Physio Final Exam Content PDF

‭I see youPhysio Final Exam Content‬ ‭Let’s fucking goooo‬ ‭Blood‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Blood components‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Erythrocytes - Red Blood Cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Carriers of oxygen from lungs to tissues and CO2 back to lungs‬ ‭○‬ ‭Hemoglobin binds o...

‭I see youPhysio Final Exam Content‬ ‭Let’s fucking goooo‬ ‭Blood‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Blood components‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Erythrocytes - Red Blood Cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Carriers of oxygen from lungs to tissues and CO2 back to lungs‬ ‭○‬ ‭Hemoglobin binds oxygen and CO2‬ ‭‬ ‭Are biconcave to increase surface area for gas exchange‬ ‭‬ ‭Lack nucleus and organelles to maximize hemoglobin content‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Plasma proteins‬ ‭‬ ‭Liquid component of blood and serves as a medium for transporting‬ ‭nutrients, hormones, and waste products‬ ‭‬ ‭Classified into:‬ ‭○‬ ‭General plasma proteins‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Albumin - maintains osmotic pressure; transports‬ ‭hormones, drugs, other molecules‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Fibrinogen - essential for blood clot formation‬ ‭(converted into fibrin by thrombin)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Lipoproteins - involved in lipid transport‬ ‭○‬ ‭Globulins (Immunoglobulins)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Antibodies produced by plasma cells‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Recognize and neutralize pathogens‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Thrombocytes‬ ‭‬ ‭Blood clotting and hemostasis‬ ‭‬ ‭Small, anucleate cell fragments from bone marrow‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Leukocytes - White Blood Cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Protect the body from infections and foreign invaders‬ ‭‬ ‭Several types (expanded upon in immune)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Granulocytes‬ ‭○‬ ‭Agranulocytes‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Hematopoiesis‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Process of blood cell formation‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭All cells start as hematopoietic stem cells made in bone marrow‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Cells split into‬ ‭‬ ‭Myeloid progenitor cell‬ ‭○‬ ‭Megakaryocyte, eosinophils, basophils, erythrocytes,‬ ‭monocytes, and neutrophils‬  ◆‭ ‬ ‭Monocytes into dendritic cells and macrophages‬ ‭‬ ‭Lymphoid progenitor cell‬ ‭○‬ ‭T cell, b cell, NK cell‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭B cell into plasma cell‬ ➔ ‭ ‬ ‭Hemostasis: body’s response to stop bleeding and injuries‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Damaged blood vessel triggers release of clotting factors‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Vasoconstriction limits blood flow and platelets form a sticky plug‬ ‭‬ ‭Exposed collagen binds and activates platelets‬ ‭‬ ‭Release of platelet factors‬ ‭‬ ‭Factors attract more platelets‬ ‭‬ ‭Platelets aggregate into platelet plug‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Fibrin strands adhere to the plug to form an insoluble clot‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Coagulation reinforces clot‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Agglutination: blood typing‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Red blood cells have surface molecules called antigens‬ ‭‬ ‭ABO Antigens → A, B, AB, or no antigens‬ ‭‬ ‭Rh system → positive if Rh antigen present, negative if absent‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Have antibodies within plasma that are specific to antigens not present in‬ ‭RBCs‬ ‭‬ ‭Type A: Anti-B antibodies‬ ‭‬ ‭Type B: Anti-A antibodies‬ ‭‬ ‭Type AB: No antibodies‬ ‭‬ ‭Type O: Both anti-A and anti-B‬ ‭Immunology‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Blood constituents‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭5 kinds of leukocytes‬ ‭‬ ‭Granulocytes‬ ‭○‬ ‭Neutrophils: perform phagocytosis of bacteria‬ ‭○‬ ‭Eosinophils: defend against parasites, also initiate allergic‬ ‭response‬ ‭○‬ ‭Basophils: release histamine in allergic reactions‬ ‭‬ ‭Agranulocytes‬ ‭○‬ ‭Lymphocytes‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭B cells: antibody production‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭T cells: cell-mediated immunity‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭NK (Natural Killer) cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Monocytes‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Differentiate into macrophages or dendritic cells for‬ ‭phagocytosis and antigen presentation‬ ➔ ‭ ‬ ‭ athogens: disease causing agent‬ P ‭➔‬ ‭Immunity: body’s ability to protect itself‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Antigen: any substances that trigger an immune response‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Barrier immunity: body’s first line of defense against pathogen‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Physical: skin, mucosae, mucus, other secretions‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Mechanical: flushing mechanisms such as cilia, fluid flow‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Chemical: enzymes and antibodies, pH‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭If barriers fail, we rely on the innate immune response‬ ➔ ‭ ‬ ‭Innate Immune Response‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Response activated within minutes to hours of pathogen detection‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Nonspecific and focuses on common features of pathogens (cell walls,‬ ‭viral RNA)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭No memory, does not improve with re-exposure‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Steps of response‬ ‭‬ ‭Pathogen recognition‬ ‭‬ ‭Inflammatory response‬ ‭○‬ ‭Cytokines and histamines are released, resulting in‬ ‭vasodilation, increased blood flow, and recruitment of‬ ‭immune cells to infection site‬ ‭‬ ‭Phagocytosis‬ ‭‬ ‭Complement Activation‬ ‭‬ ‭Natural Killer Cell activation‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Cellular components‬ ‭‬ ‭Phagocytes‬ ‭○‬ ‭Neutrophils → first responders, engulf and digest microbes‬ ‭○‬ ‭Mononuclear phagocytic cells (monocytes in blood and‬ ‭macrophages in tissues)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Engulf and digest microbes, present antigens to‬ ‭adaptive immune cells via MHC molecules‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Release cytokines to recruit immune cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Organ-specific phagocytes (found in specific tissues and are‬ ‭specialized macrophages)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Maintain tissue homeostasis by clearing debris and‬ ‭preventing infection‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Support tissue repair and remodeling after injury‬ ‭‬ ‭Natural Killer (NK) cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Destroy virus-infected cells and tumor cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Recognize cells with abnormal or missing “self” markers‬ ‭(MHC I)‬ ‭‬ ‭Dendritic cells‬  ‭○‬ C ‭ apture antigens from pathogens and present them to‬ ‭adaptive immune cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Bridge between innate and adaptive immunity‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Molecular components‬ ‭‬ ‭Cytokines and chemokines → small signalling proteins that mediate‬ ‭inflammation and recruit immune cells to the site of infection‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Complement System bridges innate and adaptive immunity‬ ‭‬ ‭Opsonization‬ ‭○‬ ‭Complement proteins coat pathogens to make them‬ ‭recognizable to phagocytes‬ ‭‬ ‭Inflammation‬ ‭○‬ ‭Complement fragments recruit immune cells and promote‬ ‭inflammation‬ ‭‬ ‭Pathogen lysis‬ ‭○‬ ‭Formation of membrane attack complex (MAC) punctures‬ ‭holes in pathogens membrane, leading to it’s destruction‬ ‭‬ ‭Immune clearance‬ ‭○‬ ‭Complement assists in removing immune complexes and‬ ‭dead cells from circulation‬ ➔ ‭ ‬ ‭Adaptive immunity‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Specific defense response using immunological memory‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Components‬ ‭‬ ‭Secondary lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, spleen) are where‬ ‭lymphocytes are activated by antigens‬ ‭‬ ‭Self-Tolerance (immune system learns to distinguish between self‬ ‭and non-self antigens)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Central tolerance occurs during lymphocyte development in‬ ‭primary lymphoid organs.‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Thymus: T Cells undergo positive and negative‬ ‭selection‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Bone Marrow: B cells are tested for self-reactivity‬ ‭○‬ ‭Peripheral tolerance controls reactive lymphocytes through‬ ‭apoptosis‬ ‭‬ ‭T Lymphocytes are responsible for cell-mediated immunity‬ ‭○‬ ‭Interact with antigen-presenting cells via MHC molecules‬ ‭○‬ ‭Types‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Killer T Cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Recognize antigens presented on MHC class 1‬ ‭‬ ‭Kill cells using apoptosis‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Helper T cells‬  ‭‬ R ‭ ecognize antigens on MHC class II molecules‬ ‭‬ ‭Activate other immune cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭B cells to produce antibodies‬ ‭○‬ ‭Enhance macrophage activity‬ ‭○‬ ‭Recruit and coordinate other T cells‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Regulatory T Cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Suppress immune responses to prevent‬ ‭autoimmunity‬ ‭‬ ‭Maintain immune homeostasis by secreting‬ ‭inhibitory cytokines‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Natural Killer Cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Kill virus-infected or tumor cells by recognizing‬ ‭cells with reduced or absent MHC class 1‬ ‭molecules‬ ‭‬ ‭B cells mature in bone marrow and are responsible for humoral‬ ‭immunity. They produce antibodies that target extracellular‬ ‭pathogens‬ ‭○‬ ‭Key processes‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Antibody production‬ ‭‬ ‭Activated B cells differentiate into plasma cells‬ ‭that secrete antibodies.‬ ‭‬ ‭Antibodies neutralize pathogens, opsonize‬ ‭them for phagocytosis, or activate the‬ ‭complement system‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Clonal selection theory‬ ‭‬ ‭B cells express unique receptor for specific‬ ‭antigen‬ ‭‬ ‭When antigen binds, B cell activates,‬ ‭proliferates, and differentiates into plasma cells‬ ‭or Memory B cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Antibodies are secreted by plasma cells‬ ➔ ‭ ‬ ‭Recruitment of immune cells (general timeline)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Minutes to hours‬ ‭‬ ‭Neutrophil recruitment‬ ‭○‬ ‭Chemokines attract neutrophils from bloodstream to infection‬ ‭site‬ ‭○‬ ‭Neutrophils migrate through blood vessel walls‬ ‭○‬ ‭Phagocytosis of pathogens occurs‬ ‭○‬ ‭Release of enzymes to kill microbes‬ ‭○‬ ‭Release of inflammatory signals to amplify the response‬  ‭‬ C ‭ omplement proteins are activated to opsonize pathogens and‬ ‭attract immune cells‬ ‭◆‬ ‭6-24 hours‬ ‭‬ ‭Monocyte and macrophage recruitment‬ ‭○‬ ‭Monocytes are recruited and differentiate into macrophages‬ ‭in tissues‬ ‭○‬ ‭Continue phagocytosis and clear debris‬ ‭○‬ ‭Release cytokines to maintain inflammation and recruit‬ ‭additional immune cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Present antigens to adaptive immune cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Natural killer cell recruitment‬ ‭○‬ ‭NK cells recruited to detect and destroy virus-infected or‬ ‭cancerous cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭NK cells recognize cells with low or absent MHC class I‬ ‭expression‬ ‭‬ ‭Dendritic cell activation and migration‬ ‭○‬ ‭Dendritic cells take up antigens at the site of infection and‬ ‭migrate to lymph nodes to activate the adaptive immune‬ ‭system‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭24-72 hours‬ ‭‬ ‭T Cells activate‬ ‭○‬ ‭Dendritic cells present antigens to naive T cells in secondary‬ ‭lymphoid organs‬ ‭○‬ ‭CD4 helper T cells differentiate into subsets based on‬ ‭environment‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Recruit and activate additional immune cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭CD8 cytotoxic T cells recognize infected cells and induce‬ ‭apoptosis‬ ‭‬ ‭Activation of B cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Activated by binding of antigen to B-cell receptor as wella s‬ ‭signals from helper T cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Plasma cells produce antibodies specific to the pathogen‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Days to Weeks‬ ‭‬ ‭Amplification of adaptive immune response‬ ‭○‬ ‭Effector T cells and antibodies reach peak activity‬ ‭○‬ ‭Cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Antibodies neutralize pathogens and enhance phagocytosis‬ ‭‬ ‭Resolution of inflammation‬ ‭○‬ ‭Regulatory T cells suppress immune responses to prevent‬ ‭tissue damage‬  ‭ ‬ ‭Macrophages clear remaining debris and dead cells‬ ○ ‭‬ ‭Formation of memory cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Some T and B cells differentiate into long-living memory cells‬ ‭for faster responses upon re-exposure‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭All nucleated body cells have MHC class I‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭MHC class II is on antigen presenting cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Signals adaptive response‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭MHCs have to be compatible when performing tissue transplants‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Antigen presenting cells activates adaptive response‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Antigen presenting macrophage displays antigen fragments on MHC class‬ ‭II surface receptors‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Acquired immunity‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Natural immunity is acquired through life experiences and is not induced‬ ‭medically.‬ ‭‬ ‭Consisting of:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Active immunity is the consequence of a person developing‬ ‭their own immune response to a microbe‬ ‭○‬ ‭Passive immunity is the consequence of one person‬ ‭receiving preformed immunity made by another person‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Artificial immunity produced purposefully through medical procedures‬ ‭‬ ‭Consisting of:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Active immunity (same as above)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Passive immunity (same as above)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Secondary response is rapidly initiated because of memory cells. Plasma‬ ‭antibody concentration increased rapidly and decreased gradually over‬ ‭time‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Primary response is initiated about 1 week after exposure, gradually‬ ‭increasing over 3 weeks until reaching peak at week 4 after antigen‬ ‭exposure. Decreases after this point.‬ ‭➔‬ ‭How innate and adaptive work together‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Bacterial infections‬ ‭‬ ‭Pathogen characteristics‬ ‭○‬ ‭Extracellular or intracellular microbes with a cell wall‬ ‭‬ ‭Innate immune response‬ ‭○‬ ‭Phagocytosis‬ ‭○‬ ‭Complement activation‬ ‭○‬ ‭Inflammation‬ ‭‬ ‭Adaptive immune response‬ ‭○‬ ‭Humoral immunity dominates‬  ‭◆‬ B ‭ cells produce antibodies that opsonize bacteria for‬ ‭phagocytosis or neutralize bacterial toxins‬ ‭○‬ ‭Helper T cells‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Activate macrophages to destroy phagocytosis‬ ‭bacteria‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Stimulate B cells for antibody production‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Viral infections‬ ‭‬ ‭Pathogen characteristics‬ ‭○‬ ‭Intracellular pathogens hijack host cell machinery for‬ ‭replication‬ ‭‬ ‭Innate immune response‬ ‭○‬ ‭Interferons inhibit viral replication and signal to neighboring‬ ‭cells to increase antiviral defenses‬ ‭○‬ ‭NK cells kill virus-infected cells by detecting decreased MHC‬ ‭I expression‬ ‭○‬ ‭Dendritic cells capture viral antigens for presentation to T‬ ‭cells‬ ‭‬ ‭Adaptive immune response‬ ‭○‬ ‭Cell mediated immunity dominates‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Cytotoxic T cells recognize viral antigens presented‬ ‭by MHC I on infected cells and induce apoptosis‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Helper T cells promote CD8 responses and support‬ ‭antibody production‬ ‭○‬ ‭Humoral immunity‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Antibodies neutralize extracellular virus particles‬ ‭preventing cell entry‬ ‭Reproductive Physiology‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Sexual reproduction basics‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Gametes: haploid reproductive cells → sperm and ovum‬ ‭‬ ‭Have 23 chromosomes‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Zygote: fertilized egg, the first diploid cell of a new organism‬ ‭‬ ‭Have 46 chromosomes‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Embryo: developing organism from fertilization to the end of 8th week‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Fetus: developing organism from the 9th week to birth‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Sex determination‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭At 6 weeks, embryo is in bipotential stage → Can become either male or‬ ‭female‬ ‭‬ ‭Has both paramesonephric and mesonephric duct, gonads, and‬ ‭kidneys‬  ‭◆‬ ‭If female:‬ ‭‬ ‭Gonadal cortex forms ovary‬ ‭‬ ‭Gonadal medulla regresses‬ ‭‬ ‭Wolffian duct regresses in absence of testosterone‬ ‭‬ ‭Mullerian duct becomes fallopian tube, uterus, cervix, and upper ½‬ ‭of vagina (AMH absent)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭If male:‬ ‭‬ ‭Gonadal cortex regresses‬ ‭‬ ‭Gonadal medulla forms a testis‬ ‭‬ ‭Wolffian duct forms epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle‬ ‭(testosterone present)‬ ‭‬ ‭Mullerian duct regresses (AMH present)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Embryonic gonads become testes if the SRY gene on Y chromosome is‬ ‭present‬ ‭‬ ‭SRY gene is responsible for expressing AMH hormone‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭External genitalia development‬ ‭‬ ‭Genitalia visually identical up to week 6‬ ‭‬ ‭If female:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Genital tubercle forms clitoris‬ ‭○‬ ‭Urethral folds and grooves form labia minora, opening of‬ ‭vagina, and urethra‬ ‭○‬ ‭Labioscrotal swellings form labia majora‬ ‭○‬ ‭All in absence of androgens‬ ‭‬ ‭If male:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Genital tubercle forms glans penis‬ ‭○‬ ‭Urethral folds and grooves form shaft of penis‬ ‭○‬ ‭Labioscrotal swellings form shaft of penis and scrotum‬ ‭○‬ ‭Testes descend from abdominal cavity into scrotum‬ ‭○‬ ‭DHT causes development of male external genitalia‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Is also necessary for maintenance of male external‬ ‭genitalia‬ ‭○‬ ‭Testosterone converted to DHT by 5a-reductase‬ ‭‬ ‭Fully developed by 16 weeks‬ ➔ ‭ ‬ ‭Hypothalamus-anterior pituitary-gonad axis‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) signals production of both FSH‬ ‭(follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone)‬ ‭‬ ‭Stimulates production/differentiation of gametes‬ ‭‬ ‭Stimulates gonadal hormone secretion‬ ‭‬ ‭Maintains gonad structures during development‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭In males‬  ‭‬ ‭FSH stimulates spermatogenesis‬ ‭○‬ ‭Acts on sertoli cells in seminiferous tubules of testes‬ ‭○‬ ‭Stimulates production of androgen-binding protein (ABP)‬ ‭which binds testosterone and maintains high local‬ ‭testosterone levels‬ ‭○‬ ‭Promotes maturation of sperm cells‬ ‭‬ ‭FSH regulates inhibin‬ ‭○‬ ‭Inhibin B secreted by sertoli cells in response to FSH‬ ‭stimulation‬ ‭○‬ ‭Inhibin provides negative feedback to anterior pituitary to‬ ‭regulate production‬ ‭‬ ‭LH stimulates cells of testes to produce testosterone‬ ‭‬ ‭Testerone levels regulate LH secretion through feedback loop‬ ‭◆‬ ‭In females‬ ‭‬ ‭FSH stimulates growth and maturation of ovarian follicles‬ ‭‬ ‭FSH promotes conversion of androgens into estrogen‬ ‭‬ ‭FSH primes dominant follicle to respond to mid-cycle LH surge that‬ ‭triggers ovulation‬ ‭‬ ‭Surge of LH triggers ovulation‬ ‭‬ ‭LH acts on cells to produce androgens to be converted into‬ ‭estrogen‬ ‭‬ ‭LH promotes transformation of corpus luteum‬ ‭○‬ ‭Corpus luteum secretes progesterone‬ ‭‬ ‭LH and FSH regulate estrogen and progesterone‬ ➔ ‭ ‬ ‭Hormone shift at puberty and secondary sex characteristics‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭After birth and before puberty, both sex hormones are in low amounts‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Testosterone in males and estradiol in females promotes secondary sex‬ ‭characteristics‬ ‭‬ ‭In males‬ ‭○‬ ‭Growth spurt, increase in lean muscle mass, changes in‬ ‭body composition, pubic hair, increase in penile length and‬ ‭first ejaculation, testicular enlargement, increased body hair‬ ‭‬ ‭In females‬ ‭○‬ ‭Growth spurt, increased body hair, breast development‬ ‭changes in body composition, pubic hair, menarche,‬ ‭increase in fat mass‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Phases of human sexual response‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭4 phases‬ ‭‬ ‭Beginning - Excitation‬ ‭○‬ ‭Desire and arousal‬  ‭ ‬ ‭Sexual excitement/tension increases gradually‬ ○ ‭‬ ‭Plateau‬ ‭○‬ ‭Excitation plateaus‬ ‭‬ ‭Orgasm‬ ‭○‬ ‭Excitation peaks‬ ‭‬ ‭Return to pre-excitation‬ ➔ ‭ ‬M ‭ ale reproductive system‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭ as deferens: duct that carries sperm from testes‬ V ◆‭ ‬ ‭Urethra: carries out urine from bladder and semen containing sperm‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Seminal vesicle: provides energy for sperm‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Epididymis: where sperm becomes motile‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Seminal Vesicle: holds seminal fluid containing fructose‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Prostate gland: adds prostate fluid with citric acid, calcium, and vasiculose‬ ‭‬ ‭Vasiculose makes ejaculate thicker‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Testes made up of two “compartments”‬ ‭‬ ‭Seminiferous tubules‬ ‭○‬ ‭Where spermatogenesis is driven by FSH‬ ‭‬ ‭Interstitial tissue‬ ‭○‬ ‭Where testosterone is made‬ ‭○‬ ‭Controlled by LH‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Spermatogenesis → Formation of sperm‬ ‭‬ ‭Diploid Cells multiply‬ ‭‬ ‭Daughter cell goes through meiosis‬ ‭‬ ‭After meiosis I → 2 secondary spermatocytes‬ ‭‬ ‭After meiosis II → 4 spermatids‬ ‭◆‬ ‭How sperm travel as they mature‬ ‭‬ ‭Spermatids undergo spermiogenesis where they elongate and‬ ‭develop a flagellum and become spermatozoa‬  ‭‬ S ‭ permatozoa are released into lumen of seminiferous tubules in‬ ‭testes but are not yet mobile‬ ‭○‬ ‭Move to epididymis for further maturation‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Increased motility, development of acrosome‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Key changes that make mature sperm‬ ‭‬ ‭Sperm head‬ ‭○‬ ‭Nucleus condenses‬ ‭○‬ ‭Acrosome containing enzymes forms on head‬ ‭‬ ‭Midpiece‬ ‭○‬ ‭Contains mitochondria‬ ‭‬ ‭Tail‬ ‭○‬ ‭Develops to allow sperm motility, powered by axoneme‬ ‭○‬ ‭Tail enables sperm to swim toward egg‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Path of spermatozoa during ejaculation‬ ‭‬ ‭Spermatozoa initially formed in seminiferous tubules and stored in‬ ‭epididymis for maturation‬ ‭‬ ‭During ejaculation, sperm travel from epididymis through vas‬ ‭deferens‬ ‭‬ ‭Vas deferens joins seminal vesicles in ejaculatory duct and sperm‬ ‭continue to urethra‬ ‭‬ ‭Sperm pass through urethra in penis to exit body during ejaculation‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Seminal Fluid from seminal vesicles‬ ‭‬ ‭Seminal vesicles contribute approximately 60-70 percent total‬ ‭semen volume‬ ‭‬ ‭Seminal fluid is alkaline and contains fructose, prostaglandins, and‬ ‭protein‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Prostate fluid from prostate gland‬ ‭‬ ‭Prostate gland adds about 20-30 percent of semen volume‬ ‭‬ ‭Prostate fluid is alkaline to neutralize acidic environment of vagina‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Penis‬ ‭‬ ‭Erection mechanism‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Neural response‬ ‭‬ ‭Parasympathetic nervous system is activated‬ ‭‬ ‭Sympathetic inhibited‬ ‭‬ ‭NO released from endothelial cells lining sinusoid‬ ‭cavity‬ ‭‬ ‭Vasodilation‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Penile arterioles vasodilate → erection‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Erect penis‬ ‭‬ ‭Relaxed smooth muscle‬  ‭ ‬ ‭Sinusoid cavity engorged with blood‬ ‭‬ ‭Veins are collapsed‬ ‭‬ ‭Emission: movement of sperm into urethra‬ ‭‬ ‭Ejaculation: expulsion of semen via contraction of smooth muscles‬ ➔ ‭ ‬F ‭ emale reproductive system‬ ‭◆‬ ‭Structures of uterus‬ ‭‬ ‭Endometrium is innermost layer of glandular epithelium whose‬ ‭structure varies with phases of cycles‬ ‭‬ ‭Myometrium is smooth muscle‬ ‭‬ ‭Perimetrium is outer layer connective tissue‬ ‭‬ ‭Cervix‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Ovarian cycle‬ ‭‬ ‭At birth, about 2 million primary oocytes are paused at prophase I‬ ‭of meiosis I‬ ‭‬ ‭Primary oocytes live in primary follicles in ovary‬ ‭‬ ‭About 28 days‬ ‭○‬ ‭Follicular phase (days 1-13)‬  ◆‭ ‬ F‭ ollicular growth in ovaries‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭FSH promotes growth and maturation of primary‬ ‭follicles in ovaries‬ ‭‬ ‭Primary follicles contain primary oocyte‬ ‭surrounded by single layer of cuboidal‬ ‭granulosa cells‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Estrogen helps thicken endometrium in preparation‬ ‭for implantation‬ ‭‬ ‭Also provides negative feedback loop to inhibit‬ ‭FSH but triggers positive feedback surge in LH‬ ‭ ‬ ‭Ovulation (day 14)‬ ○ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Marks release of mature secondary oocyte from‬ ‭dominant follicle, triggered by surge in lH‬ ‭‬ ‭Secondary oocyte formed when primary oocyte‬ ‭completes meiosis I. It is paused in metaphase‬ ‭II of meiosis and only completes meiosis if‬ ‭fertilization occurs.‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭LH causes mature follicle to rupture and release‬ ‭secondary oocyte into fallopian tube‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭FSH aids ovulation‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Estrogen signals readiness for ovulation‬ ‭○‬ ‭Luteal phase (days 15-28)‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Begins after ovulation and continues until‬ ‭menstruation‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Characterized by activity of corpus luteum‬ ‭‬ ‭Corpus luteum is a ruptured follicle after‬ ‭ovulation. It produces progesterone and‬ ‭estrogen.‬ ‭○‬ ‭If fertilization occurs → human chorionic‬ ‭gonadotropin produced by developing‬ ‭embryo keeps corpus luteum present. It‬ ‭will continue to secrete progesterone‬ ‭and estrogen until placenta takes over‬ ‭○‬ ‭If fertilization does not occur →‬ ‭degenerates into corpus albicans.‬ ‭Progesterone and estrogen levels drop‬ ‭and trigger menstruation.‬ ‭➔‬ ‭Menstrual cycle‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Counting of cycle begins with menstruation at end of previous ovarian‬ ‭cycle‬ ◆‭ ‬ E‭ ndometrial development regulated by estradiol and progesterone‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Phases‬ ‭‬ ‭Proliferative (days 8-12)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Growth of endometrium‬ ‭○‬ ‭Development of spiral arteries‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Blood supply‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Would feed embryo‬ ‭○‬ ‭Progesterone receptors develop‬ ‭‬ ‭Secretory phase (days 16-28)‬ ‭○‬ ‭After ovulation, during luteal‬ ‭○‬ ‭Progesterone tells tissue to keep developing‬ ‭○‬ ‭Makes glands and vascularization‬ ‭‬ ‭Menstrual phase (day 1-7)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Fall in progesterone and estradiol‬ ‭○‬ ‭Arteries contract‬ ‭○‬ ‭Cells die off‬ ‭○‬ ‭Tissue layer in uterus sloughed‬ ◆‭ ‬ ‭Hormonal breakdown‬