Heat Transfer Notes PDF

Module 1: Introduction to heat transfer Heat, which is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another because of temperature difference. The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers is heat transfer....

Module 1: Introduction to heat transfer Heat, which is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another because of temperature difference. The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers is heat transfer. Heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature. Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer ❖ Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no indication about how long the process will take. A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat must be transferred to realize a specified change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy principle. ❖ Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equilibrium state to another. Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and thus it is a nonequilibrium phenomenon. ❖ Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be based on the principles of thermodynamics alone. However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the framework for the science of heat transfer. The first law requires that the rate of energy transfer into a system be equal to the rate of increase of the energy of that system. The second law requires that heat be transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two groups: (1) rating and (2) sizing problems. The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an existing system at a specified temperature difference. The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference. Application Areas of Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Mechanisms Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons. A cold canned drink in a warm room, for example, eventually warms up to the room temperature as a result of heat transfer from the room to the drink through the aluminium can by conduction. The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer. where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of the material, which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat. In the limiting case of ∆𝑥 → 0, the equation above reduces to the differential form which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction. Here, dT/dx is the temperature gradient, which is the slope of the temperature curve on a T-x diagram (the rate of change of T with x), at location x. Thermal Conductivity: of a material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference. The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct heat. CONVECTION Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. In contrast, convection is called natural (or free) convection if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid (Fig above in right). The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2·K, As is the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place, Ts is the surface temperature, and 𝑇∞ is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface. The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on all the variables influencing convection such as the surface geometry, the nature of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity. RADIATION Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not require the presence of an intervening medium. In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth. In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature. All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation. The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a thermodynamic temperature Ts (in K) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as where 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊 ⁄(𝑚2 ∙ 𝐾 4 ) is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. Note: The topics: the concept of thermal resistance, thermal resistance of an infinite composite slab, thermal resistance of a long hollow cylinder, and overall heat transfer coefficient, with proper derivations are discussed in the class. End of Module 1