NUR 101 Intro of Anatomy & Physiology & Chemistry of Living Things

Introduction of Anatomy & Physiology Anatomy • The study of internal and external of body structures and their physical relationship among other body parts • E.g. Structure of heart • The study of body functions • Biochemistry • Genetics • Study of • Functions of anatomical structures • Individua...

Introduction of Anatomy & Physiology Anatomy • The study of internal and external of body structures and their physical relationship among other body parts • E.g. Structure of heart • The study of body functions • Biochemistry • Genetics • Study of • Functions of anatomical structures • Individual and cooperative functions • E.g. Pumping of the heart Physiology • Structure determines the functions • The principle of complementarity of structure and functions • The hierarchy of structural relationship • What they are made of • Where they are located • Associated structures • The homeostasis, the tendency toward internal balance Types of Anatomy Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic Anatomy)Study of structure without using a microscope • Surface anatomy- exterior features, e.g. surface marking • Regional anatomy- body areas, e.g. head • Systemic anatomy- organ systems, e.g. cardiovascular system • Clinical anatomy- medical specialties, e.g. surgical anatomy • Developmental anatomy- from conception to death, e.g. embrology Microscopic AnatomyStudy of structure with magnification using a microscope • Cytology- study of cells and their structures • Histology- study of tissues and their structures Cell PhysiologyStudy of cellular functionProcess within and between cells, e.g. function of cardiac cell Organ PhysiologyStudy of organ function- e.g. heart function Systemic PhysiologyStudy of system function- e.g. function of cardiovascular system Pathological PhysiologyStudy of physiology and effects in certain diseases- e.g. physiology of heart failure Types of Physiology The Importance of Studying “A & P” The Study of “Life” • To discover the unity and the patterns that underlie this diversity • To identify problems when the body gets sick Anatomical Problem Physiological Problem E.g. Cardiomegaly (Enlarged heart) E.g. Heart failure, ischemic heart disease, pericardial effusion, endocarditis, myocardial infraction History of A&P Development Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) • Anatomist • Barber- surgeon removed the odorous organs form the cadaver and held them up for the students to see • Published the first atlas of anatomy • Greek philosopher • Write an anatomy book- “On the Parts of Animals” Hippocrates (460-375 B.C.) • Greek Physician • Father of Medicine • “Hippocratic Oah”- code of ethic for physicians • Urges the attribution to diseases to natural causes, instead of gods and demons Claudius Galen (129-216 A.D.) • Greek physician • Dead body dissection was banned at that time • Wrote the most influential medical textbook • Based on his guessing of human anatomy of gladiators and animal dissections Charles Darwin (1809-82) • Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859)Theory of evolution, restructured biology and changed the view of our origin, nature, and place in universe • The Descent of Man (1871)Emphasized the features of anatomy and behavior that reveals how humans related to other animals Basic Building Block of Medical Terminology • Lots of medical terms come from Greek or Latin Example Prefix (Place at the beginning of a word) A-/An- No or without (e.g. Anaemia, Afebrileno fever) BiTri- Two (e.g. Biventricular failure) Three (e.g. Triceps) Root (Central part of a word) Cardio- Heart (e.g. Cardiogenic shock) Pulmo- Lung Nephro- Kidney Neuro Nerve Osteo- Bone -otomy Incision (e.g. Craniotomy) -ostomy Get an opening or hole (e.g. Colostomy) -ectomy Removal (e.g. Thyroidectomy) -itis Inflammation (e.g. Gastritis) -megaly Enlargement (e.g. Cardiomegaly) Suffix (The ending part of a word) General Orientation of Human Biology Characteristics of Life Metabolism The Cell • The smallest unit that can be alive Differentiation • Each cell is differentiated into different structure and function from its precursor cell • Catabolism: Chemical reactions that break down complex substances into simpler molecules • Anabolism: Chemical reactions that build up simple molecules into complex substance Excretion • Removal of waste by metabolic reaction Intake & Utilization • Build of one or more cells • Intake and utilize energy and materials Grow & Reproduction • Living things can reproduce and glow Life Responsiveness/ Regulation • Respond to changes in the environment e.g. Homeostasis Change Position & Location • Can occur at all levels of structural organization Requirements of Organisms O2 Water • Most important chemical in all living systems • Require for many metabolic processes and provide an environment for them to take place • Important in regulating temperature • Inside the cells with substances dissolved to constitute the intracellular fluid • Outside the cells, including the tissue fluid and the plasma as extracellular fluid Oxygen Food / Nutrients • Substances that provide the body with necessary 02 chemicals in addition to water • To provide energy for the organism Pressure Heat • Used to release energy from food substances • The energy drives the metabolism • A form of energy • Product of metabolic reactions • The degree of heat present partly determines the rate at which these reactions occur • Temperature is a measure of the degree of heat • The more heat, the more chemical reactions take place • An application of force to something • Atmospheric pressure- the force on the outside of the body due to the weight of air • Important in breathing • Hydrostatic pressure- a pressure a liquid exerts due to the weight of water above them • Blood pressure- heart action forces blood to flow through blood vessels Levels of Organization The System Level The Chemical Level The Chemical Level The Cellular Level The Organ Level The Tissue Level The Organ Level The Cellular Level The Organ System Level The Tissue Level The Organism Level The Organism Level (Shier, 2015) The Chemical Level Atoms • Compose of Proton, electron, and neutron • The smallest chemical units of elements like Hydrogen, Carbon, Chloride Molecules • Group of atoms bond and working together The Cellular Level Cells • Groups of atoms, molecules and organelles work together • Basic structural and functional units of an organism Organelles • Special structures like nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes (Martini, 2015) • Groups of similar cells working together to perform a particular function • 8 types of tissues- blood, bone, epithelial tissue, cartilage tissue, adipose tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue The Tissue Level The Organ Level Organs • Groups of tissues work together • Usually • Have a recognizable shape • Composed of 2 or more types of tissues • Have specific functions (Martini, 2015) The Organ Systems Level • Groups of related organs working together to have a common function • Humans have 11 organ systems- Integumentary System, Skeletal System, Muscular System, Nervous System, Endocrine System, Cardiovascular System, Lymphatic System, Respiratory System, Digestive System, Urinary System, and Reproductive System The Organism Level •All systems of the body combine to form an organism •A human is an organism (Martini, 2015) S u p e r f i c i a l A n a t o m y • Locating structures on or near the body surface 01 The Anatomical Position • • • • 02 Stands erect facing the observer Head level and eyes facing forward Feet are flat on the floor and directed forward Hands at sides with palms facing forward Supine • Lying down with face up 03 Prone • Lying down with face down Anatomical Directions Anterior/ Ventral • The front surface • The belly side Posterior/ Dorsal • The back surface Superior/ Superficial • At near or relatively close to the body surface Inferior • Towards the superior of the body • Deep from the surface Lateral • Away from the midline Medial • Toward to the midline (Martini, 2015) Proximal • Toward the point of the attachment of the limb to the trunk Distal • Away from the point of attachment of the limb to the trunk Left & Right (Martini, 2015) Anatomy Lines • Anterior View • Anterior Median Line/ Mid-Line • Midclavicular Lines • Lateral View • Anterior Axillary Line • Midaxillary Line • Posterior Axillary Line • Posterior View • Posterior Median Line • Scapular Line A n a t o m i c a l Regions/ Landmarks Major Anatomical Regions 01 Head • Include skull, face 02 Neck • Cervical region 03 Trunk • Three major regions • Thoracic region • Abdominal region • Pelvic region 04 Appendicular • Upper limbs- arm, forearm, wrist, hands, and fingers • Lower limbs- thigh, leg, ankle, foot, and toes (Martini, 2015) Body Regions (Martini, 2015) • Abdominopelvic quadrants • Formed by two perpendicular lines • Divided into 4 parts• Left upper quadrant (LUQ) • Right upper quadrant- (RUQ) • Left lower quadrant- (LLQ) • Right lower quadrant- (RLQ) • Abdominopelvic quadrants • Formed by four perpendicular lines • Divided into 9 parts• Epigastric region • Left hypochondriac region • Right hypochondriac region • Umbilical region • Left lumbar region • Right lumbar region • Hypogastric region • Left inguinal region • Right inguinal region • Organs insides • Liver • Gallbladder • Stomach • Spleen • Large intestine • Small intestine • Appendix • Urinary bladder Planes and Sections • Plane• A three-dimensional axis • Section• A slice parallel to a plane • Used to visualize internal organization and structure • Important in radiological techniques • MRI • CT • PET (Martini, 2015) Body Cavities • • Essential Functions• Protect organs from accidental shocks • Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs • Serous Membranes• Line body cavities and cover organs • Consists of parietal layer and visceral layer • Parietal layer- lines cavity • Visceral layer- covers organ 7 Body Cavities include• • AMET, Dorsal body cavity with Cranial cavity & Vertebral cavity Ventral body cavity consists of • Thoracic cavity- Superior mediastinum, Pleural cavity, Pericardial cavity • Abdominalpelvic cavityAbdominal cavity & Pelvic cavity (Shier, 2015) • • • • • (Martini, 2015) The Thoracic Cavity • Consists of two (Left & Right) pleural cavities separated by mediastinum Each Pleural Cavity • Contain a lung • Lined with a serous membrane The Pleura consists of Two layers • Parietal Pleura • Visceral Pleura Pleural Fluid • Lubricates space between two layers Mediastinum • Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and the thymus • Lower portion contains pericardial cavity Thoracic & Pleural Cavities Abdominalpelvic Cavity Peritoneal Cavity- Chamber within the abdominopelvic cavity Text Here Easy to change colors, photos and Text. • Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall • Visceral peritoneum: cover the organs Abdominal Cavity- Superior Portion Text Here Text Here Easy to change colors, photos and Text. 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(Martini, 2015) • Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones • Contains digestive organs • Retroperitoneal space- contain pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract Pelvic Cavity- Inferior Portion • Within pelvic bones • Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder Coordination, Homeostasis & Feedback Systems Received, Coordination & Response ack b ed e F k bac ed Fe Pos i t i ve • The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus Nega t i ve Positive Feedback is as t s Co or tion na di • All body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment • Dynamic equilibrium- internal conditions fluctuate within a limited range • Essential to survival Ho me o Equilibrium • Systems receive, coordinate and respond to external and internal changes • Autoregulation (Intrinsic)- response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environment change • Extrinsic regulation- responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems • 3 components- Receptor, Control Centre & Effector Negative Feedback • The response of the effector negates the stimulus Homeostatic Mechanism Homeostatic Mechanism Receptor (Sensor/ Detector) Stimulus • A stimulus is any disruption or change in a controlled condition or environment • E.g. Change in temperature, sound, pH • A sensor which sense for environmental changes and stimulus • Send information by nerve impulses or chemical signals to control center • E.g. Nerve endings in the skin, ear, and eye Control Center Response • Response/ effect that responds to the commands of the control center • Responds to the stimulus • E.g. Sweating, regulation • Receive the information from the receptor • Sets the range of values that a controlled condition should be maintained • Evaluate the input received from the receptorsCoordinate and regulation • Generate the output commands to an effector if needed • E.g. Brain Effector • Receives output from the control center • Produce a response/ effect which responds to the commands of the control center • E.g. Muscle, glands and organs • • • (Shier, 2015) A process that allows constant readjustment of physiological variables Negative Feedback System- the response reverse a change of stimulus Positive Feedback System- the effector produces a response that promotes the initial change Feedback Systems Mechanisms of Feedback Systems Negative Feedback Mechanism • • • In negative feedback mechanism, the process is initiated by a stimulus cause the responses slows down or terminate the stimulus Body is brought back into homeostasis Normal range is achieved Positive Feedback Mechanism • • • • Positive feedback mechanism involves the promotion of the original process. The purpose is to continue the pathway or to increase its activity. Body is moved away from homeostasis Normal range is lost (Martini, 2015) Section Break TOILET TIME Chemistry of the Living Things Basic Chemistry Atoms • • • • The smallest and basic unit of matter All matters (e.g. human, animals, plants, rocks, ocean, any objects) are made up of atoms in varying combination Consists of 2 basic parts: • Nucleus• Protons (+ve charge) • Neutrons (neutral- no charge) • At the center of atom • Electrons (-ve charge) • Much lighter than protons • Surround the neutrons, may form electron clouds The mass of atom is mainly depending on the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus • Anything that takes up space and mass • Can be differentiated into pure substance and mixture • Mixture: • Homogenous mixturesame properties • Heterogeneous mixtureconsists of 2 phases of different properties: suspensions & colloids Matters • • • Element • Elements is a pure substances composed of atoms of only one kind, e.g. O2 Atoms are the smallest particles of an element that still retain the characteristics of that element Each element include all the atoms of the same number of protons, and thus the same atomic number Cannot be changed or broke down into simpler substance Atomic Weight • An average of different atomic mass & proportion of its different isotopes • Very close to its mass number of most common isotope of that element (Martini, 2015) Isotopes • Atoms of the same element whose nuclei contain a different number of neutrons • Different isotopes of an element have similar chemical properties except for mass number Chemical Bonds, Molecules & Compound Chemical Bond • Atoms can attach to other atoms by forming chemical bonds • When atoms form chemical bonds, electrons can be gaining, sharing or losing • Types of bonding- Ionic bond, Covalent bond, Hydrogen Bond, Van der Waals Force Molecule O O • The combination when 2 or more same element atoms share electrons, e.g. O2 O Compound • Substance from by two or more elements, e.g. H2O H H Types of Chemical Bonds Hydrogen Bond • Weak force which acts between adjacent molecules • Attraction between the slight positive charge on the hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond and a slight negative charge of another polar covalent bond Van der Waals Force Ionic Bond • Atoms that gain (cations) or lose electrons (anions) become electrically charged and called ions • The attraction between the opposite charges of the anions and cations, forms the bonding and becomes ionic compound (Martini, 2015) Covalent Bond • Weak and brief attractive force generated by random disturbances in the electron clouds of adjacent atoms • Atoms bond by sharing electrons • Single covalent bond- share one pair of electron • Double covalent bond- share 2 pairs of electron • Nonpolar covalent bond- equal sharing of electron • Polar covalent bond- unequal sharing of electron State of Matters Solid • Atoms arranged in fixed position with shape and volume • Have less kinetic energy Liquid • Have a constant volume but do not have definite shape • Have more kinetic energy than solid Gases • Do not have a definite shape or volume • Contain highest amount of kinetic energy • Gases molecules is allowing move freely Synthesis Reaction • Chemical reaction that small molecules assemble into larger molecules • Synthesis of new molecules called anabolism Ty p e s o f Chemical Reaction • Cells stay alive and functional by controlling chemical reactions to provide energy and make up its metabolism • In chemical reactions, chemical bond changes take place as atoms in the reacting substance (reactants), rearrange to form different substance (products) • Chemical reactions are reversible Decomposition Reaction • Chemical reaction that breaks a molecule into smaller fragments • The decomposition reaction of molecules within human body is called catabolism Exchange Reactions • Parts of the reacting molecules are shuffled around to produce new products Reactant Redox Reaction Oxidation • The reactant loss of electron • E.g. Gain from oxygen, Loss from hydrogen Product Reduction • The product gain of electron • E.g. Loss from oxygen, gain from hydrogen H2- reducing agent CuO- oxidizing agent H2- reducing agent Fe3O4- oxidizing agent Oxidizing Agent • Accept electron • Oxidizing agent reduces itself to oxidize the other Reducing Agent • Give electron • Reducing agent oxidizes itself to reduce the other Organic and Inorganic Compound Organic Compound • Contain carbon and hydrogen for forming its primary structure • E.g. Carbohydrate, lipids, proteins Inorganic Compound • Contain positive and negative ions for forming its primary structure • E.g. Water, acids, bases, salts • The most important substance in the body • Makes up of 60% of the total body weight • An excellent solvent• a liquid or gas in which other material (solute) has been dissolved • Participate in chemical reactions• An ideal medium for chemical reaction • Absorbs and release heat very slowly • Moderate the effect of changes in the environmental temperature • Help to maintain homeostasis of the body temperature • Require large amount of heat to change status from liquid to gases • Provide an excellent cooling mechanism • Serve as a lubricant • Major part of saliva, mucus, and other lubricating fluids • Necessary in thoracic and abdominal cavities, and joints Inorganic Compound- WATER The Concept of pH & Acid-Base Balance Acid (Martini, 2015) • • • • Dissociates in water to form hydrogen ions (H+) Proton (H+) donor Strength of acid depends on dissociation level and concentration level Acidosis- process increase acidity in the blood and other body tissues (Blood pH<7.35) • • • • • • The concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution More H+ ions means low pH, fewer H+ ions mean higher pH pH scale range from 0-14 • 0 - <7 (acidic) • 7 (neutral) • >7- 14 (basic/alkaline) Body fluids must contain balanced quantities of acids and bases to ensure homeostasis Changes in pH will disrupt the cellular and tissue function Blood pH: 7.35-7.45 Base/ Alkaline • • • • Dissociates in water to form hydroxide ions (OH-) Proton (H+) acceptor Strength of acid depends on dissociation level and concentration level Alkalosis- process that the blood and other body fluid become more alkaline ( Blood pH >7.45) Buffer System in pH Maintenance • A Buffer Solution is an aqueous solution consist of mixture of weak acid and conjugate base or a weak base and a conjugate acid • A Buffer is a mixture whose pH change very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to the buffer solution • The importance of moderate pH changes in human body to maintain constant pH conditions • 3 buffer mechanisms in body: • Body fluid buffer • Respiratory buffer • Renal buffer Buffer Solution Organic Compound in Human Body L Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acid- DNA & RNA Proteins Adenosine Triphophate (ATP) & Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) Carbohydrates • The most important fuel or energy source for our human body • E.g. Glucose, glycogen, starch • Organic molecules that contain carbon hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1 (C6H12O6) • Types of carbohydrates• Monosaccharide (Simple sugar)- E.g. Glucose, Fructose, Galactose • Disaccharide- E.g. Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose • Polysaccharide- E.g. Starch PolysaccharideStarch L I P I D • Hydrophobic (Insoluble in water) organic molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen • Essential structural components of all cellsmake up of cell membranes • Important energy reserves • Act as medium for essential vitamin dissolved • Adipose tissue- thermal insulation and shockabsorbing cushion function for vital organ • Classification• Fatty acids- saturated and unsaturated fat • Phospholipids • Steriods (Shier, 2015) PROTEINS • • • • • Polymers of the simple monomer- amino acids Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen Amino acids link up together and become peptide Dipeptide, Tripeptide, Polypeptide Different sequence of amino acids produce different protein (great variety of protein) • Largely responsible for the body cells structure, e.g. enzymes, antibodies, hormones Enzymes • Most biochemical reactions do not take place spontaneously or occur slowly • Enough energy must be provided as activation energy to start up the reaction • Enzymes are proteins, act as catalysts which can speed up the chemical reactions • Promote chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required • Factors affect enzyme function: Temperature, pH (Martini, 2015) Nucleic Acid, DNA & RNA • Nucleic acid- huge molecule contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus • Monomers is nucleotides made with pentose sugar-deoxyribose & ribose, phosphate group and nitrogen bases (Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil) • 2 types of nucleic acid• DNA- Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid • Long double helix chain of nucleotides • Consists of deoxyribose and bases (A,T,G,C) • Complementary base pairing- A with T, G with C • Forms the inherited genetic material inside each human cell • Gene- a segment of a DNA molecule • RNA- Ribose Nucleic Acid • Single strain of nucleotides • Consists of ribose and bases (A,U,G,C) • Relays instructions from the genes to transcript amino acids (Martini, 2015) A d e n o s i n e Tr i p h o s p h a t e ( AT P ) & Adenosine Diphos phate (ADP) • Main energy source for most cellular processes • The building blocks of ATP are carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen & phosphorus • Transfer energy to power cellular activities • ATP is used in• Muscles contraction • Synthesis of DNA and RNA • Movement of structures within cells • Transport substance across cell membranes (Martini, 2015)