology (behavior science) and physiology (study METHODS AND APPROACHES IN PHYSIOLOGICAL of body processes). PSYCHOLOGY 1. Philosophical Approach: Rooted in the Mind-Body Problem: Explores the IMPORTANCE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY relationship between mental processes and Sensory functions Helps us understand how physical states. sensory inputs lead to 2. Clinical Approach: perception. Clinical experiences (e.g., patient observations) Internal states and Explains the link between provide insights into physiological psychology. emotions physiological states (e.g., 3. Experimental Method: hunger, arousal) and Laboratory experiments are conducted under emotions/drives. controlled conditions, but ethical concerns limit Learning and Highlights the role of brain certain research, especially involving animals. memory cells in learning and memory 4. Scientific Inference: formation. Uses the scientific method to form hypotheses Motor functions Studies the neuronal activities and deduce conclusions based on experiments. related to muscle movement 5. The Meeting Ground of Sciences and coordination, essential SENSORY PROCESSING AND THE NERVOUS for adjustive behavior. SYSTEM Maladjustment Provides a scientific basis for Senses: Humans regularly use sight, smell, taste, and disorders understanding and treating touch, and hearing to interact with the behavioral disorders. environment. Nervous System: The system responsible for TWO MAIN FEATURES OF THE BODY sensing and responding to environmental 1. Response Mechanism: stimuli. It includes sensory receptors that detect Involves sense organs, nerves, the nervous system, stimuli and pass the information through nerve muscles, and glands. These allow the body to cells to the brain. respond to stimuli from the environment. TYPES OF STIMULI 2. Internal Environment: 1. Mechanical Stimuli: Physical signals related to The body’s internal conditions include substances touch and hearing (e.g., feeling a guitar string, like food, gland secretions, and byproducts of hearing its sound). metabolism. 2. Chemical Stimuli: Molecules that stimulate taste and smell (e.g., detecting flavors and smells in food like chicken noodle soup). PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS 3. Electromagnetic Stimuli: Light signals involved 1. Cardiovascular System: Regulates heart, lungs, in sight (e.g., sunlight, traffic lights, colors in the and blood functions. environment). 2. Respiratory System: Controls lungs, pharynx, HOW SENSORY INFORMATION IS PROCESSED and larynx. 1. Sensory Receptors: Specialized cells that detect 3. Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems: Key to stimuli and convert them into signals. controlling brain, spinal cord, motor & sensory 2. Nerve Cells: These signals are sent through neurons and medulla nerves in the form of electrical impulses to the 4. Hematologic System: Blood cells, bone marrow, brain. water and salt 3. Brain Processing: The brain organizes sensory 5. Musculoskeletal System: bones and muscles. information and can: 6. Endocrine System: gland (ductless): pituitary, Elicit a response (e.g., catching a ball). thyroid, adrenal, testes, and ovum. Store the information as a memory for 7. Digestive System: stomach, intestines, future use. esophagus, tongue, and pharynx  CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The human body contains specialized cells for NERVOUS SYSTEM detecting and responding to environmental events. A network of organs and tissues that controls and The brain’s flexibility allows us to modify our coordinates all activities of the body. behavior based on present circumstances and past Divisions: experiences. 1. Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord serves as the control center of the body TYPES OF NEURONS that are responsible for control and complex 1. Sensory Neurons: Detect external stimuli and functions like memory, thought, and send signals to the brain. unconscious processes (e.g., heart action, 2. Motor Neurons: Carry signals from the brain to breathing). muscles or glands to produce movement or 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves other responses. connecting the CNS to the rest of the body. 3. Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons and are involved in processing BRAIN DEVELOPMENT information. Nervous system development begins around 18 days after conception. By 21 days, the neural tube forms, giving rise to the brain and spinal cord. STRUCTURE OF A NEURON NEURON A cell specialized to receive, process, and transmit information. 1. Soma (Cell Body): Contains the nucleus and organelles that maintain cell function and survival. 2. Dendrites: MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN Receive stimuli from other neurons through 1. Forebrain: connections known as synapses. Ventricle: Lateral and Third Most neurons have multiple dendrites to maximize Subdivision: input collection. Telencephalon: Contains the Cerebral 3. Axon: Cortex, Basal Ganglia, Limbic System. Transmits information from the soma to the Diencephalon: Includes the Thalamus and terminal buttons, which pass the signal to the next Hypothalamus. neuron or target cell. 2. Midbrain: 4. Myelin Sheath: Ventricle: Cerebral Aqueduct A fatty layer surrounding the axon that increases the Subdivision: speed of neural impulses. Mesencephalon: Contains the Tectum and Tegmentum. 3. Hindbrain: Ventricle: Fourth Subdivision: Metencephalon: Includes the Cerebellum and Pons. Myelencephalon: Contains the Medulla Oblongata.  Occipital Lobe: At the back of the brain, it handles visuospatial processing, depth perception, color FOREBRAIN determination, and object/face recognition. Supported by the brainstem and bulging out Sensory Projection Area: Where sensory above, it surrounds the rostral end of the neural messages from receptors register. tube. Motor Projection Area: Initiates response Consists of two main components: messages to direct muscles and glands. Telencephalon and Diencephalon. Major structures include the Cerebral Cortex, OTHER KEY STRUCTURES Thalamus, and Hypothalamus. Corpus Callosum: A large mass of white TELENCEPHALON matter that connects the two cerebral Contains the two symmetrical cerebral hemispheres hemispheres, facilitating communication covered by the cerebral cortex. between them. It receives sensory impulses Key structures: Limbic System and Basal Ganglia. from the peripheral nervous system, sorts CEREBRAL CORTEX them, and relays them to the appropriate Surrounds the cerebral hemispheres. cortical areas for interpretation. Made up of glial cells, neuron cell bodies, Limbic System: A ring structure located at the dendrites, and axons. center of each cerebral hemisphere, including REGIONS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX the hypothalamus, part of the thalamus, and 1. Primary Visual Cortex: Processes visual info, other forebrain structures. It plays a key role located at the back of the brain, on the inner in emotion, memory, and behavior regulation. surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres and it Hippocampus: Located at the base of the primarily on the upper and lower banks of the brain, beneath the thalamus, it regulates the calcarine fissure autonomic nervous system and endocrine 2. Primary Auditory Cortex: Processes auditory functions, organizing behaviors essential for info, located on the upper surface of a deep survival. fissure on the brain's side. Basal Ganglia: Situated beneath the cerebral 3. Primary Somatosensory Cortex: vertical strip of cortex and corpus callosum, it controls motor cortex just caudal to the central sulcus, receives impulses from the brain’s motor area. information from the body senses Damage to this area can result in loss of 4. Primary Motor Cortex: Controls movement, sensation and movement. located in front of the somatosensory cortex. Amygdala: An almond-shaped structure in Association Area: Located in the cerebral cortex, the temporal lobe, it processes emotions and this area processes incoming sensory messages into links them to memory, learning, and sensory meaningful impressions and integrates outgoing experiences. motor messages for coordinated movements. DIENCEPHALON Sensory Area: Found in the post-central convolution Located between the telencephalon and of the parietal lobe, this area channels and interprets mesencephalon, it surrounds the third ventricle and most sensory impressions for integration. includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. AREAS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX 1. Thalamus: Forms the dorsal part of the Frontal Lobe: Anterior to the central sulcus of the diencephalon, situated medial and caudal to the cerebral cortex rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal basal ganglia. It consists of two egg-shaped to the temporal lobe, it is crucial for voluntary structures that act as a "relay station" for movement, expressive language, and higher-level incoming sensory messages from the body. executive functions. 2. Hypothalamus: Positioned at the base of the Parietal Lobe: Located behind the central sulcus brain beneath the thalamus, it regulates the caudal to front lobe, it manages sensory perception autonomic nervous system and endocrine and integration, including taste, hearing, sight, functions, organizing behaviors crucial for touch, and smell. survival. Temporal Lobe: Found from the base of the brain, MIDBRAIN Rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, it parietal and frontal lobe, it processes auditory processes sensations related to hearing and sight information and is important for memory encoding. and is involved in pain registration.  help maintain posture. It is also where many nerve pathways cross. MESENCEPHALON Surrounds the cerebral aqueduct and consists of the THE SPINAL CORD tectum and tegmentum. A long, conical structure roughly the size of an Tectum: Dorsal part of the mesencephalon, adult's little finger. It distributes motor fibers to featuring the superior and inferior colliculi. effector organs (glands and muscles) and collects o Superior Colliculi: Involved in motor somatosensory information to transmit to the brain. functions that orient the head and eyes The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column, toward stimuli; protrusions on top of made up of 24 individual vertebrae. the midbrain, part of the visual system. o Inferior Colliculi: Main auditory center, processing sound; protrusions on top of the midbrain, part of the auditory system. Tegmentum: Located beneath the tectum, includes the reticular formation, nuclei for eye movement, the red nucleus, substantia nigra, and ventral tegmental area. o Reticular Formation: A neural network in the brainstem that processes sensory information and projects to the cerebral cortex and spinal cord o Periaqueductal Gray Matter: Surrounds the cerebral aqueduct, controlling sequences of species-typical behaviors like fighting and mating. o Red Nucleus: Receives input from the cerebellum and motor cortex, involved in motor control and muscle tone maintenance. o Substantia Nigra: Contains dopamine- producing neurons that regulate movements and muscle tone, communicating with the basal ganglia. HINDBRAIN Considered the earliest segment of the brain to evolve, it includes the metencephalon and myelencephalon. METENCEPHALON Composed of the pons and cerebellum. 1. Cerebellum: Made up of two hemispheres, it manages reflexes related to balance, coordinates body movements for efficiency, and organizes eye movements. 2. Pons: A broader structure that serve as a pathway connecting the the upper hindbrain; it contains a large nucleus that relays information from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum. MYELENCEPHALON Consists of the medulla. Medulla: The narrow structure closest to the spinal cord, about 1.5 inches long. It controls vital functions like breathing and reflexes that