Philosophy of Education Today Third Edition PDF

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION TODAY AN INTRODUCTION Third edition PHILIP HIGGS...

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION TODAY AN INTRODUCTION Third edition PHILIP HIGGS MOEKETSI LETSEKA Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 1 2022/06/30 08:43  Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction First edition 2015 Second edition 2017 Third edition 2022 Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd PO Box 14373, Lansdowne, 7779, Cape Town, South Africa © 2022 Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd ISBN 978 1 48513 171 7 (Print) ISBN 978 1 48513 172 4 (WebPDF) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Subject to any applicable licensing terms and conditions in the case of electronically supplied publications, a person may engage in fair dealing with a copy of this publication for his or her personal or private use, or his or her research or private study. 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Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 2 2022/06/30 08:43  Table of contents Preface................................................ xiii INTRODUCTION...................................... 1 Education today.......................................... 1 What is philosophy?....................................... 2 Portfolio activity 1.................................. 6 CHAPTER 1: AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY AND AN AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION......................... 7 Preface................................................. 7 Structure of the chapter.................................... 8 What is African Philosophy?................................ 8 Portfolio activity 1................................... 9 African Philosophy and the history of Africa.................... 9 Portfolio activity 2................................... 10 Portfolio activity 3................................... 11 Portfolio activity 4................................... 11 African philosophy in a nutshell......................... 12 African Philosophy and education............................ 12 Portfolio activity 5................................... 12 Portfolio activity 6................................... 14 Portfolio activity 7................................... 15 Portfolio activity 8................................... 15 Portfolio activity 9................................... 16 An African philosophy of education..................... 17 Portfolio activity 10.................................. 17 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 3 2022/06/30 08:43 Philosophy_BOOK_2017.indb 7 2017/09/02 6:37 AM  iv Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction A retrospective glance..................................... 17 African philosophy of education: FAQs................... 18 Portfolio activity 11.................................. 18 The relevance of an African Philosophy of Education............. 19 Portfolio activity 12.................................. 19 Quick summary.......................................... 19 Portfolio activity 13.................................. 20 Indigenous African Knowledge Systems....................... 20 What are Indigenous African Knowledge Systems?........... 20 Domination experienced by Indigenous African Knowledge Systems and education in Africa........................... 21 Portfolio activity 14.................................. 22 Indigenous African Knowledge Systems and African education systems.............................................. 22 Portfolio activity 15.................................. 24 Portfolio activity 16.................................. 25 Portfolio activity 17.................................. 26 Concluding remarks....................................... 28 Portfolio activity 18.................................. 29 CHAPTER 2: EMPIRICISM AND AN EMPIRICAL PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION.................................... 31 Preface................................................. 31 Structure of the chapter.................................... 31 What is Empiricism?...................................... 32 Portfolio activity 1................................... 33 Empiricism in a nutshell............................... 35 Empiricism and education............................. 35 Empiricism, Philosophers and Analysis........................ 36 An empirical philosophy of education..................... 38 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 4 2022/06/30 08:43  Contents v Empiricism and education: a cautionary note.................... 38 Portfolio activity 2................................... 39 Empiricism and education: FAQs........................ 39 Portfolio activity 3................................... 40 Empiricism’s ‘little brother’: Pragmatism....................... 40 Portfolio activity 4................................... 41 Concluding remarks....................................... 41 Portfolio activity 5................................... 42 CHAPTER 3: SCIENTIFIC RATIONALISM AND A SCIENTIFIC RATIONALIST PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION.............. 43 Preface................................................. 43 Structure of the chapter.................................... 43 What is Scientific Rationalism?.............................. 44 Portfolio activity 1................................... 46 Example........................................... 47 Scientific rationalism in a nutshell....................... 48 Scientific Rationalism and education.......................... 50 Scientific Rationalism and Scientific Rationalist Philosophy of Education.......................................... 51 Scientific rationalism and education: FAQs................. 52 Portfolio activity 2................................... 53 Concluding remarks....................................... 53 Portfolio activity 3................................... 54 CHAPTER 4: PHENOMENOLOGY AND A PHENOMENOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION.......................... 55 Preface................................................. 55 Structure of the chapter.................................... 55 What is Phenomenology?................................... 56 Portfolio activity 1................................... 58 Phenomenology in a nutshell........................... 58 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 5 2022/06/30 08:43  vi Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction Phenomenology and education............................... 58 Portfolio activity 2................................... 59 Educators and Phenomenology............................... 59 A Phenomenological Philosophy of Education................... 62 Portfolio activity 3................................... 62 Phenomenology and education: a cautionary note................. 62 Phenomenology and education: FAQs..................... 63 Portfolio activity 4................................... 64 Concluding remarks....................................... 64 Portfolio activity 5................................... 65 CHAPTER 5: HERMENEUTICS AND A HERMENEUTIC PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION......................... 67 Preface................................................. 67 Structure of the chapter.................................... 67 What is Hermeneutics?.................................... 68 Optional activity..................................... 70 Hermeneutics in a nutshell............................. 70 Hermeneutics and education................................ 71 Educators and Hermeneutics................................ 71 A Hermeneutic Philosophy of Education....................... 73 Hermeneutics and education: a cautionary note.................. 73 Hermeneutics and education: FAQs...................... 74 Portfolio activity 1................................... 74 Hermeneutics’ ‘little brother’: Constructivism................... 75 Portfolio activity 2................................... 75 Concluding remarks....................................... 75 Portfolio activity 3................................... 76 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 6 2022/06/30 08:43  Contents vii CHAPTER 6: SYSTEMS THEORY AND A SYSTEMS THEORY PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION......................... 77 Preface................................................. 77 Structure of the chapter.................................... 77 What is Systems Theory?................................... 78 Systems Theory in a nutshell........................... 79 Systems Theory and education............................... 79 A global system.......................................... 80 Portfolio activity 1................................... 80 Educators and Systems Theory............................... 81 A Systems Theory Philosophy of Education..................... 83 Systems Theory and education: a cautionary note................ 84 Systems Theory and education: FAQs..................... 85 Portfolio activity 2................................... 86 System Theory’s ‘little brother’: Complexity Theory.............. 86 Concluding remarks....................................... 87 Portfolio activity 3................................... 88 CHAPTER 7: CRITICAL THEORY AND A CRITICAL THEORY PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION......................... 89 Preface................................................. 89 Structure of the chapter.................................... 89 What is Critical Theory?................................... 90 Critical Theory in a nutshell............................ 92 Critical Theory and education............................... 92 Portfolio activity 1................................... 94 Educators and Critical Theory............................... 94 Critical Theory and a Critical Theory Philosophy of Education...... 97 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 7 2022/06/30 08:43  viii Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction Critical Theory and education: a cautionary note................. 97 Critical Theory and education: FAQs..................... 98 Portfolio activity 2................................... 98 Concluding remarks....................................... 99 Portfolio activity 3................................... 100 CHAPTER 8: FEMINISM AND A FEMINIST PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION.................................... 101 Preface................................................. 101 Structure of the chapter.................................... 101 What is Feminism?........................................ 102 Feminism in a nutshell................................ 105 Feminism and education................................... 105 Educators and feminism.................................... 107 Feminism and a Feminist Philosophy of Education................ 110 Feminism and education: FAQs......................... 111 Portfolio activity 1................................... 113 Feminism’s ‘little brother’: Queer Theory...................... 113 Concluding remarks....................................... 114 Portfolio activity 2................................... 115 CHAPTER 9: POSTMODERNISM AND A POSTMODERN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION......................... 117 Preface................................................. 117 Structure of the chapter.................................... 117 What is Postmodernism?................................... 118 Postmodernism in a nutshell............................ 120 Postmodernism and education............................... 121 Educators and Postmodernism............................... 122 Portfolio activity 1................................... 123 Portfolio activity 2................................... 124 Portfolio activity 3................................... 125 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 8 2022/06/30 08:43  Contents ix Postmodernism and a Postmodern Philosophy of Education......... 125 Postmodernism and education: FAQs..................... 126 Postmodernism’s ‘partner’: Deconstruction..................... 127 Concluding remarks....................................... 127 Portfolio activity 4................................... 128 CHAPTER 10: CRITICAL REALISM AND A CRITICAL REALIST PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION......................... 129 Preface................................................. 129 Structure of the chapter.................................... 130 What is Realism?......................................... 130 What is Critical Realism?................................... 131 Portfolio activity 1................................... 132 Portfolio activity 2................................... 133 Roy Bhaskar – a major thinker in Critical Realism................ 133 Critical Realism as a philosophy of (social) science............... 134 Portfolio activity 3................................... 136 Portfolio activity 4................................... 138 Portfolio activity 5................................... 139 Portfolio activity 6................................... 140 Portfolio activity 7................................... 140 Portfolio activity 8................................... 141 Portfolio activity 9................................... 141 Portfolio activity 10.................................. 143 Portfolio activity 11.................................. 143 Portfolio activity 12.................................. 144 Critical Realism and education research........................ 144 Critical Realism and education............................... 145 Portfolio activity 13.................................. 146 Critical Realism in a nutshell........................... 146 Portfolio activity 14.................................. 147 Portfolio activity 15.................................. 148 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 9 2022/06/30 08:43  x Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction Portfolio activity 16.................................. 148 Portfolio activity 17.................................. 148 Critical Realism and a Critical Realist Philosophy of Education...... 149 Concluding remarks....................................... 150 Portfolio activity 18.................................. 151 CHAPTER 11: POSTHUMANISM AND A POSTHUMAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION.............. 153 Preface................................................. 153 Structure of the chapter.................................... 153 What is Posthumanism?.................................... 154 Posthumanism as Antihumanism............................. 154 Portfolio activity 1................................... 154 Posthumanism as Transhumanism............................ 156 Posthumanism as Critical Posthumanism....................... 156 Posthumanism – a brief literature review....................... 157 Posthumanism in a nutshell................................. 158 Portfolio activity 2................................... 159 Posthumanism and education................................ 159 Portfolio activity 3................................... 160 Portfolio activity 4................................... 161 Portfolio activity 5................................... 161 Portfolio activity 6................................... 162 Portfolio activity 7................................... 162 Posthumanism and a Posthuman Philosophy of Education.......... 163 Concluding remarks....................................... 163 Portfolio activity 8................................... 164 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 10 2022/06/30 08:43  Contents xi APPENDIX: A comparison of African Philosophy and Western philosophies............................... 165 African Philosophy and Empiricism........................... 165 African Philosophy and Scientific Rationalism................... 166 African Philosophy and Phenomenology....................... 167 African Philosophy and Hermeneutics......................... 168 African Philosophy and Critical Theory........................ 169 African Philosophy and Feminism............................ 170 African Philosophy and Systems Theory....................... 170 African Philosophy and Postmodernism........................ 171 African Philosophy and Critical Realism....................... 172 African Philosophy and Posthumanism........................ 172 POSTSCRIPT........................................ 175 Portfolio activity 1................................... 175 Portfolio activity 2................................... 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................... 177 Books.................................................. 177 Other sources............................................ 179 African Philosophy................................... 179 Empiricism/Scientific Rationalism....................... 180 Hermeneutics/Phenomenology/Existentialism.............. 181 Feminism.......................................... 182 Critical Theory/Systems Theory/Complexity Theory......... 183 Postmodernism...................................... 183 Critical Realism..................................... 184 Posthumanism...................................... 185 Postscript.......................................... 185 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 11 2022/06/30 08:43 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 12 2022/06/30 08:43  Preface What is philosophy of education? Simply put, philosophy of education is that branch of philosophy that examines all areas of education. Philosophy of education focuses on what constitutes knowledge, how we come to know things and how we come to understand the world around us. Significantly, philosophy of education has links with political philosophy (because, in today’s world, education is usually designed and implemented by the State). Philosophy of education was first expressed, like so much of philosophy, by the Greek philosopher Plato (circa 427–347 BCE). In his book Meno, Plato asks questions such as whether goodness and virtue can be taught, what constitutes knowledge and what constitutes teaching and learning. Plato’s work, then, is philosophy of education at its best: like all philosophy, philosophy of education asks unsettling questions (such as whether teaching necessarily involves indoctrination, and what the teacher’s main task is). In our own day, philosophy of education acknowledges the failure of many educational endeavours – from the Marxist ideology taught in the schools of the former USSR to the recent project (in South Africa, Australia and the USA) of outcomes-based education (OBE). In the light of these failures, philosophy of education redirects us to the questions first raised by Plato. Unfortunately, however, philosophy of education often falls into the hands and minds of educators in the paid service of governments and governments are, by their very nature, dominating and driven. This means that formal education systems become dominating and driven; worse still, these systems justify themselves by appealing to a philosophy of education – a philosophy which is, in fact, simply an ideology. In our own day, in South Africa, these ideologies have included fundamental pedagogy (an educational ideology that ‘justified’ apartheid schooling) and outcomes-based education (an ideology that was based on the skewed notion that educational achievement had to be measurable). Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 13 2022/06/30 08:43 Philosophy_BOOK_2017.indb 7 2017/09/02 6:37 AM  xiv Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction Having said that, it is not the purpose of this book to be little more than a gloomy appraisal of failed ideas in education. Instead, our aim is to make the student of education aware of the opportunities and threats inherent in all forms of philosophy of education – whether this philosophy comes from the West or from our own continent, Africa. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 14 2022/06/30 08:43  Introduction Education today Education isn’t working. At one end of the socio-economic scale are the ‘really good’ schools. These schools tend to have small, orderly classrooms, properly trained teachers, and the latest digital technology. Few parents are wealthy enough to send their children to these schools and, as a result, they are very much in the minority. Having said that, we should not forget that these places are by no means para­d ises – neither for learners nor for teachers. A first-world, competitive curriculum means that these schools have little choice but to encourage conformity in their pupils (and teachers). There is little opportunity for the children and young people who go to these schools to engage in critical, independent thinking. When they become adults, these ‘fortunate’ people often live out their lives in a state of depression, debt and corporate mindlessness – in a world that is running out of all the essential resources needed to sustain human life, including water itself. Further ‘down’ from these schools are the abundance of religious schools and various home-schooling experiments. For the most part, this form of education is driven by caring parents who naturally want to pass on their values and beliefs to their children. These parents are also keen to ensure that their children attend well-regulated, resourced schools in which they have access to a decent education characterised by acceptable examination results, a good matric pass rate and a university entrance qualification. Unfortunately, when these children leave such schools, they find themselves ill-prepared for a secular world and, in some cases, these schools do not measure up when it comes to the teaching of mathematics, science and computer technology. Finally, at the bottom of the socio-economic scale, the situation is impossible. In South Africa, poor state-run schools are very often the order of the day for many children, particularly in the remote rural areas. These ‘schools’ are little more than a collection of derelict buildings, staffed by ‘teachers’ who are simply adults that have been unable to find any sort of employment elsewhere. Many of these teachers are not equipped – either academically or Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 1 2022/06/30 08:43 Philosophy_BOOK_2017.indb 7 2017/09/02 6:37 AM  2 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction psychologically – to teach the huge numbers of badly nourished children that make up their ‘classrooms’ every day. Tragically, some of these teachers turn to violence, including sexual violence. Some are dismissed, whereas others continue working as teachers, wreaking havoc in the lives of the children and young people entrusted to them. Not surprisingly, many of the children who attend these schools simply drop out. Also, of course, in South Africa, some of these children have no living parents, and are forced to subsist as best they can on the mercy of older relatives. In addition, it is worth remembering that, in the developed world, there is an abundance of inner-city schools that are ridden with gang violence, bullied children and bullied teachers. Many of these schools are simply training grounds for the prisons where some children, once they are adults, will spend at least some of their lives. None of these ‘educational’ scenarios are encouraging. Can we use philosophy to change these scenarios to give children, young people and, indeed, ourselves, a better education, a better future? If we can, what philosophies are available to us, and how can we apply them to education? What is philosophy? Perhaps we should start by ridding ourselves of the notion that philosophy is some irrelevant abstract pastime that is pursued – if it is pursued at all – by certain privileged academics in the world’s ‘great universities’ such as Cambridge, Harvard and Oxford. It is a dearth of philosophy and philosophical reasoning that has brought us to the situation described in the various depressing scenarios above. Philosophy is, quite simply, the theory on which we base and run our lives, including our educational lives. All of us, whether we realise it or not, are guided by a certain philosophy or ‘life theory’. There is a variety of life theories available to us, and it is these that we will be exploring and discussing in this book. Also throughout this book we shall be looking at how these philosophies can influence education. As we shall see, some of them have had a very definite impact on educational theory and practice, whereas others do not. Today, we are privileged in that, by living in a global world, there is a variety of philosophies available to us, all of which can be applied to education. These philosophies are as follows: Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 2 2022/06/30 08:43  Introduction 3 African Philosophy and Indigenous African knowledge Systems Empiricism (and its ‘little brother’, Pragmatism) Scientific Rationalism Hermeneutics Phenomenology Critical Theory Feminism Systems Theory (which also has a ‘little brother’ – Complexity Theory) Postmodernism Critical Realism Posthumanism. Let’s find out – and let’s start by briefly defining what each of these philosophies teach. (Note the word ‘teach’.) We will look at each of them in more detail in the chapters that follow. Our first philosophy or life theory is African Philosophy, and the many Indigenous African Knowledge Systems on the African continent. African Philosophy challenges the domination of Western and Euro­ centric forms of knowledge, and emphasises the values embraced in the notions of ubuntu and communality. Education based on this kind of philosophy is directed at fostering humane persons with virtues such as kindness, generosity, compassion, benevolence, courtesy, and a respect and concern for the welfare of others. Indigenous African Knowledge Systems it calls for epistemic decolon­ isation also challenge the domination of Western and Eurocentric know­ ledge systems, which are widely considered to be the only knowledge systems that are important in public institutions of education. Indigenous African Knowledge Systems are derived from knowledge that has existed for generations in a specific community, such as historical events, ancestral wisdom and genealogies of the clan. Empiricism simply means ‘experience-ism’. Empiricism teaches that everything we know is based on what we have experienced personally through our five senses (seeing, hearing, tasting, touching, smelling). Empiricism isn’t concerned with things we can’t know or prove. As far as education is concerned, Empiricism teaches that we learn through our experiences. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 3 2022/06/30 08:43  4 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction Pragmatism is like Empiricism, and simply means ‘practical-ism’. In very simple terms, Pragmatism teaches that the truth of a statement is found in its consequences and usefulness. This means that Pragmatism encourages us to experiment. Pragmatism, then, promotes education as a form of experimentation. Scientific Rationalism is a questioning philosophy. A scientific rationalist questions and challenges what he or she is told, and insists that any claim be backed by empirical evidence. According to Scientific Rationalism, learners should be taught to question. Phenomenology examines things and people as they really are without imposing theories or opinions on this reality. It focuses on our felt experience rather than on a scientific analysis of experience. Phenomenology claims that modern education tends to ignore the world of the child. Hermeneutics is the philosophy of interpretation. People who promote Hermeneutics claim that everything in human experience is subject to human interpretation. Hermeneutics takes imagery and symbolism seriously and believes that both these should be included in the curriculum of any form of education. Constructivism claims that any form of knowledge is the product of our community’s practices and interaction with the world around that community. Constructivism takes seriously Hermeneutics’ claim that we are dependent on interpretation, except that Constructivism goes one step further and claims that the world we experience is no more than a product of that interpretation. Systems Theory is one of the more recent philosophies covered in this book. It started in the mid-20th century with the study of living biological systems. Systems Theory stresses the fact that education, like all living things, must work within a certain environment which operates in terms of input and output. Complexity Theory claims that all systems become increasingly complex until they reach the point at which they turn into another system. In the process, these evolving or emerging systems come to possess new characteristics and have new functions. Complexity Theory claims that modern education systems are in a constant state of change as old systems die out and new ones emerge. Critical Theory claims that our understanding of truth depends on the society in which we live. According to Critical Theory, all societies are ruled by élite and powerful groups whose dominant ideology becomes Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 4 2022/06/30 08:43  Introduction 5 the rhetoric of the community, and fool us all into believing certain false claims. Critical Theory believes that any real form of education should seek to free learners and teachers of a belief in these dominant, often oppressive, claims. Feminism is made up of three strands of thinking: Liberal Feminism, Phenomenological Feminism and Radical Feminism. All forms of Feminism focus on the following issues: sexual stereotyping, creating a bigger place for women in the world, and a rejection of the notion that women are accountable to and inferior to men. Most feminists claim that education remains a tool in the hands of male-dominated societies. Queer Theory focuses on the way in which we can construct and reconstruct our identities, an issue that is becoming increasingly topical in a world dominated by electronic methods of communication, methods that ‘mask’ the human being behind the computer. Postmodernism is unique in that it rejects the idea that there is one overall philosophy (or life theory) that explains and guides how we live. According to Postmodernism, any human endeavour, including education, is made up of a series of single events that cannot be explained by some grand theory. Critical Realism is a complex philosophy. When it comes to education, it is argued that Critical Realism’s conception of truth provides the most useful basis for democratic education in a multicultural context such as South Africa. Posthumanism in its critique of Humanism argues that education is no longer seen to be concerned with the bringing out of the essential characteristics of being human but rather as inseparable from, and connected to, different forms of the posthuman as these come to the fore in social, psychological and physical structures and behaviours of becoming human. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 5 2022/06/30 08:43  6 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1 Read through the paragraphs above again and then write down which of these philosophies interest and appeal to you the most. Explain why. We know that it’s early days as far as this module is concerned but think how each of these philosophies could influence education. Never mind that, at this early stage, you will be ‘guessing’. Just write down your thoughts. Later, you can see how they compare with what we say about the influence of these philosophies on education. This book is an invitation for you to join us in our discussion of these various philosophies and the impact each has on education as it is theorised and practised. The first philosophy we shall discuss in some detail is African Philosophy, and how this philosophy influences education in the formulation of an African Philosophy of Education. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 6 2022/06/30 08:43  Chapter 1 African Philosophy and an African Philosophy of Education Preface In this chapter, we shall be discussing African Philosophy, and the interaction between this and education, and then provide an overview of an African Philosophy of Education based on African Philosophy. African Philosophy has struggled to establish an identity that is peculiarly African. This is largely because Western, or Eurocentric, ways of thinking enslaved the African mind during the colonial as well as the postcolonial eras. However, African Philosophy in the 21st century is increasingly making its presence felt in all spheres of life on the African continent, including education. The significance of this for education is summarised in the following observation made by Thabo Mbeki, former President of the Republic of South Africa: If the next century is going to be characterized as a truly African Century, for social and economic progress of the African people, the century of durable peace and sustained development in Africa, then the success … is dependent on the success of our education systems (Mbeki, 1999: 1). Bearing Mbeki’s observation in mind, in this chapter we will discuss what African Philosophy has to say to those involved in education systems on the African continent. Also to be discussed in this chapter is the recognition that needs to be afforded Indigenous African Knowledge Systems in constructing curricula in education systems on the African continent. As is the case with African Philosophy, Indigenous African Knowledge Systems have also experienced various forms of domination in their histories, such as colonialism and globalisation. Central to this domination stand the negation and devaluation of Indigenous African Knowledge Systems and the hegemonic power of Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems. 7 Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 7 2022/06/30 08:43 Philosophy_BOOK_2017.indb 7 2017/09/02 6:37 AM  8 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction Structure of the chapter We will begin by asking the question: What is African Philosophy all about? In response, we will start out by identifying the different accounts of African Philosophy. We will then go on to look at what is referred to as the African Renaissance and the problem of an African identity. Next, we will enquire as to what African Philosophy has to say about education on the African continent. Having established some idea of what African Philosophy is all about, we will then proceed to consider the contribution that African Philosophy can make to education in terms of its notions of ubuntu and communalism. Then we will provide an overview of an African Philosophy of Education based on African Philosophy. Next, we will ask the question: What are Indigenous African Knowledge Systems all about? In response, we will identify the characteristics of Indigenous African Knowledge Systems. Following on from this, we will discuss the consequences of the various forms of domination experienced by Indigenous African Knowledge Systems and the impact this has had on education in Africa. We will then go on to consider why Indigenous African Knowledge Systems need to be recognised in the construction of curricula in education systems on the African continent. And then we will discuss Indigenous African Knowledge Systems and the education system in South Africa, and conclude by providing an overview of an Indigenous African Knowledge Systems Philosophy of Education. What is African Philosophy? African Philosophy finds expression in four distinctive discourses: 1 Ethnic philosophy, as set out in the work of Tempels Placid, Alex Kgame and Segun Gbadegesin, can be defined as the philosophy of Africa. It is distinctive, and consists of the religious and moral beliefs of the continent of Africa. Given the vastness of this continent and the diversity Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 8 2022/06/30 08:43  Chapter 1: African Philosophy and an African Philosophy of Education 9 of its peoples, this philosophy should not be viewed simplistically. It encompasses the African people’s view of life and Africa’s ability to criticise its own traditions. Essentially, the philosophy of Africa looks at the whole experience of human beings (in other words, the philosophy of Africa is holistic). 2 Sage or wisdom philosophy as set out in the works of Odera Oruka and Pius Mosima focuses on those individuals in society who are known to be wise and farsighted, and who can think critically. These are the people whose views challenge the authority of the community’s decision. In the Western tradition of wisdom, historically, these people have been social critics and innovators. 3 Africa’s political philosophy is unique. Kwame Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere, Amilcar Cabral, Léopold Sédar Senghor and Frantz Fanon are regarded as the main representatives of African political philosophy. The assumption underlying this philosophy is that it must be a peculiarly African political philosophy, different from capitalist, socialist or communist political philosophies. 4 Professional philosophy is the work of African philosophers such as Kwasi Wiredu, Peter Bodunrin and Paulin Hountondji. They argue that critical and rational analysis that embraces a universal view of philosophy should be the focus of African Philosophy. PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1 How does professional philosophy differ from ethnic philosophy in the context of African Philosophy? Write a response describing the similarities and differences. African Philosophy and the history of Africa Much of the history of Africa has been dominated by colonial occupation. Colonialism in Africa provided the framework for the organised subjugation of the cultural, scientific and economic life of many on the African continent. This subjugation ignored Indigenous African Knowledge Systems and impacted on African peoples’ way of seeing life and their way of being. In fact, to all intents and purposes, the African identity became an inverted mirror of Western identity. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 9 2022/06/30 08:43  10 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 2 1. How much do you know about the history of Africa and of South Africa? 2. If your answer to Question 1 is ‘not much’, where is the best place to find out more? Does your library stock any books on African history written by Africans? What history books did you study at school? Who wrote these books? The situation described above led to numerous attempts to reassert distinc­ tively African ways of thinking and of relating to the world. Such attempts find expression in the spoken tradition and body of literature referred to as African Philosophy. African written philosophy goes back to the time of the pharaohs. Greek and Roman expansion into North Africa produced many African intellectuals, the best known of whom is St Augustine, who is probably one of the most important figures in the history of the Western Christian faith. His books Confessions and The City of God contained some of the key ideas of later Christianity: the belief in original sin, the possibility of salvation through Christ and the Church, and the need to work towards establishing God’s kingdom on earth. In Eastern Christianity, one of the best known of the desert fathers is the man known as Moses the Black. Despite (or perhaps because of) his own violent youth, he specifically espoused non-violence, the taming of one’s anger (no matter how justified) and harmony. In the era of post-colonialism (from the mid-20th century onwards), increasing numbers of African scholars felt the need to develop social and economic philosophies that would enable Africa to develop. Given the importance of community and the West’s destruction of Africa, these scholars rejected capitalism. Instead, they created various forms of socialism that were based on traditional African social and political communalism. Examples are Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, with his idea of ujamaa; Kenneth Kaunda’s ideas of Zambian Humanism; Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Sékou Touré of Guinea, who put forward the idea of Scientific Socialism; Léopold Sédar Senghor of Senegal and the concept of Negritude; and Steve Biko with his ideas on Black Consciousness. The main thing to remember about African Philosophy is that it is a response to the problems and troubles of Africa and to the domination of Western thought. African thinkers are keen to disprove the Western belief that Africans are unable to develop a scientific and rational culture. And, at the same time, African thinkers want to confront the question: What does it mean to say, ‘I am an African’? Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 10 2022/06/30 08:43  Chapter 1: African Philosophy and an African Philosophy of Education 11 PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 3 What do you think it means when someone says, ‘I am an African’? Does this claim merely refer to the fact that the person lives in Africa, or does it say something more? In reaction to the colonisation and subjugation of Africa, numerous attempts were made to reassert distinctively African ways of thinking and of relating to the world. More recently, this was expressed in the call for an African Renaissance, which has been present in the period of African post- independence, spanning nearly four decades. The process of decolonisation that unfolded during this period saw Africa assert its right to define itself within its own African context. The Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiong’o claimed this process was about people’s struggle to claim their own space and their right to name the world for themselves rather than it being named through the colour-tinted glasses of Europeans (Wa Thiong’o, 1993). What then does it mean to say ‘I am an African?’ What does it mean to live on the continent of Africa at the beginning of the 21st century? Western economic writers sometimes refer to Africa as ‘the world’s basket case’. They point to Africa’s wars, starvation, financial collapse and corruption as evidence that Africa seems to suffer from some sort of death wish. In the Western media, the people of Africa are still portrayed as being backwards, as needing the help of the West. However, according to Noel King in African Cosmos, Africa stands at the centre and crossroads of the world like some great question mark. King also reminds us that the best available scientific evidence shows that humans originated there (King, 1985). Humans probably lingered in Africa for thousands of years before moving off to other parts of the earth, and during that time we developed much that is now common to human thought and life wherever it is found. Africa is thus, in a sense, the mother of us all – indeed, of all civilisations. PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 4 1. How do you feel about Africa if you compare it to the rest of the world today? 2. Does Africa stand out as a significant member among the continents of the world? If so, what is its contribution to progress in the world? Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 11 2022/06/30 08:43  12 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction We could all reflect on the words of Kgalushi Koka of the Afrikan Study Programme: Why is there a need to find out and know who the Afrikan is? The Afrikan identity is probably wide and varied. Like every living being, the survival instinct of the people of Afrikan descent is emerging quite strongly to defeat the onslaught on their personality and the obliteration of the Afrikan’s identity in the circle of the human race (Koka, 1998: 2). AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY IN A NUTSHELL African Philosophy is a complex response to Africa’s unique position in the world and human history. African Philosophy challenges the arrogance of the West, and asks it to rethink its claim of cultural superiority. In doing so, African Philosophy focuses on the following: 1. The establishment of an African identity 2. An emphasis on the African ethical values of ubuntu and communality 3. Drawing attention to the importance and value of Indigenous African Knowledge Systems. African Philosophy and education PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 5 By now, you should be aware of what African Philosophy is concerned with. In light of this, we should now begin to reflect on what this concern means for education on the African continent. 1. What do you think the call for an African Renaissance and the problem of establishing an African identity mean for education on the African continent? 2. African Philosophy is concerned with attempting to reassert distinctively African ways of thinking and of relating to the world. Considering this, what issues need to be addressed in education? 3. What significance does the struggle for an African identity have for education in, for example, South Africa specifically? Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 12 2022/06/30 08:43  Chapter 1: African Philosophy and an African Philosophy of Education 13 Education has to do with values. As such, the marginalisation of African values in education on the African continent, as witnessed in the colonial and postcolonial periods, has resulted in the general Westernisation of education in Africa. Owing to this, education systems in Africa have failed to acknowledge the cultural preferences and practices in education of African people. Instead, these education systems have given prominence to the cultural preferences and practices of the Western world, thereby perpetuating an ideology of the cultural superiority of the West. The struggle to reassert African values in education is, therefore, a natural consequence of the call for an African Renaissance on the African continent, and ongoing attempts to establish an African identity. As such, African Philo­ sophy provides the necessary context for the resurrection of African values in education systems on the African continent In the context of education, Catherine Odora Hoppers, an African philo­ sopher of education, describes this continuing struggle in the following way: The African voice in education at the end of the twentieth century is the voice of the radical witness of the pain and inhumanity of history, the arrogance of modernisation and the conspiracy of silence in academic disciplines towards what is organic and alive in Africa. It is the voice of ‘wounded healers’ struggling against many odds to remember the past, engage with the present, and determine a future built on new foundations. It invokes the democratic ideal of the right of all to ‘be’, to ‘exist’, to grow and live without coercion, and from that to find a point of convergence with the numerous others. It exposes the established hegemony of Western thought and beseeches it to feel a measure of shame and vulgarity at espousing modes of development that build on the silencing of all other views and perceptions of reality. It also seeks to contribute to the momentum for a return of humanism to the centre of the educational agenda, and dares educators to see the African child-learner not as a bundle of Pavlovian reflexes, but as a human being culturally and cosmologically located in authentic value systems (Hoppers, 2000: 1). Having established some idea of what African Philosophy is all about, and what African Philosophy has to say about education on the African continent, we will now proceed to consider the contribution that African Philosophy can make to education in terms of its notions of ubuntu and communalism. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 13 2022/06/30 08:43  14 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction Ubuntu and education The central ethical idea in African philosophy is ubuntu, which is related to human happiness and well-being. Ubuntu is usually translated into English as ‘humanity’. A fuller meaning of the word can be found in the Nguni expression Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, which means: A human being is a human being through other human beings; in other words: ‘I am because you are’. Ubuntu rejects the emphasis on individuality in the Western world, and instead recognises that a person exists and develops only in relationships with other persons. PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 6 1. Do you think that ubuntu, in recognising that we only exist and develop in relation to other people, has anything significant to say to educators? If so, what? 2. How could the notion of ubuntu be incorporated in a. classroom practice b. the life of the school in general? 3. Did you ever experience ubuntu in your own schooling? If so, provide some examples. There are many African examples of ubuntu – of caring, sharing, compassion, generosity, kindness, benevolence, courtesy, respect, forgiveness and recon­ ciliation. The relatively non-violent transition of South Africa from a totalitarian state to a multiparty democracy was based on the values of ubuntu. In this case ubuntu translates to a commitment to peaceful co-existence among ordinary South Africans despite their differences. South African philosopher Joe Teffo argues that ubuntu serves as a cohesive moral value in the face of adversity. Although the policy of apartheid greatly harmed the overwhelming majority of black South Africans, Teffo observes that: … there is no lust for revenge, no apocalyptic retribution. A yearning for justice, yes, and for release from poverty and oppression, but no dream of themselves becoming the persecutors, of turning the tables of apartheid on white South Africans. The ethos of ‘ubuntu’ is one single gift that African philosophy can bequeath on other philosophies of the world (Teffo, 2000: 45). Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 14 2022/06/30 08:43  Chapter 1: African Philosophy and an African Philosophy of Education 15 Moeketsi Letseka, a South African philosopher of education, claims that individuals who strive for and fully embrace the notion of ubuntu as their goal are driven by a humanist concern for treating others with fairness. Fairness and humanness are regarded as crucial to personal well-being. A fulfilled and flourishing life ought to be one in which persons are reasonably well fed, well clothed and housed, in good health, loved, secure and able to make a conscious effort to treat others with fairness and humanness because they in turn are treated that way. PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 7 Fairness, love, security, caring, sharing, compassion, generosity, kindness, benevolence, courtesy, respect – how can these human values embraced by ubuntu be enacted in the classroom by a teacher? Provide examples. Communality and education Another seminal notion to be found in traditional African thought is that of communality. Community and the notion of belonging to a community of people constitute the very fabric of traditional African life. This stands in contrast to the Western liberal notion of the individual as some sort of entity that is capable of existing and flourishing on its own – unconnected to any community of other individuals, not bound by any biological relationships or the socio-economic, political and cultural relationships, obligations, duties, responsibilities and conventions that frame and define a community of individuals. The communal notion of the individual in most traditional African settings is described by the African philosopher John Mbiti in the following way: Whatever happens to the individual happens to the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole group happens to the individual. The individual can only say: I am, because we are and since we are, therefore I am (Mbiti, 1970: 109). PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 8 1. Is a sense of communality important for education? If so, why? 2. Does a sense of communality exist in your educational context, be it at school, college or university? Provide examples. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 15 2022/06/30 08:43  16 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction The following two quotes emphasise the importance of community rather than individuality, past and present: Our two-million-year heritage of hunting-and-gathering life, simple at first but ultimately very complex, left its mark on our minds just as much as it did on our bodies. On top of the technical skills of planning, coordination, and technology, there was, equally important, the social skill of cooperation. A sense of common goals and values, a desire to further the common good, cooperation was more than simply individuals working together. It became a set of rules of conduct, of morals, an understanding of right and wrong in a complex social system. Without cooperation – within bands, among bands, through tribal groups – our technical skills would have been severely blunted. Social rules and standards of behaviour emerged (Leakey & Lewin, 1992: 34A). Persons are what they are in virtue of what they are destined to be, their character and the communal influence on them … A person whose existence and personality are dependent on the community is expected in turn to contribute to the continued existence of the community … The meaning of one’s life is therefore measured by one’s commitment to social ideals and communal existence (Gbadegesin, 1991: 62). PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 9 1. What constitutes the common good in South African society? 2. How can education contribute to the common good in South Africa society? Provide examples. 3. Does the education system in South Africa contribute to the common good in South African society? 4. How can education contribute to the continued existence of a community in South African society? Provide examples. The African philosopher of education Queeneth Mkabela notes that educating children for life in the African community is rooted in a welfare concern, where the basis of communality is giving priority to the community and showing respect for the person. It also involves sharing with and helping others in a spirit of cooperation (Mkabela, 1997). Education in the African context, therefore, helps people function in relation to one another in their communal tradition. This functioning promotes a collective effort directed ultimately at the good of the community. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 16 2022/06/30 08:43  Chapter 1: African Philosophy and an African Philosophy of Education 17 AN AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION African traditional thought emphasises the values embraced in the notions of ubuntu and communality. This means that if the notions of ubuntu and communality are taken up by educators on the African continent, then education will be directed at fostering humane people endowed with virtues such as kindness, generosity, compassion, benevolence, courtesy, and a respect and concern for the welfare of others. We can therefore say that African philosophy gives rise to an African Philosophy of Education that: seeks to establish an African identity in education promotes African values in education by emphasising the values of ubuntu and communality in the aims and practice of education integrates Indigenous African Knowledge Systems into the school curriculum. In short, African values represent the focus of attention in an African Philosophy of Education. PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 10 1. How can teachers practise the values of ubuntu and communality in their classroom teaching? 2. Do you think that the education system in South Africa has embraced and realised the values of ubuntu and communality in what they expect education to achieve for society? Provide reasons for your answer. A retrospective glance We began this chapter by asking the question: What is African Philosophy all about? This involved examining what is referred to as the African Renaissance and the problem of an African identity. In doing so, we went on to enquire what African Philosophy has to say to education on the African continent. Having established some idea of what African Philosophy is all about, we then proceeded to consider the contribution that African Philosophy can make to the formulation of an African Philosophy of Education based on the ideas of ubuntu and communality in establishing an African identity in education. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 17 2022/06/30 08:43  18 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION: FAQs Has an African Philosophy of Education influenced education in South Africa? Unfortunately, not really. The South African education system is still largely based on Western education systems that value science and fact-finding (as these are defined by Western philosophies) rather than African values of compassion and communality. Having said that, in the contemporary world, science and the Western traditions of, for example, mathematics, cannot be ignored in education. As we explain in our chapter on Empiricism (see Chapter 2), scientific and mathematical truths remain just as valid in Africa as they do in the USA or Europe. Has an African Philosophy of Education in South Africa influenced teaching? Yes and no. An African Philosophy of Education’s emphasis on the need for handing on the values of the community to the young means that an African Philosophy of Education, by its very nature, includes teaching. However, in South African schools, this form of teaching has tended to be ignored or even scorned. What does an African Philosophy of Education have to offer schools in South Africa? An African Philosophy of Education introduces teachers, children and young people to the values of care, compassion, respect and kindness. And at the same time, an Africa Philosophy of Education is deeply unhappy with the notion of schooling as consisting of little more than rote learning without reference to the values of care, compassion, respect and kindness. But you can’t ignore science! This is true, and we have referred to this above. It’s worth remembering that the field of science covers far more than the dreary memorising of mathematical formulae, for example. Indeed, the life sciences are, by their very nature, holistic, and this is in keeping with African rather than Western values. PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 11 Having considered the contribution that African Philosophy can make to an African Philosophy of Education, now answer the following question: What do you think an African Philosophy of Education can help teachers and learners to achieve in education? How can it influence a teacher’s classroom practice and the learning experience of learners? Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 18 2022/06/30 08:43  Chapter 1: African Philosophy and an African Philosophy of Education 19 The relevance of an African Philosophy of Education Finally, we now reflect on the nature of an African Philosophy of Education – that is, what an African Philosophy of Education will have to say about education as practised in Africa. In Africa, there are certainly many voices concerned about the form and direction that education should take in the future. There are also many calls for new approaches and a relevant African Philosophy of Education. From our discussion thus far, a relevant African Philosophy of Education would be directed at: acknowledging and establishing an African identity in education providing the necessary context for the resurrection of African values in education systems on the African continent by challenging the domination (hegemony) of Western and Eurocentric ways of thinking in education; and emphasising the values of ubuntu and communality in the aims and practice of education and teaching. PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 12 Was the education you have been exposed to derived from an African Philosophy of Education? 1. Provide reasons for your answer. 2. Indicate what should be done to ensure that an education system is constructed based on an African Philosophy of Education. Quick summary The subjugation of Africa to colonial exploitation had serious ramifications that continue to influence African societies today, many years after the demise of colonial rule. This damage was caused by a whole range of elements, including educational philosophies, curricula and practices, the context of which corresponded with that of the respective colonial powers. To address this situation, African Philosophy has as one of its objectives the goal of recovering the humanistic principles embedded in traditional African thought, and more particularly in the concepts of ubuntu and communality. African Philosophy, therefore, as Catherine Odora Hoppers points out, Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 19 2022/06/30 08:43  20 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction constitutes an attempt to develop both a vision and a practice of education that lays the basis for African people to participate in mastering and directing the course of change and fulfilling the vision of learning to know, learning to do, learning to be and learning to live together as equals with others. A philosophy of this kind in education views knowledge and minds not as commodities, not just human resources to be developed and exploited and then cast aside, but as treasures to be cultivated to improve the quality of life of both persons and communities in society. PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 13 ‘A philosophy of this kind in education views knowledge and minds not as commodities, or as human resources to be developed and exploited and then cast aside, but as treasures to be cultivated to improve the quality of life of both persons and communities in society.’ Do you think that the South African education system is built on a philosophy of this kind in education? Provide reasons for your answer in your portfolio. Indigenous African Knowledge Systems The concern of African Philosophy to develop both a vision and a practice of education that empowers African people is also evident in the Indigenous African Knowledge Systems that are found on the African continent. What are Indigenous African Knowledge Systems? Indigenous African Knowledge Systems are said to be unique to a particular African culture and society. These knowledge systems form the basis for local decision making in, for example, education, agriculture, health and natural resource management, and a host of other activities in rural communities. Indigenous African Knowledge Systems are seen to have certain characteristics, such as the following: They are situated in a particular context which embodies the life experience, interactions and natural settings of the indigenous people. They represent holistic knowledge, because they address all dimensions of being human – that is, physical, spiritual, emotional and intellectual. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 20 2022/06/30 08:43  Chapter 1: African Philosophy and an African Philosophy of Education 21 They are derived from multiple sources of indigenous knowledge, such as, for example, old knowledge that has existed for generations in a specific community, for example historical events, ancestral wisdoms and genealogies of the clan, such as: – empirical knowledge that has been learnt through careful daily observations; and – revealed knowledge acquired through dreams, visions and spiritual institutions. Domination experienced by Indigenous African Knowledge Systems and education in Africa As is the case with African Philosophy, Indigenous African Knowledge Systems have also experienced various forms of domination in their histories, such as colonialism and globalisation (Hoppers, 2001c). Central to this domination stand the negation and devaluation of Indigenous African Knowledge Systems by the hegemonic power of Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems. This hegemonic display of power on the part of Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems has certain consequences for Indigenous African Knowledge Systems: The erasure of the rich knowledge legacy of African people. Western/ Eurocentric knowledge systems regarded authentic knowledge as only existing within their own political and cultural boundaries, at the same time concluding that knowledge derived from African people was non- scientific. A hegemonic discourse that propagated an unequal relationship between what was referred to as ‘developed’ and ‘underdeveloped’ countries, and the concepts ‘First World’ and ‘Third World’. Ramose observes that the First World serves as a model of progress – the desirable way of living – while the Third World represents a ‘degenerate enclave of people who cannot manage their own lives’ (Ramose, 2001). The claim by Western/Eurocentric hegemonic discourses that progress is only achieved through the advancement of Western/Eurocentric science, the findings of which are regarded as universal, value-free and objective. Consequently, this scientific method, which was regarded as universal, value-free and objective, became the only way of knowing and pursuing progress. This meant that Indigenous African Knowledge Systems were relegated to an inferior status. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 21 2022/06/30 08:43  22 Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction As a result, Indigenous African Knowledge Systems have not been included in any significant way in the curricula of education systems on the African continent. Only Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems have been important in public institutions of education. In the light of this, Odora Hoppers (2001a: 74) observes that Africans have lost all self-confidence to participate in a conversation that has marginalised the heritage and legacy enshrined in Indigenous African Knowledge Systems. PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 14 Are you aware of the education legacy that is enshrined in the Indigenous Knowledge System of your community and culture? If your answer is ‘no’, provide reasons why this is so. If your answer is ‘yes’, provide a brief description of the education legacy that is enshrined in the Indigenous Knowledge System of your particular community and culture. Refer to the following: 1. Where did the education of children take place? 2. Who was responsible for the education of children? 3. What form did this education take? For example, was it oral, written or both? 4. Was reference made to books in the education of the child? 5. On what did education focus? For example, did it focus on tradition or the acquisition of new knowledge? 6. When was a child considered to be educated? Colonialism thus influenced Africans negatively – it was a time of self- alienation during which Africa’s indigenous values and modes of being were distorted and attuned to Western/Eurocentric values. As a result, Africans lived and acted inauthentically, untrue to their nature and their world. In short, the being of Africans was negated. Indigenous African Knowledge Systems and African education systems We shall now look at why Indigenous African Knowledge Systems should be included in the construction of curricula for education systems on the African continent. Philosophy of Education Today (Book).indb 22 2022/06/30 08:43  Chapter 1: African Philosophy and an African Philosophy of Education 23 During the postcolonial period, Africans have become more and more interested in asserting the truth about themselves and their world. For example, Nkrumah wrote: ‘The desire of the African people themselves to unite and to assert their personality in the context of the African community has made itself felt everywhere’ (in Okolo, 1985: 6). In this regard, it is being increasingly acknowledged and recognised that Africa had achieved scientific and technological sophistication in myriad fields, including astronomy, metallurgy, agricultural science and medicine, prior to the Western/European invasion of the African continent. In Article 29 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People, the above is emphasised: Indigenous people are entitled to the recognition of the full ownership, control, and protection of their cultural and intellectual rights... They have the right to special measures to control, develop and protect their sciences, technologies, cultural manifestations, including human and other genetic resources, seeds, medicines, knowledge of properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions which include education traditions, literatures, designs, and visual and performing arts. Such measures are necessary, because Western/European scientists often use indigenous African knowledge in such a way that it is separated from its source. Original indigenous African knowledge is often used and changed in such a way that it is, in fact, shelved. The results of this are the plagiarism of knowledge held by individuals, and the invisibility of the indigenous African people from whom the knowledge originally came. All in all, it represents a veiled oppression of indigenous African cultures, and could be called intellectual marginalisation. Because of this, Odora Hoppers argues for the protection of the cultural and intellectual property rights of indigenous knowledge systems and technologies. She claims that this means:... the creation, or reinforcements of mechanisms to protect indigenous knowledges and technologies from untrammelled exploitation by external forces. It is also to acknowledge that indigenous peoples are the guardians of their customary knowledge and have a right to control the dissemination of that knowledge. Such cultural and intellectual property rights incorporate collective (as well as individual) ownership, retroactive coverage of historical as well as contemporary works, protection against debasement of culturally significant