Person Perception PDF

6.2 Person perception — forming impressions of other people Consider the thoughts that pass through your mind when Impressions can be formed in person, from a phone you first meet someone, or even when someone walking conversation, a text message, an email, or from by catches your...

6.2 Person perception — forming impressions of other people Consider the thoughts that pass through your mind when Impressions can be formed in person, from a phone you first meet someone, or even when someone walking conversation, a text message, an email, or from by catches your attention. Most likely, you form a quick viewing an image of someone in the print, electronic impression based on a ‘snapshot’ of information. This or social media. could include judgments such as this person seems Psychologists have been particularly interested in attractive, or someone you would like to know better, factors that influence our impressions when we or someone who could not be trusted, or someone who first meet someone, or even when we see someone is likely to be shy, confident or aggressive. The ‘snap in passing. Since we cannot actually see anyone’s judgments’ you make when forming your impression personality traits, values, mental state, motivations, demonstrate person perception. intentions and so on, perceptions of other people Person perception refers to the mental processes we begin with visible, physical cues. use to think about and evaluate other people. Evaluating, or making judgments about others, whether they be friends, peers, acquaintances, family or strangers, is a 6.2.1 Physical cues common and vital part of our life as social beings. First impressions are primarily based on physical cues — the way people look and the way they act. These judgments, including our first impressions, These cues are informative only because we believe guide the various types of relationships we that appearance and behaviour reflect personal develop with others. For example, an impression characteristics, even when we know that we have that someone is helpful might encourage you to observed only samples of behaviour. approach that person rather than someone else for directions. An impression that someone is careless We also know that the proverb ‘you can’t judge a might lead you to avoid lending something that is of book by its cover’ applies to people when seeing or sentimental value to you. meeting them for the first time. Yet we can’t seem to help ourselves. And even though we know that first Similarly, general positive or negative impressions impressions are not necessarily accurate, research of others — our liking or not liking them — evidence shows that they are so powerful that they can influence our choices of companions to spend time override what we are told about people. They can also with or share personal thoughts and feelings with be very difficult to change (Gunaydin et al., 2016). and, ultimately, influence the close relationships we form (Smith et al., 2019). Understanding other people depends on accurate information on which to base our judgments, but this is not always available. Sometimes there is little or no information. Sometimes the information is misleading or is shaped by our personal biases and expectations. Sometimes the situation in which we form the judgment dominates other information. Each of these can influence the accuracy of Figure 6.2 First impressions are primarily based on physical cues — the way people look and the way they act. They tend to be lasting and difficult to the understanding we achieve change. (Gilovich et al., 2013). 392 UNIT 2 How do internal and external factors influence behaviour and mental processes? Physical appearance someone. Strangers are more likely to stop and give help to a physically attractive person than to someone Physical appearance is an important characteristic who is less attractive. More attractive people tend of first impressions, especially attractiveness. Many to be given higher salaries than less attractive research studies have found that people we judge people with the same qualifications. Judges can be as physically attractive are generally perceived as more lenient with more attractive defendants when more interesting, warm, mentally healthy, intelligent, hearing bail applications and giving sentences for independent, outgoing and socially skilled than minor offences (but not serious crimes). Adults and unattractive people. In addition, good-looking people adolescents are more likely to give an attractive are more likely to be perceived as less lonely, less person the ‘benefit of the doubt’ over a wrongdoing socially anxious and more popular than others or than than they will for an unattractive person (Aronson, they actually are (Aronson et al., 2021). 2021). Individuals who are physically attractive benefit from Although the halo effect may influence our person a type of cognitive bias, or faulty thinking, called the perception, it is a type of bias and ‘short-cut’ in halo effect. The halo effect is the tendency to allow thinking that often leads to errors in judgment and our overall positive impression of a person, or our decision-making about others, especially when it is positive impression of a specific quality, to influence based on a snap judgment. The reverse halo effect our beliefs and expectations about the person in other and the horn effect can cause similar errors in person qualities. perception. For example, in relation to person perception, it is The reverse halo effect involves an incorrect assumed that positive qualities ‘go together’. So, if a assumption that a positive characteristic indicates the person is good looking, then they will also have good presence of negative characteristics. For example, personal qualities. If we judge someone as beautiful it may be assumed that a good-looking person is rather than ugly, we are also likely to rate that shallow, self-centred, ‘stuck up’ and manipulative. person as nice rather than mean, friendly rather than unfriendly, cheerful rather than sad, and so on. We The horn effect involves an incorrect assumption that transfer our judgment from one visible characteristic a negative characteristic indicates the presence of one to others that cannot be seen or are unknown. or more other negative characteristics. For example, it may be assumed that a student who is disruptive in The halo effect can also influence our impressions class is a low achiever. of a person’s behaviour, even when they behave badly. For example, when we really like someone, we are more likely to discount or explain away any behaviour on their part that might be considered negative while exaggerating the goodness of their positive characteristics or actions (Aronson et al., 2021). Researchers have found a halo effect for physical attractiveness across a wide variety of situations when people have minimal information about each other. For example, physical attractiveness Figure 6.3 The halo effect would lead you to assume a good looking person will is a reliable predictor of also have good personal qualities. whether we want to date TOPIC 6 Social cognition 393  The actual pattern of someone’s facial features someone who orients their body towards us — when can also affect the first impression. For example, they are facing us directly, leaning towards us and researchers have found that adult males with nodding while we speak. In addition, we are likely to ‘baby-faced’ features — large, round eyes, a large judge the person who adopts this type of posture as forehead, high eyebrows and a rounded, relatively likeable and to perceive their actions as evidence that small chin — tend to be perceived as more naïve, they like us. honest and kind compared to adult males with a Some people, however, are better at interpreting more mature facial appearance. In addition, because (‘reading’) body language than others and there are of these perceptions, they also tend to be judged as cultural differences. For example, holding up a raised being weak and submissive, so are less likely to be thumb can be a greeting in one culture and an insult recommended for jobs that require characteristics in another culture. Similarly, in many Middle Eastern found in a ‘mature’ person, such as leadership skills cultures the left hand is reserved for bodily hygiene and wisdom (Gilovich et al., 2013; Alaei & Rule, and is therefore not used for a handshake greeting as 2016). is done in Western cultures. Resources Eye contact is one of the most influential forms of non-verbal communication. People from Western Teacher weblinks Mini documentary on the halo cultures tend to seek eye contact when they speak effect and attraction 11 m 33 s to someone. They will often follow a person’s gaze Ted Talk: Looks aren’t everything — as they move their eyes in various directions. If the believe me, I’m a model 9 m other person establishes eye contact, it will tend to be perceived as a sign of interest and attention, just as breaking eye contact and looking somewhere else Body language is an indication that you are not interested in what is Our impression of people is also influenced by the being said. If the person avoids eye contact it may information they convey through the silent language be judged that they are unfriendly, shy, embarrassed, of non-verbal communication. For example, we often ashamed, shifty or lying. communicate inner aspects of ourselves through If eye contact is maintained most of the time, it facial expressions, eye gaze, posture, gestures and will tend to be perceived that a person is honest, other bodily movements — what is commonly called straightforward, friendly and likeable. Too much body language. eye contact, such as when staring, can be perceived A person’s body language is an expression of as uncomfortable or unpleasant. behaviour that enables us to make quick and often In addition, too much eye contact is often accurate judgments about them. There are also interpreted as communicating threat, anger, hostility shared understandings of what many of these or being unapproachable. For example, if a person expressive behaviours mean. For example, generally, is threatening another they will tend to stare in Australia and many other Western cultures, directly at them and maintain the contact. Teachers tapping our fingers when waiting shows impatience, sometimes use this technique when reprimanding winking an eye at someone demonstrates familiarity, students. Students in a bullying situation who are raising an eyebrow indicates disbelief or concern threatening others often stare. Therefore, making and scratching our head suggests we are puzzled. eye contact can show both friendship or a threat, Specific actions are also combined to form an depending upon the context in which it is used and overall pattern from which we form impressions. For other verbal and non-verbal cues that happen at the example, we tend to form a positive impression of same time. 394 UNIT 2 How do internal and external factors influence behaviour and mental processes? c06SocialCognition.indd Page 394 12/05/23 2:07 AM  Figure 6.4 Some professional poker players cover their eyes with sunglasses to hide involuntary cues (‘tells’) about the hand they have been dealt that may be communicated to opponents. In some Asian cultures, making direct eye contact assumptions from what people look like and we can may be considered rude and confrontational. Eye ‘misread’ the non-verbal communication signals of contact can also be disrespectful for Aboriginal body language. and Torres Strait Islander people. Generally, We are more likely to form an accurate impression of avoidance of eye contact is customarily a someone if we consider what people do, rather than gesture of respect. To make direct eye contact their appearance (or their words alone). For example, can be viewed as being rude, disrespectful or if you know that someone donates hours of their even aggressive. To convey polite respect, the free time working in a local food bank that supports appropriate approach would be to avert or lower disadvantaged people in their community, you may your eyes in conversation. In Muslim cultures, reasonably conclude that the person is helpful, caring, women may especially avoid eye contact with men empathetic and even selfless. In contrast, if you because it can be perceived as a sign of sexual find out that someone regularly steals clothing from interest (Swami & Furnham, 2008; Akechi et al., charity donation bins, you can reasonably assume that 2013; Queensland Health, 2015). they are dishonest, lacking in empathy and possibly self-centred. Behaviour Although there are exceptions, many behaviours are We also form impressions of people on the basis of strongly linked to particular personality traits, which their behaviour. This may be actions that we personally research shows to be characteristic ways of thinking, observe or actions we learn about from others. It also feeling or behaving (Smith et al., 2019). includes their verbal communication — what people say and how they say it. Although physical appearance and body language can Resources be helpful resources for developing an impression Teacher weblink TED talk on body of another person, they are not always valid or language 20 m 55 s reliable. As you are aware, we can make incorrect TOPIC 6 Social cognition 395  learnMORE | Personal space Access learnON to read about personal space and how it influences personal perception. 6.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1 Review 1. Describe the relationship between person perception and social cognition. 2. Explain why person perception is considered to be a vital part of everyday life with references to three relevant examples. 3. There does not necessarily have to be a social interaction for impression formation to occur. For example, a first impression may be formed for a passer-by with whom someone never interacts. Similarly, impressions can be formed through both verbal communication alone; for example, from a phone conversation, a text message or from viewing a photo of someone. Through what type of media alone — do you think a first impression is more likely to be: a. most accurate? b. lasting impression? Explain your answers. 4. a. Formulate a definition for ‘first impression’ in relation to person perception. b. Explain how each of the following factors may influence a first impression, with reference to a relevant example for each factor: i. physical appearance ii. halo effect iii. body language iv. eye contact v. behaviour vi. verbal communication. 5. Explain how the situation (context) in which any of the above factors are expressed can influence impression formation. 6. Give examples of three common gestures and describe the first impression that could be conveyed by each one. For each gesture, specify the context in which it is used. 7. What first impression might you form of the individual in each photo below? i. ii. iii. iv. a. What factors influenced your judgments? b. Are any of these factors different from those discussed in the text? c. What difficulties did you have in making your judgments? 8. a. Explain how you could manipulate the impression you present in a job interview to convey a positive one. b. Give three examples of behavioural or physical characteristics that could contribute to a negative impression. 9. Give an example of an advertisement in which a person is prominent and explain the nature of the person perception the advertisement is attempting to convey. Ensure you describe or include a copy of (or link to) the advertisement. To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au. 396 UNIT 2 How do internal and external factors influence behaviour and mental processes? 6.2.2 Salience detection Salience is usually produced by novelty, uniqueness or unexpectedness. The higher the salience of a Which physical cues capture our attention? Imagine characteristic in its surroundings, the more likely it is sitting in a café drinking a milk shake, idly ‘people to be detectable and attract attention. watching’. You might notice that one person makes loud and rude comments to the girl at the counter What is unusual or unexpected in one context may be taking orders, that another seated at an adjacent table quite normal in another. For example, the act of crying adds six sugars to their coffee and that a third towers would be salient in a school classroom during a lesson over all other people in the room. Characteristics but not necessarily at a funeral. And the person who that are different stand out. This is true for all kinds towered over everyone may be salient among all others of characteristics, including unusual body language, in a café but not on a basketball court when surrounded behaviours such as sudden movements or making by equally tall team members. Salience therefore rude comments, and physical appearance cues like depends on context. Salience may also be influenced our body size and tallness. own characteristics, such as our personal preferences, past experience, perceptual set and motivational or The term salience is used to describe characteristics that emotional state at the time (Taylor & Fiske, 1978). stand out in a specific situation and are therefore more When we have information about a person’s physical easily detected. Salience determines which information appearances, their body language and some of their will most likely grab our attention and have the greatest behaviour, those aspects that are salient are likely to influence on our perception of people and the world. be detectable, grab our attention and provide the basis In relation to person perception, salience refers for first impressions (Smith et al., 2019). However, to any personal characteristic that is distinctive, this does not mean that all salient information is the prominent, conspicuous or noticeable in its most accurate or important. context and therefore attracts attention. This Sometimes people adjust their appearance or may be an individual’s gender, race, physical behaviour in salient ways that suit the context but appearance in general, a specific feature such as are not necessarily typical of them. For example, a clothing, height or a facial tattoo, their behaviour, person who persistently smiles in a job interview is a gesture, something they are holding, and so not necessarily an easy-going or happy person in all on. A characteristic that is salient may lead contexts. They may be quite the opposite and have to assumptions that become part of our first simply adjusted their behaviour to suit the situation impression of a person (Smith et al., 2019). and improve their chance of getting the job. Event Man wearing three-piece suit pushing a toddler in a stroller Situational Business Child care centre context executives’ parents’ picnic lunch Salient Child in stroller Three-piece suit characteristic Assumption He must be a He must like formal loving father –– or clothing –– perhaps perhaps his child-care he is a bit stiff and arrangements failed. uptight. Figure 6.5 Our impression of the same person may differ greatly from one situation to another because characteristics that stand out in one context may go unnoticed in another. A characteristic that is salient may lead to assumptions that become part of our first impression of a person. Source: Based on Smith, E. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2000). Social Psychology (2nd ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Psychology Press. p.67. TOPIC 6 Social cognition 397  6.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2 Multiple-choice questions 1. In relation to person perception, salience detection refers to A. a method of detecting personal characteristics. B. personal characteristics that stand out and attract attention. C. personal characteristics that are more easily influenced by context. D. personal characteristics that are not easily detected due to their salience. 2. Which individual is likely to be salient to passers-by? A. a police officer walking into a police station B. a police officer standing outside a police station C. a police officer standing at the front of a school classroom D. a police officer standing amongst other police officers for a group photo 3. Which of the following variables tends to have the most important influence on salience detection? A. the context B. the observer C. the person being observed D. the number of people present 4. Which characteristic is likely to be salient in a public library? A. a dim light B. a bright light C. a loud noise D. a book on a shelf 5. Which individual is most likely to be salient at a fancy dress party? A. the only person dressed as a cartoon character B. the only person dressed as a superhero C. the only person dressed as a celebrity D. the only person not in fancy dress clothing To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au. 6.2.3 Social categorisation past experience and what we have learnt through the media and our culture to guide new social As person perceivers, we routinely classify each interactions. With so many things to pay attention other into different groups on the basis of common to in our social worlds, we can save time and effort characteristics. This is called social categorisation. by using people’s group memberships to make Sometimes we do this consciously, but social assumptions about them. We don’t have to deal with categorisation more often occurs automatically all the unique aspects of every individual we meet. without our conscious awareness. Nor is it realistically possible to find the time to get Gender, age and race are the most common social to know every person we come in contact with as categories, but they are not the only characteristics well as we might want to. Instead, through social we use. For example, uniforms may be used to help categorisation, we can focus on characteristics with us categorise people as students, by occupation which we are familiar, quickly establish expectations or even as ‘bikies’. Similarly, we may use name about how they may behave, and ignore information tags or ‘tools of the trade’ to classify people into that is irrelevant to the interaction. occupational groups, accent to identify an individual’s nationality and clothing or the type of car that is Of course, social categorisation can lead to errors driven may be used to classify people as ‘socio- and come at a cost. For example, it can make us economically advantaged’ or ‘disadvantaged. blind to individuality, can lead us to exaggerate or overestimate the differences between groups, and to Social categorisation is useful and possibly adaptive. underestimate the differences within groups (Smith It allows us to form impressions quickly and use et al., 2014; Kassin et al., 2017, Aronsen et al., 2021). 398 UNIT 2 How do internal and external factors influence behaviour and mental processes? American psychologist Gordon Allport (1954) outgroup to be less like us and more like each other. proposed that people tend to categorise themselves We therefore are more likely to view them negatively. and others into ‘ingroups’ and ‘outgroups’ which can Allport argued that this type of categorisation in turn influence their attitudes towards the members of members of ingroups and outgroups involves of those groups. stereotyping and can lead to prejudice towards members Allport described any group that you belong to or of outgroups, which we examine later in the topic. identify with as an ingroup. For example, your friendship groups, peer group, family, school, religion, sex, race, culture, the country in which you live and even the AFL team you barrack for would be called your ingroups. An outgroup is any group you do not belong to or identify with. When we categorise our social world in this way, we tend to believe that people belonging to our ingroups have individual differences but are generally more like us. Consequently, we tend to view them positively and more easily develop loyalty to them Figure 6.6 An ingroup is any group to which an individual belongs to or identifies with. Any due to common membership of the same group. friendship group is an ingroup. However, we tend to consider people belonging to an 6.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 3 Multiple-choice questions 1. A social category is A. another term for ‘group’. B. a context in which socialisation occurs. C. a group of individuals who interact in some way. D. a group of people who share one or more characteristics. 2. Which of the following is a social category? A. a smart watch B. a banking app C. a mobile phone D. a Facebook group 3. Social categorisation is best described as the process of A. stereotyping people. B. classifying people into ingroups and outgroups. C. placing people into social groups on the basis of common characteristics. D. classifying people into a social groups on the basis of salient characteristics. 4. An ingroup is the group which A. an individual identifies with. B. most people want to join. C. results in social categorisation. D. is a result of stereotyping or prejudice. 5. Which of the following is not a social category? A. homelessness B. social psychology text books C. social influencers D. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au. TOPIC 6 Social cognition 399