objectives for test one (studyguide)- soical behaviours 2.pdf

Introduction to Animal Behavior: 1. Social behavior: what can we study about it and how can we evaluate these ideas? Social behavior encompasses a wide range of interactions between individuals within a species, including communication, cooperation, aggression, and mating. Researchers study social b...

Introduction to Animal Behavior: 1. Social behavior: what can we study about it and how can we evaluate these ideas? Social behavior encompasses a wide range of interactions between individuals within a species, including communication, cooperation, aggression, and mating. Researchers study social behavior by observing interactions in natural settings, conducting experiments, and analyzing genetic and hormonal influences on behavior. 2. Social behavior: educational objectives. Educational objectives related to social behavior include understanding the adaptive significance of social interactions, identifying different types of social structures and their functions, and analyzing the evolutionary mechanisms underlying social behavior. 3. Birds: basic features (anatomy & physiology); difference between ornithology and poultry. Birds possess unique anatomical and physiological adaptations for flight, such as hollow bones and efficient respiratory systems. Ornithology is the scientific study of birds in their natural habitats, while poultry science focuses on the domestication and breeding of birds for agricultural purposes. 4. Mammals: basic features (anatomy & physiology); differences between monotremes, marsupials, placentals. Mammals share common features such as mammary glands and hair/fur. Monotremes lay eggs, marsupials have pouches to carry young, and placentals give birth to more developed offspring nourished by a placenta. 5. Social behavior: definitions and characteristics. Social behavior involves interactions between members of the same species. Characteristics include communication, cooperation, dominance hierarchies, and territoriality. 6. Can Microbes Encourage Altruism? Some research suggests that microbial influences on behavior could play a role in the evolution of altruistic behaviors, such as by affecting hormone levels or neurotransmitter production. 7. Social living: pros and cons. Pros of social living include increased protection from predators, improved foraging efficiency, and opportunities for cooperative breeding. Cons may include increased competition for resources and higher transmission rates of diseases. 8. Be able to identify and describe the most important social interactions/relationships. Social interactions/relationships include dominance/submission, cooperation, aggression, mating, parental care, and alliances. 9. Altruism: characteristics. Altruism involves behavior that benefits others at a cost to oneself. Characteristics include kin selection, reciprocal altruism, and indirect benefits to inclusive fitness. An Overview on Animal Behavior: 1. Be able to identify the most important individuals (scholars/researchers) who were involved in animal behavior. Key figures in animal behavior research include Niko Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and Karl von Frisch. 2. Be able to identify and discuss Niko Tinbergen’s four questions/proximate and ultimate causes of animal behavior. Tinbergen's four questions address the mechanisms (proximate causes) and functions (ultimate causes) of behavior, including causation, development, function, and evolution. 3. Be able to discuss monogamy in Prairie Voles (case study). Prairie voles exhibit monogamous behavior, forming pair bonds and sharing parental care responsibilities. This behavior is influenced by neurochemical pathways involving oxytocin and vasopressin. 4. Be able to identify and discuss behavior definitions, genetic success, evolution (natural and artificial), hereditary effects. Behavior definitions include innate and learned behaviors. Genetic success refers to an individual's reproductive success influenced by behavior. Evolution shapes behavior through natural selection and can be influenced by artificial selection in domesticated species. 5. Be able to discuss the silver fox experiment. The silver fox experiment demonstrated rapid phenotypic changes in behavior and morphology through selective breeding for tameness or aggression, highlighting the role of genetics in behavior. 6. Be able to identify and discuss epigenetic. Epigenetics involves changes in gene expression without alterations to the DNA sequence, influenced by environmental factors. It can impact behavior by modifying neural development and synaptic plasticity. The Development of Behavior: 1. Be able to identify the glossary and the vocabulary used in this lecture. Vocabulary includes terms related to behavior, genetics, neurobiology, and environmental influences. 2. Be able to discuss mirror neurons and their role in animal behavior. Mirror neurons are brain cells that activate both when an animal performs an action and when it observes another individual performing the same action, contributing to social learning and empathy. 3. Be able to discuss the role of nature and nurture in the development of animal behavior (case studies: garter snakes, white-crowed sparrow). The development of behavior is influenced by both genetic predispositions and environmental experiences, as shown by studies on garter snakes' feeding behavior and white-crowned sparrows' song learning. 4. Be able to discuss epigenetics, learning. Epigenetics and learning both play significant roles in shaping behavior by modifying gene expression and neural circuitry in response to environmental cues. 5. Be able to identify and discuss adaptive developmental homeostasis and switch mechanisms. Adaptive developmental homeostasis refers to the ability of organisms to maintain stable phenotypic traits despite environmental fluctuations, while switch mechanisms allow for phenotypic plasticity in response to changing conditions. 6. Be able to identify and discuss how animals became well-suited with their normal environment. Animals become well-suited to their environment through natural selection, which favors traits and behaviors that enhance survival and reproductive success in specific ecological niches. 7. Case study: rabbits in Australia and the trophic cascade. The introduction of rabbits to Australia led to a trophic cascade, where their overgrazing caused habitat degradation, impacting native species and ecosystem dynamics. Case study 1: Magellanic penguins, Cheetahs, and African wild dogs 1. Migration issue in Magellanic penguins at San Francisco Zoo: Magellanic penguins, native to South America, often migrate thousands of miles during the breeding season. At the San Francisco Zoo, the migration issue might arise due to the lack of suitable breeding conditions or environmental cues that trigger the migratory behavior. The zoo staff may need to create artificial conditions to simulate the penguins' natural breeding environment to encourage successful reproduction. 2. Characteristics of cheetahs and their genetic issues: Cheetahs are known for their incredible speed, agility, and distinctive spotted coat. However, they face genetic issues such as low genetic diversity, resulting from a population bottleneck thousands of years ago. This lack of genetic variation makes cheetahs more vulnerable to diseases and environmental changes. 3. African wild dog genetic issues: African wild dogs, also known as painted wolves, face genetic issues similar to cheetahs due to habitat fragmentation and human encroachment. Loss of genetic diversity increases the risk of inbreeding depression and reduces the population's ability to adapt to changing environments or diseases. 4. "Big cats" characteristics: Big cats refer to large felid species such as lions, tigers, leopards, and jaguars. They are apex predators known for their strength, stealth, and hunting prowess. Each species has unique characteristics, such as the mane in male lions or the rosette patterns on leopard coats, adapted to their specific habitats and hunting strategies. Nervous System and Behavior: Animal Senses 1. Role of the nervous system in animal behavior: The nervous system plays a crucial role in coordinating sensory input and generating appropriate behavioral responses. It includes sensory neurons that detect stimuli, interneurons that process information, and motor neurons that initiate behavioral responses. 2. Animal senses: Animals possess various sensory modalities, including vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and proprioception. Each sense allows animals to perceive and interact with their environment in unique ways, influencing their behavior and survival strategies. 3. Star-nosed mole and cortical magnification: The star-nosed mole has a specialized tactile organ on its nose, allowing it to detect and discriminate between prey items with remarkable precision. The cortical magnification in its brain reflects the large representation of the star-nosed mole's highly sensitive nose in the somatosensory cortex, emphasizing the importance of tactile sensation in its behavior. 4. Eye and sight in animals: Eyes evolved independently in various animal lineages, with adaptations suited to their specific ecological niches. Different animals have varying visual acuity, color perception, and visual field adaptations, reflecting their unique visual requirements for foraging, predator detection, or mate selection. 5. Ears, hearing, and vocalization: Ears and hearing play crucial roles in communication, predator detection, and prey localization in many animals. Vocalization, including calls, songs, and alarm signals, facilitates social interactions, territorial defense, and mate attraction across diverse animal taxa. 6. Sense of smell in animals: Olfaction is vital for detecting food, predators, mates, and territorial boundaries in many animals. Animals with well-developed olfactory systems exhibit complex scent-marking behaviors and communication through pheromones, influencing social hierarchies and mate choice. 7. Sense of touch and tactile communication: Touch receptors enable animals to perceive physical contact, pressure, and texture, influencing their social interactions, parental care, and navigation through tactile cues. Tactile communication, such as grooming, huddling, or aggression, plays essential roles in social bonding and conflict resolution. 8. Thermoreceptors in animals: Thermoreceptors detect changes in temperature, helping animals regulate their body temperature and respond to thermal gradients in their environment. Thermoreception influences behaviors such as thermoregulation, hibernation, and migration in diverse animal species. 9. How animals deal with cold feet: Animals employ various physiological and behavioral adaptations to cope with cold temperatures, including vasoconstriction to reduce heat loss, insulation through fur or feathers, huddling for warmth, and seeking sheltered microclimates or burrows. 10. Sense of taste in animals: Taste receptors allow animals to discern the chemical composition of food, distinguishing between palatable and unpalatable substances. Taste preferences influence foraging behavior, dietary choices, and food selection strategies in different animal species. 11. Role of the brain in animal social behavior: The brain integrates sensory input, hormonal signals, and cognitive processes to regulate social behaviors such as cooperation, aggression, parental care, and mate choice. Brain regions involved in social behavior include the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hypothalamus, which modulate emotional responses, decision-making, and social cognition. 12. Hormones and behavior: Behavioral neuroendocrinology: Hormones and pheromones play crucial roles in regulating animal behavior, influencing mate attraction, territoriality, aggression, and parental care. Behavioral neuroendocrinology explores how hormonal signals interact with neural circuits to modulate behavior, emphasizing the bidirectional relationship between endocrine function and behavioral outcomes. Evolution of Behavior: 1. Characteristics of the Evolution of Behavior: o Timeline: Behavior evolves over time through natural selection, genetic drift, and other evolutionary processes. It can vary in complexity and adaptation depending on environmental pressures. o Different Levels: Behavior can evolve at the individual, population, and species levels, influencing social interactions, mating strategies, and survival tactics. o Speciation: Behavior can contribute to reproductive isolation, leading to speciation. Examples include mate preferences, courtship rituals, and territorial behaviors that prevent interbreeding between populations. o Reproductive Isolation: Behavioral differences can lead to reproductive isolation, such as mate recognition systems or mating rituals specific to certain populations. 2. Factors Affecting Allele Frequency: Selection: Natural selection favors alleles that confer fitness advantages, leading to their increase in frequency within a population. o Migration: Gene flow between populations can introduce new alleles or alter existing allele frequencies. o Mutation: Random mutations create new alleles, contributing to genetic variation within populations. o Genetic Drift: Random fluctuations in allele frequencies can occur in small populations due to chance events. o Founder Effect: When a small group of individuals establishes a new population, the allele frequencies may differ from the original population due to sampling effects. o Bottleneck Effect: A sharp reduction in population size can lead to a loss of genetic diversity due to random allele loss. Species with Limited Genetic Variation: o Cheetahs: Due to a historic population bottleneck, cheetahs exhibit low genetic diversity. o Tasmanian Devils: Inbreeding and disease have led to reduced genetic diversity in Tasmanian devil populations. Inheritance of Behaviors: o Yes, behaviors can be inherited through genetic mechanisms. Genes influence the development of neural structures and biochemical pathways that underlie behavior. o For example, certain dog breeds are predisposed to specific behaviors due to selective breeding for particular traits. Evolutionarily Stable Strategies (ESS): o ESS are strategies that, when adopted by a population, cannot be displaced by any alternative strategy. o An example is the hawk-dove game, where hawks (aggressive) and doves (nonaggressive) coexist in a population due to frequency-dependent selection. Game Theory and Hawks-Dove Game: o Game theory models strategic interactions between individuals in competitive situations. o The hawks-dove game illustrates the balance between aggressive (hawk) and nonaggressive (dove) strategies in securing resources. The Selfish Gene: o Richard Dawkins' concept of the selfish gene proposes that genes are the primary unit of selection, with behaviors often serving to maximize gene propagation. o Genes that promote behaviors benefiting their transmission, even at the expense of individual organisms, can become prevalent in populations. Behavioral Adaptations: o Black-headed Gulls: Nest hygiene behavior to reduce predation risk. o Kittiwakes, Razorbills, Guillemots: Cliff-nesting and eggshell disposal behaviors to adapt to their nesting habitats. Sexual Selection: o Sexual selection influences mate choice and competition for mates, leading to the evolution of elaborate traits and behaviors. o 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Peacock's extravagant plumage and bird of paradise courtship displays are examples of sexual selection. 10. Male-Male Competition and Other Strategies: o Mate guarding, physical combat, and alternative mating tactics are examples of male-male competition. o Mate guarding involves males preventing access to females to ensure paternity. o Frequency of copulation and sperm competition are strategies to increase reproductive success. 11. Importance of Sperm Quality: o High-quality sperm increases the likelihood of fertilization and successful reproduction. o Sperm competition drives the evolution of traits and behaviors that enhance sperm quality and competitive ability. o Social Behavior Organization: 1. Social Organization in Animals: o Animals organize into social groups with defined roles, hierarchies, and cooperative behaviors to enhance survival and reproduction. 2. Eusociality in Animals: o Eusociality is characterized by overlapping generations, cooperative care of offspring, and reproductive division of labor. o Examples include ants, bees, and some species of mole rats. 3. Pros and Cons of Grouping: o Pros include increased foraging efficiency, predator detection, and cooperative breeding. o Cons include increased competition for resources and susceptibility to disease transmission. 4. Social Structure and Membership: o Social structures vary, from solitary to complex hierarchies seen in primate societies. o Membership can be fluid, with individuals joining or leaving groups based on social dynamics and environmental factors. 5. Black-Tailed Prairie Dogs: o Black-tailed prairie dogs exhibit complex social structures with family groups, burrow systems, and territorial behaviors. 6. Social Structure of Spotted Hyenas: o Spotted hyenas live in matrilineal clans with a strict dominance hierarchy and cooperative hunting strategies. 7. Territoriality in Animals: o Territorial behavior involves defending a defined area against intruders to secure access to resources such as food, mates, and nesting sites. 8. Mating System and Social Organization: o Mating systems vary, from monogamy to polygyny and polyandry, influenced by social organization, resource availability, and reproductive strategies. Case study 2Birds: Brainiacs of the bird world 1. dentifying and Discussing Intelligence Tests: Intelligence tests for birds often involve tasks that assess problem-solving abilities, memory, flexibility, and learning capacity. For example, birds may be presented with puzzles where they have to manipulate objects to obtain a reward, remember the location of hidden food caches, or learn to associate specific cues with food availability. 2. Identifying and Discussing Other Measures of Intelligence Corvids Show: In addition to problem-solving skills, corvids exhibit other measures of intelligence such as social learning, innovation, and the ability to use and make tools. They are capable of learning from observing conspecifics or other species and adapting their behaviors accordingly. 3. Discussing the Difference Between Tool-Use and Tool-Making in Animals: Tool-use involves the manipulation of external objects to achieve a specific goal, while toolmaking refers to the creation or modification of tools for a particular purpose. Toolmaking typically requires a higher level of cognitive complexity and innovation compared to tool-use. 4. Listing Some Examples of Tool Use in Corvids: Examples of tool use in corvids include using sticks or twigs to extract insects from crevices, using leaves as disguises while hunting, and dropping hard-shelled nuts onto roads to crack them open with passing vehicles. 5. Explaining Why Some Corvids Can Make Tools under Experimental Conditions but Do Not in the Wild: In the wild, corvids may rely on readily available resources and behaviors that have been passed down through generations. They may not engage in toolmaking if they can fulfill their needs using simpler methods. However, in experimental settings where resources are limited and problem-solving is necessary to obtain rewards, corvids demonstrate their ability to innovate and create tools. 6. Naming Other Measures of Intelligence Parrots Show: Parrots demonstrate intelligence through their vocal mimicry abilities, problem-solving skills, social learning, and complex communication systems. They can learn to imitate human speech, solve puzzles to access food, and adapt their behaviors based on environmental cues. 7. Explaining Why Intelligence Has Been Evolutionarily Beneficial in Animals: Intelligence allows animals to adapt to changing environments, solve novel problems, and exploit new resources. It enhances their ability to compete for mates, forage for food, avoid predators, and navigate complex social dynamics. Ultimately, intelligence increases an animal's chances of survival and reproductive success. 8. Identifying and Discussing the Differences Between Convergent and Divergent Evolution: Convergent evolution refers to the independent evolution of similar traits in unrelated species due to similar environmental pressures. Divergent evolution, on the other hand, involves the divergence of a common ancestor into distinct species with different traits. In the context of corvids, convergent evolution may explain similarities in tool-use behaviors across different species, while divergent evolution may explain the emergence of unique tool-making abilities in specific lineages. 9. Identifying Aspects of Why New Caledonian Crows and Torresian Crows Developed into Separate Species: The development of separate species in New Caledonian Crows and Torresian Crows could be influenced by factors such as geographic isolation, ecological differences, and genetic divergence. Over time, populations of these crows may have become isolated from each other, leading to genetic drift and the accumulation of genetic differences. Ecological factors, such as differences in habitat and resource availability, may have also driven divergent selection pressures, contributing to the evolution of distinct traits and behaviors in each population.