Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry Lecture PDF

STATES OF MATTER PICQA Lecture Notes Student’s Name: Section: MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Chemistry - the science that describes matter—its properties, the Molecul...

STATES OF MATTER PICQA Lecture Notes Student’s Name: Section: MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Chemistry - the science that describes matter—its properties, the Molecules are changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that Molecules close but Molecules are packed close randomly far apart accompany those processes together orderly arranged - The CENTRAL SCIENCE Flows and Fills any Rigid Branches of Chemistry assumes shape container of container completely ▪ Organic chemistry - Hydrocarbons and its derivatives ▪ Inorganic chemistry - Inorganic compounds, metals, minerals ▪ Analytical chemistry - Detection and identification of substances present (qualitative analysis) or amount of each substance (quantitative analysis) ▪ Biochemistry - Processes in living organisms ▪ Physical Chemistry - Behavior of matter A1. Matter MATTER AND ENERGY Physical and Chemical Properties ▪ Matter - anything that has mass and occupies space ▪ Physical properties - can be observed or measured without changing the ▪ Mass identity of the substance. - measure of the quantity of matter - e.g. color, hardness, melting point, boiling point ▪ Volume ▪ Chemical properties - amount of space - exhibited by matter as it undergoes changes in composition. ▪ Energy - e.g. hydrogen has the potential to ignite and explode given the right conditions - the capacity to do work or to transfer heat - e.g. iron reacts with oxygen gas to form rust - Types: 1. Kinetic energy ▪ Energy in motion Question: 2. Potential energy ▪ Energy at rest Which of the following is a chemical property of matter? - Energy Changes: A) Silver is a shiny metal that conducts electricity very ▪ Exothermic – release (heat) well. ▪ Endothermic – absorbs (heat) B) Sulfur is a yellow powder. C) A dry piece of paper burns. D) Pure water, for example, has a density of 0.998 g/cm3 at 25°C. //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 1 Extensive and Intensive Properties Classification of Matter ▪ Extensive Properties - Dependent on the amount of substance - e.g. MASS – more substance, greater mass - e.g. VOLUME – more substance, greater volume ▪ Intensive Properties - Independent on the amount of substance - e.g. DENSITY, Electrical Conductivity Mixture - Variable Composition (e.g. 70%, 80% or 95% ethanol Question: in water) - May be separated into pure substances by physical Which of the following is an EXTENSIVE property of methods (e.g. distillation, filtration) matter? A) Hardness Pure Substance B) Size - Fixed composition (e.g. 100% ethanol) C) Melting point - Cannot be separated into simpler substances by D) Color physical methods Homogeneous Mixtures Way to Tell Intensive and Extensive Properties Apart - Components are NOT distinguishable (single phase) - Have same composition throughout (i.e. same amount ▪ Take two identical samples of a substance and put them in any areas) together. - e.g. SOLUTION ▪ If this doubles the property (e.g., twice the mass, twice as long), it's an extensive property. Heterogeneous Mixtures ▪ If the property is unchanged by altering the sample size, - Components are distinguishable (multiple phases) it's an intensive property. - Do NOT have same composition throughout (i.e. different amount in various areas) - e.g. SUSPENSION Physical and Chemical Changes Compounds ▪ Chemical Change - Can be decomposed to simpler substance by chemical changes - one or more substances are used up - consists of atoms of two or more different elements - one or more new substances are formed, bound together. - energy is absorbed or released - e.g. water, H2O can be broken into hydrogen and oxygen gases via electrolysis - IRREVERSIBLE - e.g. burning of paper, cooking an egg, souring of milk Elements - Cannot be decomposed to simpler substance by ▪ Physical Change chemical changes - Consists of only one kind of atom - no change in chemical composition - REVERSIBLE - e.g. shredding paper, boiling of water, breaking a bottle Question: Which of the following exhibits a chemical change? A) Ice cream melting B) Making a sand castle C) A Macbook falling out of a window D) Fireworks Exploding Note: - A physical change may suggest that a chemical change has also taken place. - For instance, a color change, a warming, or the formation of a solid when two solutions are mixed could indicate a chemical change. //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 2  The Atomic Number (Z) ▪ The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines its identity; this number is known as the atomic number of that element. ▪ e.g. - Hydrogen atom contains 1 proton. - Lithium atom contains 3 protons. The Mass Number (A) ▪ The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in its nucleus; that is 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = # 𝒐𝒇 𝒑 + # 𝒐𝒇 𝒏 Question: 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 + 𝑵𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 How would you categorize each example of matter? (element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or heterogeneous mixture) Isotopes 1) Freshly squeezed orange juice ▪ Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different 2) Red wine masses. ▪ They are atoms containing the same number of protons 3) Table salt but different numbers of neutrons. 4) Mercury 5) Oxygen gas, O2 A2. Atom and Its Electronic Structure The Atom ▪ Atom - the smallest unit that retains the properties of an Nuclide Symbol element. ▪ Dalton’s Theory ▪ Represents the composition of the nucleus - All matter is composed of atoms and these cannot be made or destroyed. //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 3 Note: Chemists often omit the subscripted atomic number The Atomic Weight because the element symbol implies the atomic number. ▪ Many elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes. ▪ The atomic weight of such an element is the weighted average of the masses of its isotopes. ▪ Atomic weights are fractional numbers, not integers. Activity: To calculate the number of neutrons; Complete the following table. 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 − 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 Question: Calculate the number of neutrons in the given isotopes of carbon. A3. Development of Atomic Models Early History ▪ Leucippus and Democritus (500 BC) - Greek word “Atomos” – uncuttable Note: Another way of representation for isotopes - Atom as solid indivisible sphere [Element name] - [Mass number] ▪ Aristotle and Others - Matter is made up of four elements Question: Dalton’s Atomic Theory Determine the number of protons, neutrons and ▪ John Dalton (1807) electrons in each of the following species. - Solid Sphere (Billiard Ball) Model Are the members within each pair isotopes? - Atom as solid sphere but NOT indivisible The Discovery of Electrons ▪ Elements of a chemical compound are held together by electrical forces. - Humphry Davy (1800s) ▪ Relationship between the amount of electricity used in electrolysis and the amount of chemical reaction that Question: occurs. - Michael Faraday (1832) ▪ Are the members within each pair isotopes? ▪ “Electrons” → Electric ions - George Stoney (1891) The Discovery of Electrons 1. ▪ Cathode-Ray Tube Experiment - Joseph John Thomson (1897) - Most convincing evidence of electrons - Plum pudding model 2. ▪ Oil-drop Experiment - Robert Millikan (1909) - Determine the charge of electrons - //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 4 The Discovery of Electrons The Discovery of Neutrons ▪ Saturn-like model ▪ J. Chadwick (1932) - Hantaro Nagaoka (1903) - bombardment of beryllium with high-energy alpha- particles produced NEUTRONS The Discovery of Protons Bohr’s Model ▪ Canal Rays Experiment - Eugen Goldstein (1886) ▪ Niels Bohr - Cathode-ray tube also generates a stream of - described the electron of a positively charged particles hydrogen atom as revolving - These positive rays, or positive ions, are created around its nucleus in one of a when the gaseous atoms in the tube lose electrons. discrete set of circular orbits. Rutherford’s Model ▪ Bohr’s Planetary Model ▪ The Scattering Experiment - Each orbit thus corresponds to a definite energy level - Ernest Rutherford (1910) for the electron. - When an electron is excited from a lower energy level to a higher one, it absorbs a definite (quantized) amount of energy. - Electrons occupy only certain energy levels in atoms. The Wave Nature of Electron ▪ Louis de Brogli - proposed the idea of wave-like nature of electrons ▪ Electrons can be treated as waves more effectively than as small compact particles traveling in circular or elliptical orbits. Quantum Mechanics ▪ Quantum mechanics - Based on the wave properties of matter ▪ Assumption: ▪ Werner Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (1927) - If the Thomson model of the atom were correct, any - For electrons, it is not possible to determine the exact alpha-particles passing through the foil would have momentum and the exact position at the same been deflected by very small angles. moment in time. - Quite unexpectedly, nearly all of the a-particles passed through the foil with little or no deflection. ▪ The mathematical approach of quantum mechanics involves treating the electron in an atom as a standing ▪ Rutherford’s Conclusion: wave. Erwin Schrödinger’s Wave Equation - Atoms consist of very small, very dense positively charged nuclei ▪ It estimates the position of electrons and quantifies energy surrounded by clouds of electrons levels. at relatively large distances from the nuclei. Atomic Orbitals ▪ Nuclear Model - Positive charge localized ▪ A region of space in which in the NUCLEUS the probability of finding an electron is high. Atomic Number of an Element ▪ H.G.J. Moseley (1913) studied X-rays given off by various The Modern Atomic Model elements. ▪ Erwin Schrödinger - “The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom - Electron Cloud Model determines its identity; this number is known as the - Quantum Mechanical Model atomic number of that element.” //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 5 A4. Quantum numbers ▪ Each atomic orbital is described by a set of quantum numbers. 1. Principal QN (𝒏) 2. Orbital QN (𝒍) 3. Magnetic QN (𝒎𝒍 ) 4. Spin QN (𝒎𝒔 ) - for individual electrons only 1. Principal Quantum Number (𝒏) ▪ 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … (𝒏) ▪ Orbital → SHELL or ENERGY LEVEL ▪ Distance of the electron from the nucleus ▪ Higher 𝒏, higher energy 3. Magnetic Quantum Number (𝒎𝒍 ) ▪ 𝒎𝒍 = −𝒍 … 𝟎 … + 𝒍 ▪ Orbital → Specific orbital ▪ Orientation in space of the orbital 4. Spin Quantum Number (𝒎𝒔 ) 2. Angular momentum quantum number (𝒍) ▪ For each INDIVIDUAL ELECTRON only 𝟏 𝟏 ▪ 𝒎𝒔 = + , − ▪ a.k.a. Azimuthal or Orbital Angular momentum Quantum 𝟐 𝟐 Number ▪ Direction of spin (clockwise or counter-clockwise) ▪ 𝒍 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … (𝒏 − 𝟏) ▪ Quantum Number and Electron Configuration ▪ Orbital → SUBSHELL/ SUBLEVEL ▪ Shape of the orbital Quantum Number and Electron Configuration - 𝒍=𝟎 s spherical - 𝒍=𝟏 p dumb-bell - 𝒍=𝟐 d clover leaf - 𝒍=𝟑 f complex Question: ▪ Write the possible combinations of quantum numbers (𝒏, 𝒍, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒍 )in a 3p subshell. //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 6 Question: Question: ▪ Name the orbital with quantum numbers 𝒏 = 𝟒 ; 𝒍 = 𝟐 ▪ Write the FULL electron configuration for calcium atom. A5. Electron Configuration Orbital Diagrams Electron Configuration ▪ Another way to represent the order of fill for an atom is by ▪ “Distribution of electrons” using an orbital diagram often referred to as "the little ▪ describes the number and arrangement of electrons in boxes" orbitals, subshells and shells in an atom. ▪ Ground state - Atom in its lowest energy, or unexcited, state. Rules in Predicting the Electron Configuration of an Atom ▪ Aufbau principle - Orbitals fill in order of increasing energy, from lowest to highest. Writing an Orbital Diagram ▪ Hund’s Rule - The order of fill is the same but as you can see from above the electrons are placed singly into the boxes before filling them with both electrons. - A single electron will occupy an empty orbital first before pairing. ▪ Pauli Exclusion Principle Question: - No more than two electrons can occupy each orbital, and if two electrons are present, they must have ▪ Draw the orbital diagram for sodium atom. opposite spins. Question: ▪ Write the four quantum numbers that describe the location of the highest energy “last” electron in oxygen atom. Question: ▪ Write the FULL electron configuration for sodium atom. Question: ▪ Write the four quantum numbers that describe the location of the 6th electron in sodium atom. //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 7 Simplified Notation: Noble Gas Configuration Question: ▪ An atom consists of the elemental symbol of the last ▪ Write the full and noble gas electron configurations for noble gas prior to that atom, followed by the sulfur atom. configuration of the remaining electrons. [𝑯𝒆] → 𝟐 𝒆− [𝑵𝒆] → 𝟏𝟎 𝒆− [𝑨𝒓] → 𝟏𝟖 𝒆− [𝑲𝒓] → 𝟑𝟔 𝒆− [𝑿𝒆] → 𝟓𝟒 𝒆− [𝑹𝒏] → 𝟖𝟔 𝒆− A6. The Periodic Table of Elements 1. Determine the total number of electrons of the atom. ▪ Dimitri Mendeleev - Based on chemical properties 2. Choose the nearest lower noble gas and calculate the ▪ Lothar Meyer remaining electrons: - Based on physical properties ▪ Both emphasized the periodicity, or regular periodic repetition of properties with increasing atomic weight. 3. Refer to the complete configuration. ▪ Elements are now arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number. ▪ Periodic Law: 4. Write the noble gas and continue writing the notation - “The properties of the elements are periodic functions with the remaining electrons. of their atomic numbers.” ▪ Vertical Columns → Groups or Families ▪ Horizontal Rows → Periods Question: ▪ Write the noble gas electron configuration for calcium atom. Writing the Electron Configuration using the Periodic Table //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 8 Metals, Non-Metals and Metalloids Periodic Trends Question: ▪ Which of the following element is the most electronegative? (A) Ca ▪ Metalloids (B) B - Show some properties that are characteristic of both (C) I metals and non-metals (D) F - Semiconductors ▪ insulators at lower temperatures but become conductors at higher temperatures Question: ▪ silicon, germanium, and antimony ▪ Arrange the elements Na, Si, and S in order of: Question: (a) increasing atomic radius; ▪ Complete the following table: (b) increasing ionization energy; Atomic Mass Name Symbol Group Period number number (c) decreasing electronegativity. Tin Fe 30 Periodic Properties of Elements ▪ Atomic Radii (Size) - Defined as half of the distance between the nuclei of neighbouring atoms in the pure element - Expressed in Angstroms (1Å = 10-10 m) ▪ Ionization Energy (IE) - The energy required to remove an electron from a gas-phase atom ▪ Electron Affinity (EA) - the energy change that occurs when an electron is attached to an atom in the gas phase to form an negative ion ▪ Electronegativity (EN) - measure of the relative tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when it is chemically combined with another atom //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 9 //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 10  1. Sodium hydroxide MODULE 2: CHEMISTRY OF ELEMENTS IN - “Caustic soda, lye” THE PERIODIC TABLE - Very deliquescent – absorbs moisture in air and liquifies - Escharotic - corrosive to tissue B1. Group IA – The Alkali Metals - Uses: ▫ in soap preparations General Properties ▫ as standard solution in acid-base titrations ▪ Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs 2. Sodium chloride ▪ Univalent, +1 - “Rock salt, table salt” ▪ Soft, waxy, and has high metallic luster - Electrolyte replenishment ▪ Low sp.gr.; low MP - Renders solutions to be isotonic ▪ Alkali salts are freely-soluble in water ▫ Prescription “fiat isotonic collyrium” ▪ Forms simple cations - Normal saline solution (NSS), 0.9% NaCl ▪ Most active, electro-positive metals ▫ Physiological salt solution ▪ Easily oxidized in air (stored under mineral oil) ▪ Reacts with water violently 3. Sodium acetate ▫ M + H2O → H2 + MOH - Diuretic, treatment of cystitis and UTI ▪ Oxides and hydroxides are strongly BASIC 4. Sodium carbonate ▫ Anhydrous → “soda ash” ▫ Decahydrate → “sal soda”, “washing soda” B1.1 Lithium - as anhydrous – buffer preparations - as solution - lotion preparations Lithium 5. Sodium bicarbonate ▪ Greek word lithos – “stone” - “Baking soda” ▪ Lightest metal - Antacid ▪ Carmine red in non-luminous flame ▫ Misuse can lead to “rebound acidity” ▪ Former ingredient of 7Up® - Urinary alkalizer - contained lithium citrate - As hangover cure 6. Sodium nitrite - Li+ was removed following death of 4 US Patients - Smooth muscle relaxant (slow onset) for angina ▪ Li+ - CNS depressant pectoris ▪ Li toxicity – nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) - Treatment for cyanide poisoning 1. Lithium bromide 7. Sodium citrate - hypnotic - Oral: alkalizer, diuretic - Parenteral: anticoagulant 2. Bromide syrup - Bromides of Li, Na, K, Ca and NH4+ 8. Sodium phosphate - sedative - disodium hydrogen phosphate - dibasic sodium phosphate 3. Lithium carbonate - Saline laxative, cathartic - Antacid, antirheumatic, diuretic 9. Sodium biphosphate 4. Lithium citrate - sodium dihydrogen phosphate - Antacid - less irritating to stomach - monobasic sodium phosphate - Urinary acidifier B1.2 Sodium 10. Sodium thiocyanate ▪ Latin name Natrium, obtained from niter - antihypertensive ▪ Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (electrolysis of NaOH 11. Sodium thiosulfate – caustic soda) - External: ringworm infection - IV: dermatitis ▪ Abundant in nature in the form of NaCl – rock salt - Treatment for iodine and cyanide poisoning ▪ Bright golden yellow in non-luminous flame 12. Sodium sulfate ▪ Na+ - predominant cation in ECF - “Glauber’s salt” - Saline laxative //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 11  13. Sodium borate B1.3 Potassium - “Borax”, sodium tetraborate - Bacteriostatic (as eye-wash and wet dressing) Potassium ▪ Latin name Kalium, obtained from Salsola kali - Water-softener ▪ Isolated by Sir Humphry Davy from potash - various 14. Sodium bromide mined and manufactured potassium salts - Sedative ▪ Violet color in non-luminous flame 15. Sodium iodide ▪ K+ - predominant cation in ICF - Solubilizing agent in iodine solution 1. Potassium acetate - Histolytic – destroys tissues - diuretic - Expectorant 2. Potassium bicarbonate 16. Sodium hypochlorite - Antacid, urinary alkalizer - Sodium hypochlorite Solution (5% NaOCl) 3. Potassium bitartrate ▫ laundry bleaching agent - “Cream of Tartar” - Labarraque’s Solution - Diuretic, laxative ▫ NaOCl diluted with equal volume of water ▫ Oxidizing and bleaching agent 4. Potassium bromide - Modified Dakin’s solution - sedative ▫ Diluted NaOCl solution (0.5%) 5. Potassium carbonate ▫ Disinfectant, irrigating solution for wound - Alkalizer in pharmaceutical preparations 17. Compound effervescent powders 6. Potassium chlorate - “Seidlitz powders” - Oxidizing germicide - Mild laxative - Manufacture of pyrotechnics, matches - Comes in: ▫ Blue paper – sodium bicarbonate and potassium 7. Potassium chloride sodium tartrate - diuretic ▫ White paper – tartaric acid 8. Potassium citrate - Reaction → CO2 (effervescence) - Diuretic, expectorant, laxative → Increases palatability 9. Potassium hydroxide 18. Soda Mint - “Caustic potash” - Sodium bicarbonate + aromatic ammonia - Similar to NaOH but more deliquescent, stronger and - Carminative, antacid more expensive than NaOH 19. Soda lime 10. Potassium mercuric iodide - Calcium hydroxide + Na/K hydroxides - Germicide - Absorbs CO2 - For metabolism tests, anesthesia, oxygen therapy 11. Potassium nitrate - “Saltpeter” 20. Sodium bicarbonate and Calcium carbonate powder - Diuretic, diaphoretic - “Sippy Powder No. 1” - Antacid 12. Potassium permanganate - “Chameleon mineral” 21. Sodium citrate solution - Very powerful oxidizing agent - Diaphoretic – increases sweating - Antiseptic, treatment of urethritis 22. Compound sodium borate solution 13. Potassium sodium tartrate - “Dobell’s solution” - “Rochelle salt, Sal Seignette” - Astringent, antiseptic - Mild laxative and hydragogue 23. Theobromine and Sodium acetate - Component of Fehling’s solution - Diuretic in cardiac edemas 14. Sulfurated Potash 24. Sodium nitrate - “Liver of sulfur, hepar sulfuris” ▫ “Chile saltpeter” - Mixture of K polysulfides and thiosulfate ▫ Manufacture of nitric acid and fertilizer - Treatment of parasitic skin diseases 15. Potassium thiocyanate - Smooth muscle relaxant //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 12 B1.4 Rubidium B2. Group IIA – The Alkaline Earth Metals ▪ Discovered by Bunsen and Kirchhoff ▪ seldom used in medicine ▪ Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba ▪ Bivalent, +2 ▪ Reactions: B1.5 Cesium ▫ M + H2O → H2 + M(OH)2 ▪ Discovered by Bunsen; first element discovered using ▫ M + H2 → MH2 spectroscope ▫ M(OH)2 + heat → MO + H2O ▪ No commercial importance; never used in medicine ▪ Solubility: - Hydroxide salts are less water-soluble than those of alkalis B1.6 Ammonium - Carbonates, sulfate, phosphates and fluoride salts are INSOLUBLE in water ▪ NH4+ cation behaves like an alkali metal ▪ “hypothetical metal ion” 1. Ammonium bromide B2.1 Calcium - sedative Calcium 2. Ammonium carbonate ▪ Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (through electrolysis) - “Sal volatile, Preston salt, Hartshorn, ▪ Found in nature in the form of carbonate (chalk, marble, Salt of Hartshorn” limestone) - Reflex stimulant ▪ Brick red in non-luminous flame - Expectorant ▪ Ca+2 ion - 2nd most abundant cation in the ECF 3. Ammonium hydroxide - Pharmacologic action: - Strong ammonia solution ▫ Nerve transmission ▫ Stronger ammonia water ▫ Proper cardiac function ▫ 27-29% NH3 ▫ Blood coagulation ▫ Used in manufacture of ammonium salts, nitric ▫ Structural basis of skeleton acid, fertilizers - Diluted ammonia solution 1. Calcium bromide ▫ Ammonia water - sedative ▫ 9-10% NH3 2. Calcium carbonate ▫ “Spirit of hartshorn” - Most abundant and widely distributed calcium salt Product of destructive distillation of horns of - Forms: male deer ▫ Amorphous – Chalk ▫ “Household ammonia” ▫ Crystalline – Limestone, marble For cleaning and washing due to water - Used as building material softening and saponifying properties - Precipitated calcium carbonate 4. Aromatic Ammonia Spirit ▫ Precipitated chalk - Gastric stimulant, carminative, antacid ▫ External: as dentifrice (tooth powder) due to mild 5. Ammonium acetate solution abrasive property - “Spirit of Mindererus” ▫ Internal: antacid - Prepared Chalk 6. Expectorant Mixture ▫ Drop chalk - “Mistura pectoralis, Stoke’s Expectorant” ▫ Antacid 7. Ammonium Chloride 3. Calcium chloride - “Muriate of Ammonia, Sal ammoniac” - Urinary acidifier - Expectorant, diuretic - Ringer’s Solution ▫ Isotonic solution of Three Chlorides ▫ Ca, Na and K chlorides - Lactated Ringer’s Solution ▫ Ca, Na and K chlorides + sodium lactate 4. Calcium gluconate - Calcium supplement //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 13  5. Calcium hydroxide B2.3 Barium - “hydrated lime or slaked lime” - Mixed with 3-4x of water → “Milk of Lime” Barium ▪ Yellowish green in non-luminous flame - Saturated aqueous solution → “Lime Water” ▪ Ba+2 is highly toxic - Uses: ▫ Antacid 1. Barium chloride ▫ Mild astringent - Used in the treatment of Stokes-Adams disease ▫ Saponifying agent for oils “heart-block” - Veterinary use: constipation in horses 6. Calcium oxide - Rat poison - “Lime, Calx, Quicklime” - Slaking: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 2. Barium sulfate - Used in making insecticides - Radiopaque contrast media ▫ Oral: Barium meal 7. Sulfurated Lime Solution ▫ Rectal: Barium enema - “Vleminckx’ Solution” - Commercial use: making lithopone paints - Lime + sublimed sulfur - Treatment of acne 3. Barium hydroxide - “Caustic baryta” 8. Dibasic calcium phosphate - Aqueous solution → baryta water - Source of calcium and phosphorus - Use: CO2-absorbent - Can be supplied with ▫ Vitamin D → increases Ca absorption 4. Barium nitrate - Used in manufacture of green fire 9. Tribasic calcium phosphate - Precipitated calcium phosphate 5. Barium oxide - “Bone ash” - “Calcined baryta” - Antacid - Used in manufacture of hydrogen peroxide 10. Bleaching Powder 6. Barium sulfide - Chlorinated Lime, Chloride of Lime - Depilatory – removes hair from skin - CaOCl(Cl) H2O - Disinfectant, bleaching agent B2.4 Beryllium 11. Calcium sulfate Beryllium - As dihydrate → Gypsum – filler for wall paper ▪ Named after mineral beryl - As hemihydrate → Plaster of Paris - used in surgery ▪ Aka “glucinum” – sweet taste for making casts ▪ Be+2 – toxic 12. Calcium sulfide ▪ Never employed in medicine; used in wires for pianos - Sulfurated lime, calcic liver of sulfur, hepar calcis and scientific instruments - Treatment of acne B2.5 Magnesium B2.2 Strontium ▪ First isolated by Sir Humphry Davy, named after town Strontium called Magnesia ▪ Isolated by Sir Humphry Davy (through electrolysis) ▪ Found in the forms of ▪ Found in nature in the form of sulfate (barite, heavy spar) - Talc – native hydrated magnesium silicate ▪ Crimson red in non-luminous flame - Dolomite – CaCO3 MgCO3 ▪ Similar with Ca+2 ion but has weaker effect and less toxic - Kieserite – native magnesium sulfate ▪ Burns with a blinding white light – used in photography 1. Strontium bromide and pyrotechnics - sedative ▪ Mg-salts are laxative. 2. Strontium hydroxide ▪ Mg+2 - 2nd most abundant cation in the ICF - Used in sugar industry 1. Magnesium carbonate 3. Strontium nitrate - “Magnesia alba” - Used in pyrotechnics - Antacid, laxative - Clarifying or filtering agent in syrups - Abrasive in tooth powders //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 14  2. Magnesium citrate ▪ Cu ions - Laxative, cathartic - protein precipitant, fungicide - astringent, emetic 3. Magnesium hydroxide - acts as catalyst for the storage and release of iron - Antacid with mild laxative effect - Magnesia magma ▫ “Milk of Magnesia” ▪ Menke’s Disease - Cu Deficiency ▫ A suspension prepared by hydration of MgO ▪ Wilson’s Disease - Cu Toxicity - Hepatolenticular degeneration 4. Magnesium oxide - Antidote: - Antacid, laxative ▫ British Anti-Lewisite (BAL) or Dimercaprol - “Magnesia” ▫ Penicillamine ▫ Light – made by heating MgCO3 to dull redness ▪ Copper alloys ▫ Heavy – MgSO4 + Na2CO3 → heat ▫ Brass – Cu + Zn 5. Tribasic magnesium phosphate ▫ Bronze – Cu + Sn - Antacid ▫ German silver – Cu + Zn + Ni ▫ Sterling – Cu + Ag 6. Magnesium sulfate - As heptahydrate → Epsom salt 1. Cupric citrate - Saline cathartic - Astringent, antiseptic 7. Magnesium trisilicate 2. Cupric sulfate - Antacid with adsorbent and protective property - “Blue vitriol or blue stone” - Emulsifying agent - Component of Fehling’s solutions and Benedict’s solution → solutions used to detect reducing sugars 8. Asbestos - Emetic - Fibrous minerals and poor heat conductors - Antidote for phosphorus poisoning 9. Talc 3. Cupric acetate and acetic acid - native hydrated magnesium silicate - Components of Barfoed’s reagent – test for reducing - filtering agent sugars 4. Basic cupric acetate B3. Group IB – The Coinage Metals - “Green verdigris” General Properties 5. Cupric hydrogen arsenite ▪ Cu, Ag, Au - “Scheele’s mineral, Swedish Green” - employed for ornamental and coinage purposes - “Noble metals” 6. Cupric acetoarsenite ▪ Occur free in nature - “Paris Green, Parrot Green” ▪ Chemically inert - Insecticide ▪ Slowly oxidized in air 7. CuSO4 ∙ 5H2O and CaO ▪ Malleable and ductile - “Bordeaux mixture” ▪ Best Metals for electrical conductivity - algaecide and fungicide for swimming pool - 1st Ag → 2nd Cu → 3rd Au ▪ Best Metals for heat conductivity - 1st Ag → 2nd Au → 3rd Cu B3.2 Silver ▪ Possess oligodynamic effect Silver - toxic effect of metals on microbes ▪ Latin name Argentum, “shining” ▪ white metal with metallic luster ▪ Ag+ ion B3.1 Copper - Protein precipitant Copper ▫ Colloidal silver preparations ▪ Latin name Cuprum, from “Cyprus” where many ores are - Antiseptic, astringent mined - Irritant, corrosive ▪ red metal - Argyria ▪ Cu+2 salts – blue to emerald green in non-luminous flame ▫ darkening of skin due to long period of use of silver preparations //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 15  1. Silver nitrate ▪ Chrysotherapy - Eye antiseptic for newborn babies - Treatment of diseases (especially RA) with gold - Silver nitrate pencil compounds ▫ Lunar caustic - Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) ▫ Toughened silver nitrate 1. Sodium aurothiomalate - Ammoniacal silver nitrate solution ▫ Howe’s solution ▫ Commonly used gold-based DMARD 2. Mild silver protein (19-23% Ag) 2. Auranofin - “Mild protargin” ▫ Orally available gold drug for RA - Mild antiseptic - Brands: Silvol, Argyrol 3. Gold-198 3. Strong protein silver (7.5-8.5% Ag) ▫ Radioactive isotope, anticancer - “Strong protargin” 4. Gold and sodium thiosulfate Complex - Stronger antiseptic action than mild silver protein - IV treatment of lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid - Brand: Protargol arthritis 4. Colloidal silver chloride - Antiseptic B4. Group IIB - The Zinc Group 5. Colloidal silver iodide - Antiseptic Zn, Cd, Hg 6. Silver sulfadiazine - prophylaxis, treatment of infections in burn wounds B4.1 Zinc 7. Silver bromide Zinc - Antiseptic ▪ Bivalent, +2 - Photography ▪ Burns with bluish-white flame ▪ Use of Zn metal 8. Silver oxide - Galvanizing iron → protects from corrosion - CO absorbent - Used in batteries 9. Silver picrate ▪ Use of Zn+2 ion - Picragol, Picrotol - Protein precipitant - Antiseptic - Astringent - Mild antiseptic B3.3 Gold - Adjuvant in insulin preparations to enhance stability ▪ Zn poisoning (Antidote: NaHCO3) Gold ▪ Zn deficiency (Parakeratosis) ▪ Latin name Aurum, “shining dawn, aurora” ▪ “King of all metals” 1. Zinc acetate - Due to color, scarcity and permanency - Astringent - Universal symbol of highest purity and value - Mild antiseptic - Most malleable and ductile metal 2. Zinc chloride ▪ Yellow color - Escharotic for gangrenous sores ▪ Selenic acid - As mouthwash - antiseptic and astringent - Only single acid that can dissolve gold - For embalming and preservation of the anatomical ▪ Aqua regia Specimens - Best reagent for dissolving gold - A mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid (1:3) 3. Zinc iodide ▪ Pure gold = 24-carat or 1000 fine - antiseptic % 𝐴𝑢 = 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡 𝑥 100 % 𝐴𝑢 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥 100 4. Iodine and Zinc oxide glycerite 24 1000 - Diluted Talbot’s solution - Antiseptic and astringent ▪ Pure gold is too soft → often alloyed with Cu or Ag for hardness 5. Zinc oxide ▪ Uses: - Zinc white, Chinese white - Gilding and plating - Antiseptic and astringent - As dental crowns, bridges and inlays (gold leaf) //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 16  - As ointment or dusting powder – treatment of B4.3 Mercury eczema, psoriasis, pruritis - Used in manufacture of adhesive tape Mercury - Used as paint pigment ▪ Latin name hydrargyrum, “Liquid silver or quick silver” - Calamine ▪ Shining silvery-white metal liquid ▫ 98% ZnO + 2% ferric oxide ▪ Forms amalgams (alloys) with many metals ▫ Very fine pink powder ▪ HYDRARGYRISM – chronic Hg poisoning ▫ Used in the form of powder, ointment or lotion – - Minamata disease – methylmercury poisoning in treatment of skin diseases Japan - Zinc-eugenol cement ▪ Pharmaceutical uses of Mercury ▫ 70% ZnO - Elemental Mercury ▫ Dental filler ▫ Quicksilver, hydrargyrum - Zinc oxide paste ▫ As ointment - treatment of syphilis and crab-louse ▫ Lassar’s plain zinc paste infestation - Zinc oxide hard paste ▫ Used in metallurgy of gold and silver ▫ Unna’s hard zinc paste ▫ Used in amalgams, thermometers, barometers - Mild mercurial ointment 6. Medicinal Zinc peroxide ▫ Blue ointment - Mixture of zinc peroxide, zinc carbonate and zinc ▫ 9-10% Hg hydroxide ▫ Parasiticide - Sterilized dry powder used in controlling surgical - Strong mercurial ointment infections due to anerobic bacteria ▫ Mercurial ointment 7. Zinc stearate ▫ 47.5-52.5% Hg - Dusting powder - antiseptic and astringent ▫ Treatment of syphilis - Mercury Mass 8. Zinc sulfate ▫ Blue Mass, Blue Pill - As heptahydrate – White vitriol ▫ Cathartic - Emetic and astringent - Mercury with Chalk - Mordant in dye – intensify or fixed stains ▫ laxative - White Lotion ▫ Lotion alba 1. Ammoniated mercury ▫ Zinc sulfate + potassium sulfide - “White precipitate” - Sulfide – for skin disease - As dusting powder – treatment of eczema and - Zinc - astringent parasitic skin diseases 2. Mercuric chloride B4.2 Cadmium - Corrosive sublimate, mercury bichloride Cadmium - Extremely poisonous ▪ Bivalent, +2 - Germicidal ▪ Uses - 0.10% concentration - Disinfectant hand wash - Electroplating with no high polish or luster desired - Used in preparing Yellow Lotion (Lotio flava, Yellow - Rust-proofing wash) ▪ Cd+2 ion 3. Mercuric cyanide - Similar action with Zn+2 ion but more toxic - Antiseptic, antisyphilitic - Poisoning → death due to arresting respiration ▪ Itai-itai disease - mass cadmium poisoning in Japan 4. Mercuric iodide - Mixed with KI to prepare Mayer’s reagent – a testing 1. Cadmium sulfate agent for alkaloids - Astringent in ophthalmic practice - Mayer’s reagent + KOH → Nessler’s reagent (test for 2. Cadmium sulfide ammonia in water) - Employed as yellow pigment “Jaune Brilliant” - Irritant poison - Action similar to mercuric chloride - Used to prepare Donovan’s Solution //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 17  5. Mercuric oxide 2. Aluminum hydroxide - Yellow HgO - Used as dry mordant ▫ “yellow precipitate”, 99.5% HgO - Combined with organic dyes to form lakes ▫ Fine impalpable powder - Aluminum hydroxide gel ▫ As ophthalmic ointment - antiseptic ▫ Colloidal aluminum hydroxide - Red HgO ▫ Antacid and protective in the treatment of peptic ▫ “red precipitate”, 1% HgO ulcer ▫ Coarse powder 3. Aluminum phosphate ▫ As ointment - skin antiseptic - As gel – antacid, astringent, demulcent 6. Mercurous chloride 4. Aluminum silicates - Also called “White precipitate” in French prescriptions - Kaolin - “Calomel, subchloride of mercury” ▫ Native hydrated aluminum silicate - Cathartic ▫ Adsorbent - used in diarrhea due to food - Used in preparation of Black Lotion (Lotio nigra, poisoning Black wash) ▫ Absorbent – ulcers and moist infections 7. Mercuric nitrate - Bentonite - Component of Millon’s reagent (test for proteins) ▫ Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate - As ointment - antiseptic ▫ Stabilize emulsions ▫ Suspending agent ▫ Clarifying agent B5. Group IIIA – The Boron Group ▫ Adsorbent - Pumice ▪ "Triels” , Trivalent, +3 ▫ Of volcanic origin, complex silicates of Al, Na, ▪ IIIA - B, Al, Ga, In, Tl and K - IIIA forms ALUMS ▫ Used as distributing agent - IIIA hydroxides are amphoteric 5. Aluminum sulfate - As solution – antiseptic and astringent B5.1 Boron 6. Aluminum subacetate solution ▪ Elemental form is never employed in medicine and - Excellent source of aluminum hydroxide pharmacy 7. Aluminum acetate solution 1. Boric acid - “Burow’s solution” - “Boracic acid” - Aluminum subacetate solution + Glacial acetic acid - Used as dusting powder or ointment base - Antiseptic and astringent on skin - Antiseptic 8. Alum - Used in preparation of Lister’s solution (antiseptic - Potassium (or ammonium) aluminum sulfate mouthwash) dodecahydrate 2. Sodium borate - Astringent - “Borax”, sodium tetraborate B5.3 Thallium - Bacteriostatic (as eye-wash and wet dressing) - Water-softener ▪ Thallium acetate - Formerly used in creams as depilatory 3. Sodium perborate - Very toxic - Treatment of Vincent’s angina “trench mouth” - Dentifrice Gallium and Indium have little to no medicinal/ B5.2 Aluminum pharmaceutical importance. ▪ Used in making cooking utensils, instruments due to its lightness, strength and non-corrosive property B6. Group IIIB – The Scandium Group 1. Aluminum chloride - Antiseptic and astringent ▪ IIIB - Sc, Y - Used as catalyst in organic synthesis (Friedel-Craft’s Reaction) Yttrium and Scandium have little to no medicinal/ pharmaceutical importance. //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 18 B7. Group IVA – The Carbon Group ▫ Glass – a mixture of various silicates 1. Soft glass – lead silicate + sodium silicate 2. Hard glass – potassium silicate + Mg/Al ▪ “Tetrels” oxides ▪ IVA – C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb 3. Flint glass – low refraction, high dispersion; used in making lenses for optical instruments B7.1 Carbon 4. Crown glass - high refraction, low dispersion 5. Soda lime glass – for common bottles ▪ Allotropes 6. Borosilicate glass – very tough, lower - Crystalline coefficient of expansion; used in chemical ▫ Diamond glassware and cooking utensils - pure native form, one of the hardest substances (10 on Mohr’s scale) B7.3 Germanium - colorless, tinted or black crystal ▫ Graphite ▪ Germanium dioxide - soft, black shiny solid - Stimulates formation of RBC and for treatment of - Greek word Graphein “to write” anemia used in lead pencils B7.4 Tin ▫ Fullerene - Amorphous ▪ Resistant to very weak acids and alkalis ▫ Coal, charcoal, coke ▪ Used for household utensils, chemical apparatus ▪ Tinplate – iron + tin (making tin cans) 1. Activated Charcoal - From destructive distillation of plant substances 1. Stannic oxide - Adsorptive, treatment of stomach or intestinal - For staphylococci infections disorders - Dentifrice 2. Purified animal charcoal 2. Stannous chloride - Of animal origin (bone), purified by dissolving in HCl - As dihydrate – tin salt; used as mordant and water 3. Stannic chloride - Similar to activated charcoal but less adsorptive - “Fuming spirit of Libavius” 3. Carbon tetrachloride 4. Stannic sulfide - Use with CAUTION as anthelmintic - “artificial gold” - Main constituent of fire extinguishers B7.5 Lead 4. Carbon dioxide - “carbonic acid gas” ▪ Galena – principal primary ore of lead - Oxygen gas mixed with 5% CO2 → treatment of ▪ Uses poisoning by CO, alcohol, methanol, morphine - plumbing, water pipes - Carbon dioxide snow (dry ice) - making storage batteries ▫ Remedy for skin disorder (e.g. acne, eczema, - paint pigments psoriasis, warts) 1. Lead acetate 5. Carbon disulfide - “sugar of lead” ▫ Solvent in rubber industry - As Lotion - astringent - As wash – treatment of poison ivy B7.2 Silicon 2. Lead subacetate solution 1. Purified siliceous earth - “Goulard’s Extract” - “Purified kieselguhr”, “purified Tripoli” - A form of silica (silicon dioxide) 3. Diluted lead subacetate solution - Absorbent and clarifying agent - “Lead water” - Polishing powder for metals 4. Lead oxide 2. Silicon dioxide - “Litharge”, lead monoxide ▫ “Silica” - Used in preparation of lead subacetate solution ▫ Crystalline - quartz 5. Lead carbonate *quartz with impurities → Gems ▫ Basic lead carbonate → “white lead” ▫ Amorphous - agate, jasper, opal - Paint pigment //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 19  6. Lead chloride 4. Strong ammonia solution ▫ Astringent - Stronger ammonia water ▫ As pigment – “Cassel’s yellow” - 27-29% NH3 - Used in manufacture of ammonium salts, nitric acid, 7. Lead chromate fertilizers ▫ “King’s Yellow” 5. Diluted ammonia solution - Ammonia water B8. Group IVB – The Titanium Group - 9-10% NH3 - “Spirit of hartshorn” ▪ IVB – Ti, Zr, Hf, Ce, Th ▫ Product of destructive distillation of horns of male deer - “Household ammonia” B8.1 Titanium ▫ For cleaning and washing due to water softening ▪ “sons of the earth” and saponifying properties ▪ Alloys with steel, used in aircraft, spacecraft and missiles 6. Ammonium bromide ▪ Titanium dioxide - sedative - Used as white pigment in creams and paints 7. Ammonium carbonate - Ward off light rays – for sun-screen preparations - “Sal volatile, Preston salt, Hartshorn” - opacifying agent in capsule and tablet coatings - Reflex stimulant - Expectorant Zirconium and its salts have little to no medicinal/ 8. Aromatic Ammonia Spirit pharmaceutical importance. - Gastric stimulant, carminative, antacid 9. Ammonium acetate solution B8.2 Cerium - “Spirit of Mindererus” ▪ Cerium oxalate 10. Expectorant Mixture - Antiemetic, esp during early stages of pregnancy - “Mistura pectoralis, Stoke’s Expectorant” B9. Group VA – The Nitrogen Group 11. Ammonium Chloride - “Muriate of Ammonia, Sal ammoniac” - Expectorant, diuretic ▪ VA – N, P, As, Sb, Bi ▪ “Pnictogens” – to choke B9.2 Phosphorus B9.1 Nitrogen ▪ Greek word – “I bear light” → phosphorescence ▪ Properties ▪ “Mephitic air” (D. Rutherford) - Allotropes ▪ “Azote” meaning “without life” (A. Lavoisier) ▫ White P – most reactive; stored under kerosene ▪ 79% by volume in the atmosphere ▫ Red P – less reactive than White P ▪ Found in nature as Chile saltpeter (sodium nitrite) ▫ Scarlet P – obtained by heating PI3 with Hg; ▪ Found in soil mixed w/ potassium chlorate to make matches ▪ Necessity for development of plants ▫ Violet P – obtained by heating white P with Na - nitrogen fixation ▫ Black P – obtained by heating P with Pb; least 1. Nitrous oxide reactive - “laughing gas” 1. Hydrides of Phosphorus ▫ has exhilarating effect when inhaled - Phosphine (PH3) - analgesic and anesthetic ▫ Colorless, poisonous gas with rotten fish odor 2. Ammonia ▫ Product of putrefaction of organic material - “Alkaline air” ▫ Phosphorescence → “will-o-wisp or ignus fatuus” - Colorless gas with strong pungent odor - Produced commercially by Haber process 2. Halides of Phosphorus - Ammonium hydroxide solution - PF3, PF5, PCl3, PCl5, PBr3, PBr5, PI3 ▫ Ammonia water 3. Sulfides of Phosphorus 3. Liquid ammonia - P2S5, P4S7, P4S3 - Used for refrigeration and manufacture of artificial ice //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 20  4. Oxides of Phosphorus 2. Bismuth subcarbonate - Diphosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) - Basic bismuth carbonate ▫ “Flowers of P” - Protective, astringent, antiseptic, dusting powder ▫ Used for drying gases - Has antacid effect 5. Acids of Phosphorus 3. Bismuth subgallate - Phosphoric acid - Basic bismuth carbonate ▫ Orthophosphoric acid - Protective, astringent, antiseptic, dusting powder ▫ A triprotic acid - Has greater astringent effect ▫ Used as gastric tonic and stimulant 4. Bismuth subnitrate ▫ Diluted form – treatment of Pb poisoning - Basic bismuth nitrate B9.3 Arsenic - Protective, astringent, antiseptic, dusting powder - Most effective antiseptic ▪ Burns with bluish flame → produces arsenic trioxide 5. Bismuth magma ▪ Protoplasmic poison - “Milk of bismuth”, “Bismuth cream” - Compounds destroy all cells - Similar to bismuth subcarbonate, but less effective - Antidote: dimercaprol or BAL 6. Bismuth trichloride ▪ Component of Salvarsan ▫ “Butter of bismuth” (Arsphenamine or Compound 606) ▫ + water → “pearl white” - Used in the treatment of syphilis ▫ Used in manufacture of artificial pearls 1. Arsenic triodide - Extremely poisonous B10. Group VB – The Vanadium Group - Formerly used as alterative tonic ▫ gradually restore the proper function of the body and increase health and vitality ▪ VB – V, Cb, Ta ▫ in small doses, appetite stimulant 2. Arsenic trioxide B10.1 Vanadium - Extremely poisonous - Formerly used as alterative tonic ▪ “Erythronium” – red when heated with acids 3. Arsenious acid solution ▪ (rarely) used in treatment of anemia - Arsenic chloride solution - Acidic B10.2 Tantalum 4. Potassium arsenite solution - “Fowler’s solution” ▪ Used as filament for electric lamps (before Tungsten) - Basic ▪ Substitute for platinum for making standard weights and chemical apparatus B9.4 Antimony ▪ Stibium, Kohl, Antimonium B11. Group VIA – The Oxygen Group 1. Antimony potassium tartrate - “Tartar emetic” ▪ VIA – O, S, Se, Te - Emetic, followed by depression ▪ “Chalcogens” – ore-forming - Depressant expectorant - IV: treatment of visceral leishmaniasis - “kala azar” or B11.1 Oxygen “black fever” ▪ Synonyms: 2. Antimony trichloride ▫ “yne” (8th century Chinese) ▫ “Butter of antimony”, “Mineral butter” ▫ empyreal air or fire air (C.W. Scheele) B9.5 Bismuth ▫ dephlogisticated air (J. Priestley) ▫ named Oxygen - “acid former” (A. Lavosier) ▪ “Wismut”, “Wissmat” ▪ Properties: ▪ Colloidal Bi – antisyphilitic - Diatomic molecule, O2 ▪ Black stool - common side-effect of Bi-preparations - Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas 1. Bismuth potassium tartrate - Constitutes 20% by weight of air - IM: treatment of syphilis - Contributes about 8/9 by weight of water - Most abundant element in the human body by weight - 3rd most abundant element in the universe //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 21  ▪ Preparation: 7. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) - commercially - Hydrosulfuric acid ▫ by fractional distillation of liquid air - a gas that smells like rotten eggs - in the laboratory - found in volcanic vapors ▫ by electrolysis (decomposition of water) 8. Sulfur trioxide (SO3) ▪ Uses: - Used to manufacture sulfuric acid - Essential for animal life - Supports combustion 9. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) - Treatment of chloroform, cyanide and CO poisoning - “Oil of vitriol” - Treatment of hypoxia, dyspnea, cyanosis - Dehydrating agent, acidifier ▫ Gas tanks - Oxygen: white 10. Sulfurous acid (H2SO3) 1. Ozone(O3) - a major component of acid rain ▫ Bluish gas with peculiar irritating odor ▫ an allotrope of oxygen B11.3 Selenium and Tellurium ▫ A powerful oxidizing agent ▫ Disinfectant for drinking water ▪ Greek word Selene - “MOON” ▫ Bleaching agent due to close resemblance to Tellurium Tellus - “EARTH” ▪ Pronounced as si-LEE-nee-em B11.2 Sulfur ▪ Actions: ▪ Synonyms: - Similar to arsenic (intestinal irritation) - “Brimstone”, “Burning stone” - Toxic doses → paralysis of blood vessels - “Phlogiston” – principle of combustibility 1. Selenic acid (H2SeO4) ▪ Properties: - Only single acid that can dissolve gold - A pale yellow, odorless and brittle solid - Strong oxidizing agent ▪ Industrial Uses: - Production of sulfuric acid 2. Selenium disulfide (SeS2) - vulcanize natural rubbers - Antifungal shampoo for dandruff ▪ Allotropes - Crystalline (Flowers of sulfur or Sublimed sulfur) B12. Group VIB – The Chromium Group ▫ Rhombic sulfur or alpha sulfur ▫ Monoclinic sulfur or beta sulfur - Amorphous ▪ VIB – Cr, Mo, W, U - Liquid sulfur (Plastic sulfur) ▪ Uses: B12.1 Chromium 1) Cathartic 2) Parasiticide in scabies ▪ Greek word – “Color”, compounds are highly colored 3) Stimulant in alopecia ▪ Uses: 4) Fumigation - Hardening of steel 5) Treatment of skin diseases - Coating to protect against corrosion 1. Precipitated sulfur 1. Chromium trioxide - “lac sulfur” or “milk of sulfur” - “Chromic anhydride”, “Chromic acid” - Preferably for external applications - USP Caution: “Should not be brought into intimate contact with organic substances, as serious 2. Sublimed sulfur explosions are likely to result” - “Flowers of sulfur” - As dilute solution – astringent 3. Washed sulfur 2. Chromic oxide – green - Preferably for internal applications 3. Chromic hydroxide – blue 4. Chromic nitrate – purplish red 4. Sulfurated lime solution 5. Chromic phosphate – bluish-green - Vleminckx’ solution 6. Potassium chromate 5. Alkaline sulfur ointment - Indicator for titrimetric analysis of Ag compounds - Scabicide 7. Potassium dichromate 6. Compound sulfur ointment - Used in treatment of gastric ulcers - “Wilkinson’s ointment”, “Hebra’s Itch ointment” - Used in tanning and bleaching - Scabicide //notes.piclec.kdo.1-2223 22 B12.2 Molybdenum 1. Sodium hypochlorite - 5% NaOCl – laundry bleaching agent ▪ Never used in medicine - Labarraque’s Solution ▪ Compounds are used for determination of phosphates ▫ NaOCl diluted with equal volume of water (e.g. ammonium molybdate) ▫ Oxidizing and bleaching agent B12.3 Tungsten - Modified Dakin’s solution ▫ Diluted NaOCl solution (0.5%) ▪ Wolfram ▫ Disinfectant, irrigating solution for wound ▪ Used as filaments in electric light bulbs ▪ Phosphotungstic acid 2. Hyclorite - Used as qualitative test reagent for alkaloids - Chlorinated soda solution - Disinfectant, irrigating solution for wound B12.4 Uranium - ▪ Radioactive 3. Bleaching Powder ▪ Uranyl nitrate ▫ Chlorinated Lime, Chloride of Lime - Used in treatment of spreading sluggish ulcers ▫ CaOCl(Cl) H2O - Used for titrimetric analysis of phosphoric acid ▫ Disinfectant, bleaching agent 4. Halazone B13. Group VIIA – The Fluorine Group - Water disinfectant 5. Chlorine dioxide - 2.