Old Content For Final PDF

Old Content for final Unit 1: Explain what physiology is and be able to explain its relationship to other science disciplines. Explain the principle of complementarity. Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body and explain their relationships. List and give the...

Old Content for final Unit 1: Explain what physiology is and be able to explain its relationship to other science disciplines. Explain the principle of complementarity. Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body and explain their relationships. List and give the functions of the twelve systems of the human body. Define homeostasis and explain its significance. Describe how negative and positive feedback maintain body homeostasis. Topic — Matter and Energy Be able to differentiate between matter and energy and between potential and kinetic energy. Be able to describe major energy forms. Topic — Atoms and Elements Be able to list the properties and abbreviations of electrons, protons, and neutrons Be able to define atom, and be able to draw the general structure of one Be able to both draw the subatomic structure of specific atoms correctly, given sufficient information about them. Be able to list the subatomic configurations of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Be able to both recognize and give the correct chemical symbols for carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, iron, sodium, chlorine, and potassium Be able to draw the subatomic structure of specific ions and isotopes, given sufficient information about them. Be able to determine the atomic number, the overall electrical charge, and the atomic mass of an atom, given sufficient information about it. Be able to use this information to draw structures of specific atoms. Be able to correctly indicate ionization on chemical symbols of atoms Topic — Molecules and Compounds; Chemical Bonds and Attractions Be able to define covalent bonding, and be able to show how a covalent bond is formed. Be able to define ionic bonding. Be able to show how ions are formed, and how an ionic bond is formed. Be able to define hydrogen bond, and explain how a hydrogen bond is formed. Be able to define hydrophobic bond, and explain how a hydrophobic bond is formed. Be able to use and recognize the chemical symbols for covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonding Be able to define, symbolize, explain, and recognize double and triple covalent bonds. Be able to describe the relative strength of covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds Be able to draw diagrams of ionic and covalent bonding between specific given atoms, including protons, neutrons, and electrons Be able to draw a diagram of hydrogen bonding using correct chemical symbols Be able to define molecule Be able to interpret diagrams of chemical structures of molecules Be able to accurately draw and recognize the chemical structures of the following molecules (including all atoms and bonds): water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, molecular oxygen, sodium chloride, methane, ethanol, formic acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid, and sodium hydroxide. Be able to draw, recognize, and describe the block diagram of an amino acid. Be able to draw the chemical structure of any amino acid, given its sidechain. Be able to draw and recognize the chemical structures of the amino acids glycine and alanine Be able to explain the difference between essential and non-essential amino acids Be able to identify the following chemical groups in any diagram of a molecule: carboxyl (acid), amino, hydroxyl, phosphate, and methyl. Be able to interpret a molecular formula Topic — Chemical reactions Be able to define chemical reaction Be able to define reactant and product, and identify them in a given chemical reaction Be able to both draw and interpret a proper diagram of a chemical reaction Be able to list, describe, and distinguish between the types of chemical reactions discussed in class. Topic — Carbohydrates ○ Be able to state the function and Calorie content of carbohydrates ○ Be able to distinguish among monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Be able to differentiate between simple and complex carbohydrates. ○ Be able to draw the complete and simplified chemical structures of glucose ○ Know all of the examples of carbohydrates covered in class, including: glucose, fructose, galactose, sucrose, lactose, maltose, plant starch, and glycogen. Be sure to know how the various carbohydrates are related to each other. ○ Know how monosaccharides are joined together using dehydration synthesis to make larger carbohydrates, and how larger carbohydrates are broken down into smaller ones using hydrolysis Topic — Lipids Be able to list the main types of lipids in the human body, and their functions. Be able to draw both complete and simplified chemical diagrams of palmitic acid, oleic acid, and glycerol. Be able to distinguish the differences in the structure and properties of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids Be able to show how fatty acids and glycerol are combined to make a triglyceride using dehydration synthesis, and how a triglyceride is broken down into fatty acids and glycerol using hydrolysis. Be able to show the chemical structures of all reactants and products. Be able to calculate the amount of energy (Calories) available in a given amount of triglycerides, and discuss the waste products and safe limits of fat loss. Know the overall structure of a typical phospholipid. Be able to draw a chemical diagram of a phospholipid given information about its subunits Be able to define and contrast hydrophobic and hydrophilic Be able to draw both the complete and simplified chemical structures of cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen, and be able to describe the purpose of each. Topic — Proteins Be able to list the main functions of proteins, and give examples of proteins found in the human body that perform each of these functions. Be able to draw, recognize, and describe the block diagram of an amino acid. Be able to draw the chemical structure of any amino acid, given its sidechain. Be able to draw and recognize the chemical structures of the amino acids glycine and alanine Be able to explain the difference between essential and non-essential amino acids Be able to describe the structure and function of the following specific proteins at the level of detail discussed in class: hemoglobin, carbonic anhydrase Be able to define enzyme and substrate, and be able to give and recognize examples of them. Be able to describe the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of a typical protein. Be able to define, recognize, and draw detailed diagrams of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis. Be able to describe how these processes are involved in making proteins and breaking them down, and what specifically performs the making or breaking. Given a molecule or molecules, be able to show what hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis could do to them. Be able to calculate the amount of energy (Calories) available in a given amount of protein. Topic — Nucleic Acids Be able to describe the location and purpose of chromosomes Be able to describe the double helical structure of DNA Be able to draw and explain a block diagram of a piece of DNA that shows how the nucleotides are connected together. Be able to draw and explain a block diagram of a nucleotide that shows how the sugar, phosphate and base are connected together Be able to draw and explain a block diagram of a piece of DNA that shows how the sugars, phosphates and bases are connected together. Be able to identify the nucleotides in this diagram. Be able to draw block diagrams for RNA that are like the diagrams described in (c), (d), and (e) above Be able to list the similarities and differences between DNA and RNA Be able to list the bases found in DNA and the bases found in RNA. Be able to list and apply the DNA-DNA, DNA-RNA, and RNA-RNA base-pairing rules. Given the base sequence of one strand of DNA, be able to generate the base sequence of the complementary strand. Be able to explain why it is an advantage for DNA to be double stranded. Be able to describe the structure of a typical tRNA. Topic — Enzymes and Cellular Metabolism Be able to describe the role of enzymes in cell metabolism and explain how an enzyme’s shape relates to its function. Be able to outline the process of cellular respiration and discuss its importance. Topic — The Cell: Plasma Membrane Be able to explain how and why phospholipids form bilayer membranes Topic — How Things Get Into and Out of Cell Be able to describe and explain the operation of the following membrane proteins: pores (channels), carriers, pumps Be able to define semipermeable, and explain why membranes in the human body are semipermeable Be able to identify the solutes and solvents in a solution Be able to define concentration and concentration gradient Be able to calculate the % concentration of a given solution, and be able to solve problems involving % concentration Be able to define, discuss and explain the processes of simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, exocytosis, and endocytosis. Be able to discuss and explain the process of osmosis Be able to define and identify hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions, and explain what they have to do with osmosis Topic — The Cell: Its Organelles Be able to define cell Be able to describe the structure, function, and purpose of the following membrane-related cell-parts: plasma membrane, nuclear membrane, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, and mitochondria Unit 2: Topic — Overview of nervous system Be able to name the specific types of neurons that connect the CNS with skeletal muscles, sensory receptors, the heart, smooth muscle, and glands Be able to distinguish between the CNS, PNS, and ANS Be able to define the terms neuron, nerve, and tract, sensory neuron, association (inter-) neuron, motor neuron, synapse Be able to name and describe the processes involved as information travels through a neural pathway. Be able to indicate the specific locations where each process occurs. Be able to draw a diagram of a typical neuron. Be able to identify and describe the function of all a neuron’s parts Topic — Resting Membrane Potentials, Graded Potentials Be able to explain what a membrane potential is and how it is formed Be able to explain the terms depolarization, hyperpolarization, repolarization Topic — Action Potentials Be able to explain in detail what happens during an action potential Be able to explain what threshold means, and distinguish between threshold stimulus and threshold membrane potential Be able to describe and distinguish among the following potentials: resting, action, graded, all-or-none Be able to explain how saltatory conduction of an action potential works Be able to describe exactly where action potentials occur Be able to describe the mechanism that allows information to travel in only one direction in an axon Be able to explain the function and importance of the following for action potentials: voltage-gated Na+ channels, voltage-gated K+ channels, Na+, K+, and the Na+/K+ ATPase Be able to explain the importance of the refractory period of a node of Ranvier Be able to draw and interpret graphs that show how the membrane potential changes over time Be able to explain how intensity is neurally encoded Topic — Synapses Be able to distinguish between the different kinds of synapses, based on what they connect together Be able to distinguish between presynaptic and postsynaptic events Be able to draw, label, and explain the detailed diagram of the acetylcholine (ACh) synapse Be able to explain the mechanism of synaptic transmission in an ACh synapse Be able to explain the location, function and importance of the following in an ACh synapse: action potential, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, Ca2+, vesicles, acetylcholine neurotransmitters, exocytosis, diffusion, ACh receptor, ion channel of ACh receptor, Na+, K+, acetylcholinesterase Be able to explain how EPSPs and IPSPs are formed, and why they are important. Be able to draw graphs of the membrane potential as an EPSP or IPSP occurs Topic — Summation Be able to define summation and describe where it occurs Be able to distinguish between temporal and spatial summation Be able to explain the connection between EPSPs, IPSPs, summation, threshold, and generation of an action potential Topic — Neurotransmitters Be able to define neurotransmitter and classify neurotransmitters by chemical structure and by function. Describe the action of neurotransmitters at channel-linked and G protein-coupled (G protein-linked) receptors Be able to list the types of synapses that have G protein-coupled (G protein-linked) receptors Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of a typical synapse with a G-protein-linked receptor Be able to explain the function, location, and importance of the following in synapses with G-protein-linked receptors: action potential, voltage-gated Ca2+ channel, Ca2+, vesicles, neurotransmitters. exocytosis, diffusion, neurotransmitter receptor, G-protein, GTP, GDP, adenylate cyclase, ATP, cAMP, inactive cellular enzymes, active cellular enzymes, protein synthesis, cAMP- gated ion channels, monoamine oxidase (MAO), COMT, reuptake Be able to explain the relationship between serotonin and depression Be able to explain the functioning of drugs that affect serotonin synapses, especially SSRIs, and MAOIs Topic — Reflexes Be able to distinguish reflexes from voluntary actions Be able to draw, label and explain a detailed diagram of the patellar reflex arc Be able to explain how the patellar reflex works Topic — The Autonomic Nervous System Be able to explain the general purpose of the ANS Be able to explain the general function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the ANS Be able to explain the factors that determine what the ANS will do at a given target Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of the set-up of the ANS Be able to define, explain, and give detailed examples of ANS single innervation Be able to define, explain, and give detailed examples of ANS dual innervation, especially the eye and the heart. Know the difference between cooperative and antagonistic effects Be able to define and distinguish between localized and group effects in the ANS. Be able to explain which branch specializes in each. Be able to define sympathetic and parasympathetic tone Be able to explain the mechanism of action of beta-blocker drugs and also of the sympathomimetic drug pseudoephedrine Topic — The senses (general) Be able to explain the purpose and general function of a sensory receptor Be able to explain the difference between physical reality and perception, and why this difference exists Be able to explain and give examples of the limited range of sensory receptors Be able to distinguish between tonic and phasic receptor response patterns Be able to describe the type of input each of these receptor types is specialized to detect: chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, nocioreceptors, osmoreceptors, proprioreceptors, cutaneous receptors Topic — The senses (cutaneous sensations) Be able to list the kinds of stimuli involved in cutaneous sensation, and the kinds of receptors that detect them Be able to explain the receptive field of a neuron involved in cutaneous sensation. Be able to explain what influences the size of a receptive field Be able to define and explain the two-point touch threshold, and describe how it is determined. Be able to give typical values of the 2-point touch threshold for different body parts, and correlate this to the size of receptive fields Topic — The senses (hearing) Be able to explain what sound is Be able to describe the characteristics of sound, especially frequency and amplitude. Be able to explain how each of these is measured, and what units of measurement are used (if any). Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of the ear Be able to explain the function and importance of the following parts of the auditory pathway: pinna, external auditory meatus, tympanic membrane, ossicles, cochlea, organ of Corti, hair cells, vestibulocochlear cranial nerve Be able to describe in detail what is involved in hearing a sound Topic — The senses (Vision) Be able to draw, label, and explain a diagram of the basic anatomy of the eye, and be able to describe the purpose of each of the parts Be able to distinguish between an object and the image of an object, and what impact this has on “seeing” something Be able to explain the mechanism of accommodation Be able to define and explain the following accommodation problems: myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, astigmatism Be able to interpret a typical corrective lens prescription Be able to explain the purpose of the rod and cone cells in the retina of the eye Be able to describe the differing sensitivities to light of the rods and cones, and the implications of this Be able to describe the detailed molecular mechanism of photoreception in a rod and cone cell Be able to explain the importance of vitamin A to the process of photoreception Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of the process of phototransduction (“seeing”): starting from the stimulation of a rod cell with light, and ending with action potentials in a neuron of the optic nerve Topic — The senses (Olfaction and Taste) Be able to explain what a scent or taste physically is Be able to draw, label, and explain a diagram of the olfactory apparatus Be able to correlate the chemical composition of food with its taste Be able to describe the process of olfaction and of tasting Unit 3: Topic — Introduction to Muscular System, Basic Structure of Skeletal Muscle, Sliding Filament Model of Contraction Be able to list and describe the functions of the muscular system Be able to draw, label, and explain diagrams of the detailed structure of a skeletal muscle cell Be able to define and show how the following relate to each other: muscle cell, muscle fiber, myofibril, thick filament, thin filament Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of the filaments in a myofibril, especially: thick filament, thin filament, actin, troponin, tropomyosin, myosin, titin, Z-disk, H band, I band, A band Be able to describe the arrangement of the T-tubules and terminal cisternae in a typical skeletal muscle cell Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of a thick filament and a thin filament together. Be able to describe the specific function and location of myosin heads, myosin head binding sites, actin, troponin, tropomyosin, and Ca2+ Be able to describe the sliding filament model of contraction Topic — Muscle Contraction at Molecular Level Be able to define excitation-contraction coupling Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of the excitation-contraction coupling system in a typical skeletal muscle cell Be able to list and explain the steps in the process of excitation-contraction coupling Be able to describe, explain the function of, and integrate the following into the overall process of excitation-contraction coupling: neuromuscular junction, motor end plate, end plate potential, muscle-surface voltage-gated Na+ channels, action potentials, T-tubules, voltage-sensitive receptors, terminal cisternae, Ca2+ channels, troponin, tropomyosin, actin and myosin filaments, Ca2+ ATPase Be able to list and explain the steps in cross bridge cycling, especially the involvement of ATP, cross bridges, and the myosin head ATPase Topic — Muscle Metabolism Be able to list, describe, and explain the ways a muscle cell obtains the ATP it needs Be able to explain how the stores of creatine phosphate are replenished in a muscle Be able to estimate what proportion of energy consumed by a muscle is used for actual work Topic — Muscle Contraction at Organ Level Be able to explain what a motor unit is, and predict the relative size (# of fibers per motor unit) of motor units based on a muscle’s function Be able to explain what a twitch is, and draw a tension vs. time graph of one, identifying the stimulus of a twitch, the latent period, and the twitch itself Be able to describe and explain the result of applying successive action potentials to a muscle. Be able to explain summation, unfused tetanus, complete tetanus, and fatigue Be able to explain the concept of recruitment Be able to define, differentiate between, and explain isotonic, concentric, eccentric, and isometric contractions Topic — Force of Contraction Be able to describe the factors that influence the force, velocity, and duration of skeletal muscle contraction Be able to describe and differentiate among the characteristics of slow oxidative, fast oxidative, and fast glycolytic muscle fibers Topic — Blood Be able to differentiate between the plasma and the formed elements (CSLO 1) Be able to describe the formed elements and the purpose of each(CSLO 1) Be able to describe the contents of the plasma (CSLO 1) Be able to explain how an hematocrit is done, and what the result is (CSLO 1) Be able to explain erythropoiesis, and how it is regulated (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to explain what happens to red blood cells when they “die”(CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to name the different types of anemias, and how each occur (CSLO 1) Be able to explain what polycythemia is, and how it occurs (CSLO 1) Be able to explain what leukemia is (CSLO 1, 2) Be able to list and explain the main steps in hemostasis (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to draw out the main pathways involved in specifically forming the fibrin mesh during hemostasis (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to explain what hemophilia is and what causes it (CSLO 1, 2) Be able to define thrombus and embolus and why they are bad (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to explain how the ABO and Rh blood type systems work (CSLO 1) Given a recipient blood type, be able to deduce what type(s) of blood can be transfused into that recipient (CSLO 1) Be able to define and explain the terms universal donor and universal recipient (CSLO 1) Be able to explain how erythroblastosis fetalis works, why it is bad, when it occurs, and what can be done about it (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to list and describe the functions of the cardiovascular system (CSLO #1) Be able to list and describe the main parts of the cardiovascular system (CSLO #1) Be able to describe the flow of blood through the parts of the cardiovascular system (CSLO #1) Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed functional diagram of the heart, including the chambers and valves. (CSLO #1) Be able to describe the attachment of the pulmonary and systemic circulation to the heart, including naming the major blood vessels involved (CSLO #1) Be able to trace the flow of blood through the heart, pulmonary circulation, and systemic circulation (CSLO #1) Be able to explain how a one-way valve works (CSLO #1) Topic — Electrical Events in the Heart Describe the unique features of cardiac muscle tissue that allow it to perform its functions. Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of the electrical wiring of the heart, especially the SA node, AV node, AV bundle, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers (CSLO #1) Discuss how pacemaker cells generate automated electrical activity. Be able to describe and explain how electrical impulses travel through the heart (CLSO #'s1, 2) Discuss the electrical events in an individual cardiac myocyte. Be able to interpret the waves of an ECG Topic — Mechanical Events of the Heart/The Cardiac Cycle Be able to list and explain the steps in the cardiac cycle (CSLO 1) Be able to define systole and diastole and how long each typically lasts (CSLO 1) Be able to describe the typical heart sounds, what produces them, and when they occur with respect to systole, diastole, and the cardiac cycle (CSLO 1, 2) Be able to comment on the relative importance of the atria and ventricles to cardiac function (CSLO 1, 2) Be able to define and give typical values for cardiac output, cardiac (heart) rate, and stroke volume (CSLO 1, 5) Be able to describe and apply the relationship between cardiac output, cardiac rate, and stroke volume (CLSO 1, 2, 3) Be able to define and give typical values for end diastolic volume and end systolic volume (CSLO 1, 5) Be able to describe and apply the relationship between stroke volume, end diastolic volume, and end systolic volume (CLSO 1) Be able to explain why cardiac output needs to be regulated (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to explain how stroke volume is changed for the purpose of regulating cardiac output, especially the concepts of preload, afterload, and contractility (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to explain how cardiac rate is changed for the purpose of regulating cardiac output (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Topic — Blood Vessels, Blood Pressure, and Blood Flow Be able to explain the various different ways that substances get into and out of the blood at the capillaries (CSLO 1) Be able to explain how the venous pump works, and why it is important (CSLO 1) Be able to describe and explain the factors influencing blood pressure (CSLO 1) Be able to draw and explain a graph of the blood pressure as you go through the circulatory system. Be able to use the appropriate units (CSLO 1) Be able to explain why blood spurts from a cut artery and why blood flow evenly from a cut vein (CSLO 1) Be able to describe and explain the auscultatory (manual) blood pressure measurement method, and how it works (CSLO 3, 4, 5) Be able to supply a diagnosis based on a patient’s blood pressure measurement (CSLO 3, 4, 5) Be able to define and explain primary and secondary hypertension (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Unit 4: Topic — Basics of Respiratory System Be able to explain why humans need a respiratory system (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to draw, label, and explain a diagram of the basic anatomy of the respiratory system (CSLO 1) Be able to list and explain the functions of the conducting zone (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to list and explain the functions of the respiratory zone (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to draw, label, and explain a diagram of a typical alveolus (CSLO 1) Be able to explain the purpose of the different kinds of alveolar cells (CLSO 1) Be able to explain how gas molecules are exchanged into and out of an alveolus (CSLO 1, 3) Be able to explain why it is good for alveoli to be small, and what happens during emphysema (CSLO 1, 2) Topic — Ventilation Be able to describe what happens during inspiration and expiration (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to list and explain the factors that contribute to inspiration (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to list and explain the factors that contribute to expiration (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Be able to define and give typical values for the basic lung volumes and capacities, and explain their relationship to each other (CSLO 1, 2, 3, 5) Be able to define and calculate the total minute volume given relevant lung volumes or capacities (CSLO 1, 2, 3, 5) Be able to list and explain the factors influencing the rate and depth of breathing (CSLO 1, 2, 3) Topic — External and Internal Respiration/Gas Exchange Be able to understand Dalton's law of partial pressures and Henry's law Describe how atmospheric and alveolar air different in composition, and explain these differences Relate Dalton's and Henry's law to the events of external and internal respiration Topic — Gas Transport in the Blood Be able to define and explain PO2 and PCO2 Be able to describe the relative PO2 and PCO2 of inspired versus expired air, and of oxygenated versus deoxygenated blood Be able to describe and explain exactly how gases are transported in the blood. Be sure you know this about O2, CO2, and CO Be able to explain how temperature, pH, BPG (2,3-DPG), and PCO2 affect oxygen loading and unloading Topic — Basics Be able to list and explain the general functions of the urinary system Be able to draw, label, and explain a diagram of the urinary system Be able to list and explain the ways in which the circulatory and nervous systems are connected to the urinary system Topic — Nephron Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of a nephron Be able to explain what happens to blood as it enters and passes through a nephron Be able to explain the purpose and process of glomerular filtration, including the cells and structures involved. Be able to define and estimate the glomerular filtration rate Be able to state and explain the examples given in class of specific substances that are filtered Topic — Nephron Be able to describe in detail the purpose and process of tubular reabsorption, and specifically how substances are reabsorbed. Be able to describe in detail the purpose and process of tubular secretion Be able to state and explain the examples given in class of specific substances that are reabsorbed and/or secreted Be able to define and apply the concept of the renal plasma clearance rate, especially the examples given in class Topic — Micturition Be able to describe and explain the steps in the process of micturition Topic — Basics Be able to list and explain the purpose of the digestive system Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of the gastrointestinal tract, including accessory organs Be able to distinguish among and explain the various general functions of the digestive system, including ingestion, transport, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation Topic — The mouth Be able to summarize the digestive functions performed by the mouth Be able to define and discuss the process of mastication Be able to detail the chemical digestion that occurs in the mouth Be able to explain the buccal phase of deglutition Be able to explain where saliva comes from, what’s in saliva, and how salivation is controlled Topic — The pharynx and esophagus Be able to define and describe a bolus Be able to explain the pharyngeal-esophageal phase of deglutition Be able to explain the significance of the fact that the gastroesophageal sphincter is a “physiological” sphincter, rather than a “true” tight sphincter Be able to explain acid reflux, heartburn, GERD, and their potential complications Topic — The stomach Be able to list and explain the main functions of the stomach Be able to describe the origin and composition of gastric juice Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of the gastric pits of the stomach, including the purposes of the parietal, chief, and enteroendocrine cells Be able to describe the specializations of the stomach lining, and why they are necessary Be able to describe the chemical digestion that occurs in the stomach, especially the activation and action of pepsin Be able to explain how the secretion of stomach acid and enzymes is controlled Be able to explain how the interstitial cells of Cajal stimulate regular stomach contractions only in the presence of food Topic — The Small Intestine Be able to list and explain the general digestive functions of the small intestine Be able to describe the plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli of the small intestine, and explain their purpose Be able to draw, label, and explain a detailed diagram of an intestinal villus Be able to describe the composition of intestinal fluid, and be able to describe the contributions of the pancreas and liver. Be able to explain how the enteroendocrine cells regulate the composition of intestinal fluid through secretion of secretin and CCK (cholecystokinin) Be able to describe and explain in detail the chemical digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in the small intestine. Be able to describe and explain in detail the chemical digestion and absorption of proteins in the small intestine Be able to describe the chemical digestion and absorption of fats in the small intestine, and what happens to them as they then travel through the lymphatic and circulatory systems Be able to describe and explain the chemical digestion and absorption of nucleic acids in the small intestine Be able to describe and explain the absorption of water, vitamin B12, iron, and calcium by the small intestine Be able to explain how plasma calcium levels are regulated Be able, especially, to name and discuss all enzymes, hormones, and other helper molecules described in class Topic 12 — The Large Intestine Be able to list and explain the general functions of the large intestine Be able to describe in detail the process of defecation Be able to describe the ways diarrhea and constipation occur Topic 13 — The Pancreas & Liver Be able to draw, label, and explain a physiological diagram of the pancreas, especially the roles of the alpha and beta cells of the islets of Langerhäns Be able to describe the physiological effects of insulin and glucagon Be able to describe and explain the main functions of the liver