Personality: Definition and Theories PDF

**[WHAT IS PERSONALITY?]** The accurate definition of Personality is far more complicated than that of intelligence or Intellectual potential. In colloquial terms, Personality has been defined in a number of ways. **Popular explanation of Personality:** In most cases, Personality refers to the qua...

**[WHAT IS PERSONALITY?]** The accurate definition of Personality is far more complicated than that of intelligence or Intellectual potential. In colloquial terms, Personality has been defined in a number of ways. **Popular explanation of Personality:** In most cases, Personality refers to the quality that differentiates one Individual from another. So by that logic, Individuality and Uniqueness can be considered as the two primary traits of Personality. Again, in a lot of situations, an individual\'s personality is considered to be synonymous with the Individual themselves. **Philosophical concept of Personality:** According to Philosophers, an individual who believes in a well-defined view towards life, and possesses qualities like honesty, integrity and pragmatism (that is to say, leads a so-called \'good\' and \'virtuous\' life), possesses strength of Personality. Certain philosophers are also of the idea that Personality is the *inner essence* of an individual. **Etymological meaning of Personality:** The English word \"Personality\" is derived from the Latin term \"Persona\", which translates to \"mask\". Basically, the theatrical masks used by Roman actors. **Cicero\'s interpretation:** In the writings of Cicero, he uses the term \'Persona\' to refer to The part an individual plays in their own life. An assemblage of personal qualities that fit an individual with their work. Distinction and Dignity. **Psychological concept of Personality:** According to Psychology, an individual\'s physical, mental, moral and social characteristics together make up a dynamic paradigm, that can be considered to be the total quantity of the person that they are. Their emotions, acquired behaviour, interests, sentiments, ideals, opinions, beliefs etc cetera-- all of it is included. Besides, their experience, understanding, memory, nature, imagination and habits also go into the formation of their Personality. A lot of times, an individual\'s Personality is used to refer exclusively to their feelings and lines of thought. Again, sometimes, character is said to be the chief determinant of Personality. According to *Allport, Character is Personality evaluated, and Personality is Character devaluated.* **[DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY:]** **Woodworth:** Personality can be broadly defined as the total quality of an individual\'s behaviour. **Boring:** It is defined as an individual\'s type or consistent adjustment to his environment. **H. E. Garrett:** Personality is a special system or process of behaviours. **MacDougall:** Personality is nothing but the function of some innate dispositions. **Morton Prince:** Personality is the sum total of all biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, appetites and instincts of the individual, and the dispositions and tendencies acquired by experience. **Allport:** Personality is the dynamic organisation within the Individual, of those psycho-physical systems, that determine his unique adjustment to his unique environment. (Here, by \'dynamic\', he meant that the Personality can be subject to change depending on circumstances. \'Psycho-physical systems\' refers to the fact that both mental and physical characteristics of an individual contribute to the formation of their Personality. \'Unique adjustment\' points at an individual\'s acclimatization to, deft handling of and survival in their environment.) **Cattell:** Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation. **Eysenck:** Personality is more or less stable and enduring organisation of a person\'s Character, temperament, Intellect and physique, which determine his unique adjustment to the environment. **Munn:** Personality may be defined as the most characteristic integration of an individual\'s structure, modes of behaviour, interests, attitudes, abilities, and aptitudes, especially from the standpoint of adjustment in social situations. **S. R. Maddi:** Personality is a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the psychological behaviour (thoughts, feelings and actions) of people that have continuity in time and that may or may not be easily understood in terms of social and biological pressure of the immediate situation alone. **Pervin:** Personality represents those characteristics of the person, or of people generally, that account for a consistent pattern of behaviour. **[CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY:]** - - - - - - - - - **[FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONALITY:]** **NATURAL FACTORS** Under this subhead we include the Hereditary factors, the physical and physiological factors, and the glandular factors that can influence Personality formation. - - - **ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS** The physical environment and the social environment together make up the environmental factors affecting one\'s Personality. - - **[THEORIES OF PERSONALITY]** Certain important theorisations have taken place about the nature and meaning of Personality, that must be taken into account during an analysis of the subject we are currently dealing with. On one hand, these theories have aimed at describing the nature of Personality; on the other, they discuss what the inherent factors of Personality are, and how they interact with one another. A number of different routes have been taken by theorists, in an attempt to discuss the essence of Personality. **Type theories:** Hippocrates, Kretschmer, Sheldon, Jung, Freud, at al. **Trait theories:** Allport**,** Cattell, et al. **Type-cum-trait approach:** Eysenck. **Psycho-analytical approach:** Freud, Adler, Jung at al. **Phenomenological Theory:** Karl Roger. **Learning Theory:** Dollard and Miller. **Social behaviour theory:** Bandura and Walter**.** **[TRAITS OF PERSONALITY]** There are a number of adjectives we use to determine the internal characteristics of Individuals, throughout our day. Traits are, fundamentally, a combination of all of these varied characteristics that are expressed in a person\'s behaviour. However, traits do not include behavioural patterns that are completely unbendable or irresponsive to a change in perceived stimulus. A person\'s sociability, generosity, endurance, mood et cetera can all be considered under the purview of traits. Traits more or less determine their specific adjustment to their environment, and are expressed through their behaviour. Traits can be said to be an individual\'s tendency to react to particular stimuli in a particular way. **Definition** *Traits are dynamic and flexible dispositions, resulting, at least in part, from the integration of specific habits, expressing characteristic modes of adaptations to one\'s surroundings.* **Characteristics of traits** - - - - - - - - - - This is why, when we are faced with a situation where we have to determine a specific Personality trait of an individual, we have to consider a related \"scale\" with two conflicting qualities or characteristics on the two opposite ends of the scale, and then determine where on the scale the mentioned trait lies. This imaginary scale is termed as the *dimension of Personality.* **Cattell\'s list of traits** Raymond B. Cattell is one of the most important proponents of the trait theory of personality. He analyzed varying human behaviour in a variety of situations, and came up with a list of twelve external and twelve internal traits. Here is a list of twelve internal traits. **Basic traits** **Opposite traits** ----------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- Easygoing, genial, warm, generous. Inflexible, cold, timid, hostile, shy. Intelligent, independent, reliable. Foolish, unreflective, frivolous. Emotionally stable, realistic, steadfast. Neurotic, evasive, emotionally changeable. Dominant, ascendant, self-assertive. Submissive, self-effacing. Placid, cheerful, sociable, talkative. Sorrowful, depressed, seclusive, agitated. Sensitive, tender hearted, sympathetic. Hard boiled, poised, frank, unemotional. Trained, cultured minded, aesthetic. Boorish, uncultured. Conscientious, responsible, painstaking. Emotionally dependent, impulsive, irresponsible. Adventurous, carefree, kind. Inhibited, reserved, cautious, withdrawn. Vigorous, energetic, persistent, quick. Languid, slack, daydreaming. Emotionally hypersensitive, high strung, excitable. Phlegmatic, tolerant. Friendly, trustful. Suspicious, hostile. **Allport\'s list of traits** Allport enlisted five main Personality traits and specified each of their characteristics. - - - - - **[TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY]** In modern Psychology, trait theories of personality are far more relevant and important than Type theories of Personality. Researchers believe that the Personality of an individual is constituted of an aggregate of all the traits possessed by an individual. **Allport\'s Theory** Allport was the first theorist to contradict the widely propagated type theories of personality, and to describe personality as an aggregate of different traits. Allport and his co-worker Odbert made a list of almost 18,000 traits. He mentioned the existence of three kinds of traits. - - - **Cattell\'s Theory** In the year 1973, Raymond B. Cattell conducted a Factor analysis on the basis of the duration and distribution of Traits, and categorised them into the following subheads. - - - - **[TYPE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY]** Since ancient times, human beings have been engaged in the naming and classification of various elements of their external and internal environment, in an attempt to gain better grasp over the same. These classifications are called \"types\". According to the proponents of type theories of Personality, Personalities can be classified on the basis of various specifications, like physical structure, body fluids, et cetera. Some theorists believe that these types are independent of, and impartial towards, each other. Others believe that these types, like characteristics, are normally distributed amongst Individuals. And, needless to say, the basis on which these types are determined are believed to be vastly different by different scholars. In the Indian Vedic society, it was believed that one\'s Personality depended upon the varying levels of bile, wind and mucus in their body. **Jung\'s description of personality types** According to C. G. Jung, Personalities can be broadly classified into three divisions. - - - **Freud\'s typologies** Freud classified Personality types according to the level of sexual development in Individuals. - - - **Kretschmer\'s types** Kretschmer noticed that schizophrenic Individuals are mostly introverted in nature, and that they have larger lower lips and oval faces. Thus led him to segregate Personality types on the basis of appearances. - - - - Along with these, the personality types that Kretschmer described were: - - **Sheldon\'s types** According to Sheldon, he had studied a huge number of individuals , and had been able to outline a clear relationship of human body types with their personality. Compared to Kretschmer, Sheldon\'s type theory of personality is generally considered to be more scientific, but it has still faced it\'s fair share of criticism. - - - **[PERSONALITY TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS]** Attempts at measuring personality have been made since time immemorial. Certain theorists have linked personality with Individuals\' outward appearance and physical build, but at present, a number of scientific techniques have been devised(and are being continuously improvised) to determine the nature and measure of Personality. Theorists\' opinions on the methodology that should ideally be used for measurement of Personality also vary. Some believe that a *holistic* approach should be adopted, while measuring Personality. In this process, the entirety of a person is taken into consideration in measuring their Personality. Some are of the opinion that this is *subjective* and it can\'t lead to an empirical measure of Personality. So they vouch for *objective* measurements of Personality. **Interview** Interview is one of the oldest methods of Personality measurement. The interviewer asks the interviewee a number of questions so extract information and use it to reach a conclusion about their subject of study. Interviews can be of four types: - - - - Unstandardised interview is basically a normal free flowing conversation between two Individuals, while a standardized interview has a rigid paradigm and list of questions that must be followed. In a stress interview, the interviewer excites the interviewee to elicit a response out of them. This is mostly done by heavy criticism or introducing them to an opinion they are displeased by, with a degree of force or suddenness. It is important to gain the trust of the interviewee and to develop an interviewer-interviewee relationship, so that the interviewee drops any garb or facade and answers questions or reacts freely and candidly. *Davis and Robinson* suggested a number of methods in which this can be achieved-- - - - - - - - [Merits of Interview] - - - - - [Demerits of interview] - - - - - **Questionnaire** A questionnaire is a list of questions. In this method, the subject is told to respond to a questionnaire that is provided to them. Generally, the questions present in this questionnaire are close ended and objective, and the subject has to choose from a few given responses, typically of the likes of \"yes\" and \"no\". The responses obtained from this questionnaire can reveal different sides or aspects of an individual\'s personality. Questionnaires are credited to *Burt*, who designed one in *1915*. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Woodworth\'s Personal Data Sheet, Bernreuter\'s Personality Inventories, Bell\'s Adjustment Inventory, California Test, Eysenck\'s Personality Inventory, Guilford Zimmerman Temperament Survey et cetera are some common examples of personality questionnaires. [Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory] Minnesota University in the USA published this, in the year 1940. It was revised and published in 1951. Currently, it is very popular as a personality questionnaire. It has two different versions, one for group administration and one for Individual administration. This questionnaire has 550 cards with statements printed on them, dealing with behavioural dynamics, mental getups et cetera. The subject has to arrange the cards into three categories-- either \"true\", \"false\" or \"don\'t know\". Initially, the test was divided into 9 scales: - - - - - - - - - These tests are normally applicable to those who are aged sixteen years or above. [Woodworth\'s personal data sheet] Thus can gauge if the Personality of an individual includes any structural flaw. [Bernreuter\'s Personality Inventories] This questionnaire measures four traits of an individual\'s Personality. They are - - - - This test has 125 questions that have been compiled for four different entirely dedicated questionnaires. It is applicable for Individuals between the ages of 14 and 21. [Bell Adjustment Inventory] *H.M. Bell* developed this questionnaire in *1934*. It is used to measure the adjustment aspect of Personality, within the purview of the home environment, health, social adjustment, emotional adjustment, and, for adults, occupational adjustment. [California Test] *Thorpe, Clerk and Tiggs* developed this questionnaire in 1953. The questions included can help to identify 1\# special adjustment aspects and of an individual\'s Personality. Each part is awarded a separate score and each part is harder and analysed differently. This is because, a summation of all of these Individual scores gives the total score for the questionnaire, while each aspect can also be simultaneously considered and taken into account. **Projective techniques** Projective techniques are basically non-verbal Personality tests. Here, visual stimuli are provided to the test subjects, and the subsequent responses or reactions that can be elicited from them direct the researcher to gauge their personality and the different traits of their personality. Here, the subjects project their subconscious wants, wishes, desires, dispositions et cetera onto the ambiguous visual stimuli and perceive them accordingly. [Hermann Rorschach inkblot test] Swiss psychologist Herman Rorschach propounded the process. In it, some pieces are made to carry images, which mirror patterns that can be formed if ink is poured into a piece of paper, which is then folded to form a pattern. Five of these cards are black and white, two are red and black and three are multi coloured. The test subject is asked to carefully observe these images and then go explain what they immediately thought of, upon seeing them. Their response is deconstructed and dissected to determine their emotional patterns, their disposition towards abstract or concrete thinking, et cetera. The Herman Rorschach inkblot test comprises of ten such cards. [Thematic apperception test] \"Apperception\" refers to the ability of an individual to reach comprehension with the help of past experiences. Different Individuals interpret different things in different ways. C. D. Morgan and H. A. Murray are the ones who came up with this process. Test subjects are presented with an image, which can be interpreted in different ways. The subject has to explain what the image means or conveys to them. On the basis of this response, the Individual\'s mentality, emotions, psychological state, et cetera can be gauged. A similar test called the CAT or Children\'s Apperception Test is used to measure children\'s Personalities. [Word association test] In word association tests, words are used as stimuli, elicit responses from the test subjects.the way the subject responds or reacts is what the matter of observation is here. The response of the subject reveals their subconscious dispositions, biases or thought patterns; besides, the level of their emotional vulnerability, wants, et cetera can also be gauged. *Francis Galton* was the first person to construct a word free association test. Subsequently, *Carl Jung* used an updated edition of it in his studies. The main credit for developing word association tests goes to *Kent and Rosanoff.* Others, like Rapaport and Gill also have been known to employ word association tests. **Free association method** *Freud came up with the concept of Free association as an alternative for hypnosis. Freud* also noticed that Psychological patients often voluntarily, consensually and consciously open up about their deepest, darkest experiences, in this method. The *American Heritage Dictionary* defines free association as *a psycho-analytical technique in which a patient\'s articulation of free association is encouraged in order to reveal unconscious thoughts and emotions, such as traumatic experiences that have been repressed.* According to the *Gale Dictionary of Psychoanalysis*, free association method was widely used during Psychoanalysis, to encourage the patient to express their repressed feelings and emotions without any boundaries. It also helps Individuals to break free from the norms of social acceptability and express their deepest desires, wishes, aims et cetera. It helps them to bring to the conscious forefront, all that an individual has pushed back to the periphery of the subconscious, in order to gain social approval. The subject is asked to independently and frankly talk about all that they are uncomfortable about. Emotional responses are also encouraged-- the more unshackled the reactions are, the better. Dream analysis can also help to expose the subconscious of the subject under scrutiny. As an extension of all the revelations that can be brought about by the free association method, it can also give an idea about the subject\'s Personality. **Criticisms of Personality tests** All Personality tests, on a whole, are susceptible to certain drawbacks. - - - - - - In spite of these drawbacks, the test methods discussed above each have their own set of usefulnesses. Most importantly, projective tests have vastly improved our understanding of the measure of Personality. *Frank has compared projective techniques with X-Ray.*