NISM-Series-VIII Equity Derivatives Workbook PDF

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2014

NISM

Manish Bansal and Ashutosh Wakhare

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equity derivatives financial markets derivatives trading investment

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This workbook helps candidates prepare for the NISM-Series-VIII: Equity Derivatives Certification Examination. It covers various equity derivatives topics including basics of derivatives, index understanding, forwards and futures, options, trading strategies, and clearing/settlement systems. Published in 2014 by the National Institute of Securities Markets (NISM).

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Workbook for NISM-Series-VIII: Equity Derivatives Certification Examination National Institute of Securities Markets www.nism.ac.in 1 This workbook has been developed to assist candidat...

Workbook for NISM-Series-VIII: Equity Derivatives Certification Examination National Institute of Securities Markets www.nism.ac.in 1 This workbook has been developed to assist candidates in preparing for the National Institute of Securities Markets (NISM) NISM-Series-VIII: Equity Derivatives Certification Examination (NISM-Series-VIII: ED Examination). Workbook Version: April 2014 Published by: National Institute of Securities Markets © National Institute of Securities Markets, 2012 Plot 82, Sector 17, Vashi Navi Mumbai – 400 703, India All rights reserved. Reproduction of this publication in any form without prior permission of the publishers is strictly prohibited. 2 Disclaimer The contents of this publication do not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favouring by the National Institute of Securities Market (NISM) or the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI). This publication is meant for general reading and educational purpose only. It is not meant to serve as guide for investment. The views and opinions and statements of authors or publishers expressed herein do not constitute a personal recommendation or suggestion for any specific need of an Individual. It shall not be used for advertising or product endorsement purposes. The statements/explanations/concepts are of general nature and may not have taken into account the particular objective/ move/ aim/ need/ circumstances of individual user/ reader/ organization/ institute. Thus NISM and SEBI do not assume any responsibility for any wrong move or action taken based on the information available in this publication. Therefore before acting on or following the steps suggested on any theme or before following any recommendation given in this publication user/reader should consider/seek professional advice. The publication contains information, statements, opinions, statistics and materials that have been obtained from sources believed to be reliable and the publishers of this title have made best efforts to avoid any errors. However, publishers of this material offer no guarantees and warranties of any kind to the readers/users of the information contained in this publication. NISM and SEBI do not warrant the totality and absolute accuracy, adequacy or completeness of the information and material and expressly disclaim any liability for errors or omissions in this information and material herein. NISM and SEBI do not accept any legal liability what so ever based on any information contained herein. While the NISM Certification examination will be largely based on material in this workbook, NISM does not guarantee that all questions in the examination will be from material covered herein. 3 About NISM In pursuance of the announcement made by the Finance Minister in his Budget Speech in February 2005, Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has established the National Institute of Securities Markets (NISM) in Mumbai. SEBI, by establishing NISM, has articulated the desire expressed by the Indian government to promote securities market education and research. Towards accomplishing the desire of Government of India and vision of SEBI, NISM has launched an effort to deliver financial and securities education at various levels and across various segments in India and abroad. To implement its objectives, NISM has established six distinct schools to cater the educational needs of various constituencies such as investors, issuers, intermediaries, regulatory staff, policy makers, academia and future professionals of securities markets. NISM brings out various publications on securities markets with a view to enhance knowledge levels of participants in the securities industry. NISM is mandated to implement certification examinations for professionals employed in various segments of the Indian securities markets. 4 Acknowledgement This workbook has been developed by NISM in close cooperation with the Examination Committee for NISM-Series-VIII: Equity Derivatives Certification Examination (NISM- Series-VIII: ED Examination) consisting of representatives of National Stock Exchange India Ltd. (NSE) and Bombay Stock Exchange Ltd. (BSE). NISM gratefully acknowledges the contribution of all committee members. About the Author This workbook has been developed for NISM by Mr. Manish Bansal and Mr. Ashutosh Wakhare of Value Ideas Investment Services Pvt. Ltd. 5 About the NISM-Series-VIII: Equity Derivatives Certification Examination The examination seeks to create a common minimum knowledge benchmark for associated persons functioning as approved users and sales personnel of the trading member of an equity derivatives exchange or equity derivative segment of a recognized stock exchange. The examination aims to enable a better understanding of various derivatives products available in equity derivatives markets, regulations and risks associated with the products and the exchange mechanisms of clearing and settlement. The examination also covers knowledge competencies related to the understanding of the financial structure in India and the importance of the different rules and regulations governing the Indian securities market, especially those related to the equity derivatives segment. Examination Objectives On successful completion of the examination the candidate should: Know the basics of the Indian equity derivatives market. Understand the various trading strategies that can be built using futures and options on both stocks and stock indices. Understand the clearing, settlement and risk management as well as the operational mechanism related to equity derivatives markets. Know the regulatory environment in which the equity derivatives markets operate in India. Assessment Structure The NISM-Series-VIII: Equity Derivatives Certification Examination (NISM-Series-I: ED Examination) will be of 100 marks consisting of 100 questions of 1 mark each, and should be completed in 2 hours. There will be negative marking of 25% of the marks assigned to each question. The passing score for the examination is 60%. How to register and take the examination To find out more and register for the examination please visit www.nism.ac.in 6 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Basics of Derivatives...................................................................................9 1.1 Basics of Derivatives..................................................................................................... 9 1.2 Derivatives Market – History & Evolution.................................................................... 9 1.3 Indian Derivatives Market........................................................................................... 10 1.4 Market Participants.................................................................................................... 11 1.5 Types of Derivatives Market....................................................................................... 12 1.6 Significance of Derivatives.......................................................................................... 12 1.7 Various risks faced by the participants in derivatives................................................ 13 Chapter 2: Understanding Index................................................................................ 15 2.1 Introduction to Index.................................................................................................. 15 2.2 Significance of Index................................................................................................... 15 2.3 Types of Stock Market Indices.................................................................................... 15 2.4 Attributes of an Index................................................................................................. 18 2.5 Index management..................................................................................................... 19 2.6 Major Indices in India.................................................................................................. 20 2.7 Application of Indices.................................................................................................. 20 Chapter 3: Introduction to Forward and Futures........................................................ 21 3.1 Introduction to forward and futures Contracts.......................................................... 21 3.2 Pay off Charts for Futures contract............................................................................. 29 3.3 Futures pricing............................................................................................................ 31 3.4 Commodity, Equity & Index Futures........................................................................... 36 3.5 Uses of futures............................................................................................................ 37 Chapter 4: Introduction to Options............................................................................ 47 4.1 Basics of options......................................................................................................... 47 4.2 Pay off Charts for Options........................................................................................... 50 4.3 Basics of Option Pricing and Option Greeks............................................................... 58 4.4 Uses of Options........................................................................................................... 62 Chapter 5: Option Trading Strategies......................................................................... 69 5.1 Option Spreads............................................................................................................ 69 5.2 Straddle....................................................................................................................... 76 5.3 Strangle....................................................................................................................... 80 5.4 Covered Call................................................................................................................ 83 5.5 Protective Put............................................................................................................. 86 5.6 Collar........................................................................................................................... 87 5.7 Butterfly Spread.......................................................................................................... 89 7 Chapter 6: Introduction to Trading Systems............................................................... 93 6.1 Trading System............................................................................................................ 93 6.2 Selection criteria of Stocks for trading....................................................................... 97 6.3 Selection criteria of Index for trading....................................................................... 100 6.4 Adjustments for Corporate Actions.......................................................................... 100 6.5 Position Limit............................................................................................................ 102 6.6 Using Daily Newspapers to Track Futures and Options............................................ 104 Chapter 7: Introduction to Clearing and Settlement System..................................... 107 7.1 Clearing Members..................................................................................................... 107 7.2 Clearing Mechanism................................................................................................. 107 7.3 Settlement Mechanism............................................................................................. 108 7.4 Risk Management..................................................................................................... 111 7.5 Margining and mark to market under SPAN............................................................. 112 Chapter 8: Legal and Regulatory Environment......................................................... 119 8.1 Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956............................................................. 119 8.2 Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992................................................... 119 8.3 Regulation in Trading................................................................................................ 120 8.4 Regulations in Clearing & Settlement and Risk Management.................................. 122 8.5 Major recommendations of Dr. L. C. Gupta Committee........................................... 125 8.6 Major recommendations of Prof. J. R. Verma Committee....................................... 127 Chapter 9: Accounting and Taxation........................................................................ 129 9.1 Accounting................................................................................................................ 129 9.2 Taxation of derivative transaction in securities........................................................ 136 Chapter 10: Sales Practices and Investors Protection Services.................................. 139 10.1 Understanding risk profile of the client.................................................................. 140 10.2 Investors Grievance Mechanism............................................................................. 147 Appendix A: Sample Questions.….............................................................................152 8 Chapter 1: Basics of Derivatives 1.1 Basics of Derivatives Derivative is a contract or a product whose value is derived from value of some other asset known as underlying. Derivatives are based on wide range of underlying assets. These include: Metals such as Gold, Silver, Aluminium, Copper, Zinc, Nickel, Tin, Lead etc. Energy resources such as Oil (crude oil, products, cracks), Coal, Electricity, Natural Gas etc. Agri commodities such as wheat, Sugar, Coffee, Cotton, Pulses etc, and Financial assets such as Shares, Bonds and Foreign Exchange. 1.2 Derivatives Market – History & Evolution History of Derivatives may be mapped back to the several centuries. Some of the specific milestones in evolution of Derivatives Market Worldwide are given below: 12th Century- In European trade fairs, sellers signed contracts promising future delivery of the items they sold. 13th Century- There are many examples of contracts entered into by English Cistercian Monasteries, who frequently sold their wool up to 20 years in advance, to foreign merchants. 1634-1637 - Tulip Mania in Holland: Fortunes were lost in after a speculative boom in tulip futures burst. Late 17th Century - In Japan at Dojima, near Osaka, a futures market in rice was developed to protect rice producers from bad weather or warfare. In 1848, The Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) facilitated trading of forward contracts on various commodities. In 1865, the CBOT went a step further and listed the first ‘exchange traded” derivative contract in the US. These contracts were called ‘futures contracts”. In 1919, Chicago Butter and Egg Board, a spin-off of CBOT, was reorganised to allow futures trading. Later its name was changed to Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME). In 1972, Chicago Mercantile Exchange introduced International Monetary Market (IMM), which allowed trading in currency futures. In 1973, Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) became the first marketplace for trading listed options. In 1975, CBOT introduced Treasury bill futures contract. It was the first successful pure interest rate futures. In 1977, CBOT introduced T-bond futures contract. In 1982, CME introduced Eurodollar futures contract. In 1982, Kansas City Board of Trade launched the first stock index futures. 9 In 1983, Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) introduced option on stock indexes with the S&P 100® (OEX) and S&P 500® (SPXSM) Indexes. Factors influencing the growth of derivative market globally Over the last four decades, derivatives market has seen a phenomenal growth. Many derivative contracts were launched at exchanges across the world. Some of the factors driving the growth of financial derivatives are: Increased fluctuations in underlying asset prices in financial markets. Integration of financial markets globally. Use of latest technology in communications has helped in reduction of transaction costs. Enhanced understanding of market participants on sophisticated risk management tools to manage risk. Frequent innovations in derivatives market and newer applications of products. 1.3 Indian Derivatives Market As the initial step towards introduction of derivatives trading in India, SEBI set up a 24– member committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. L. C. Gupta on November 18, 1996 to develop appropriate regulatory framework for derivatives trading in India. The committee submitted its report on March 17, 1998 recommending that derivatives should be declared as ‘securities’ so that regulatory framework applicable to trading of ‘securities’ could also govern trading of derivatives. Subsequently, SEBI set up a group in June 1998 under the Chairmanship of Prof. J. R. Verma, to recommend measures for risk containment in derivatives market in India. The committee submitted its report in October 1998. It worked out the operational details of margining system, methodology for charging initial margins, membership details and net-worth criterion, deposit requirements and real time monitoring of positions requirements. In 1999, The Securities Contract Regulation Act (SCRA) was amended to include “derivatives” within the domain of ‘securities’ and regulatory framework was developed for governing derivatives trading. In March 2000, government repealed a three-decade- old notification, which prohibited forward trading in securities. The exchange traded derivatives started in India in June 2000 with SEBI permitting BSE and NSE to introduce equity derivative segment. To begin with, SEBI approved trading in index futures contracts based on CNX Nifty and BSE Sensex, which commenced trading in June 2000. Later, trading in Index options commenced in June 2001 and trading in options on individual stocks commenced in July 2001. Futures contracts on individual stocks started in November 2001. MCX-SX started trading in all these products (Futures and options on index SX40 and individual stocks) in February 2013. Products in Derivatives Market Forwards It is a contractual agreement between two parties to buy/sell an underlying asset at a certain future date for a particular price that is pre-decided on the date of contract. 10 Both the contracting parties are committed and are obliged to honour the transaction irrespective of price of the underlying asset at the time of delivery. Since forwards are negotiated between two parties, the terms and conditions of contracts are customized. These are Over-the-counter (OTC) contracts. Futures A futures contract is similar to a forward, except that the deal is made through an organized and regulated exchange rather than being negotiated directly between two parties. Indeed, we may say futures are exchange traded forward contracts. Options An Option is a contract that gives the right, but not an obligation, to buy or sell the underlying on or before a stated date and at a stated price. While buyer of option pays the premium and buys the right, writer/seller of option receives the premium with obligation to sell/ buy the underlying asset, if the buyer exercises his right. Swaps A swap is an agreement made between two parties to exchange cash flows in the future according to a prearranged formula. Swaps are, broadly speaking, series of forward contracts. Swaps help market participants manage risk associated with volatile interest rates, currency exchange rates and commodity prices. 1.4 Market Participants There are broadly three types of participants in the derivatives market - hedgers, traders (also called speculators) and arbitrageurs. An individual may play different roles in different market circumstances. Hedgers They face risk associated with the prices of underlying assets and use derivatives to reduce their risk. Corporations, investing institutions and banks all use derivative products to hedge or reduce their exposures to market variables such as interest rates, share values, bond prices, currency exchange rates and commodity prices. Speculators/Traders They try to predict the future movements in prices of underlying assets and based on the view, take positions in derivative contracts. Derivatives are preferred over underlying asset for trading purpose, as they offer leverage, are less expensive (cost of transaction is generally lower than that of the underlying) and are faster to execute in size (high volumes market). Arbitrageurs Arbitrage is a deal that produces profit by exploiting a price difference in a product in two different markets. Arbitrage originates when a trader purchases an asset cheaply in one location and simultaneously arranges to sell it at a higher price in another location. Such opportunities are unlikely to persist for very long, since arbitrageurs would rush in to these transactions, thus closing the price gap at different locations. 11 1.5 Types of Derivatives Market In the modern world, there is a huge variety of derivative products available. They are either traded on organised exchanges (called exchange traded derivatives) or agreed directly between the contracting counterparties over the telephone or through electronic media (called Over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives). Few complex products are constructed on simple building blocks like forwards, futures, options and swaps to cater to the specific requirements of customers. Over-the-counter market is not a physical marketplace but a collection of broker-dealers scattered across the country. Main idea of the market is more a way of doing business than a place. Buying and selling of contracts is matched through negotiated bidding process over a network of telephone or electronic media that link thousands of intermediaries. OTC derivative markets have witnessed a substantial growth over the past few years, very much contributed by the recent developments in information technology. The OTC derivative markets have banks, financial institutions and sophisticated market participants like hedge funds, corporations and high net-worth individuals. OTC derivative market is less regulated market because these transactions occur in private among qualified counterparties, who are supposed to be capable enough to take care of themselves. The OTC derivatives markets – transactions among the dealing counterparties, have following features compared to exchange traded derivatives: Contracts are tailor made to fit in the specific requirements of dealing counterparties. The management of counter-party (credit) risk is decentralized and located within individual institutions. There are no formal centralized limits on individual positions, leverage, or margining. There are no formal rules or mechanisms for risk management to ensure market stability and integrity, and for safeguarding the collective interest of market participants. Transactions are private with little or no disclosure to the entire market. On the contrary, exchange-traded contracts are standardized, traded on organized exchanges with prices determined by the interaction of buyers and sellers through anonymous auction platform. A clearing house/ clearing corporation, guarantees contract performance (settlement of transactions). 1.6 Significance of Derivatives Like other segments of Financial Market, Derivatives Market serves following specific functions: Derivatives market helps in improving price discovery based on actual valuations and expectations. Derivatives market helps in transfer of various risks from those who are exposed to risk but have low risk appetite to participants with high risk appetite. For 12 example hedgers want to give away the risk where as traders are willing to take risk. Derivatives market helps shift of speculative trades from unorganized market to organized market. Risk management mechanism and surveillance of activities of various participants in organized space provide stability to the financial system. 1.7 Various risks faced by the participants in derivatives Market Participants must understand that derivatives, being leveraged instruments, have risks like counterparty risk (default by counterparty), price risk (loss on position because of price move), liquidity risk (inability to exit from a position), legal or regulatory risk (enforceability of contracts), operational risk (fraud, inadequate documentation, improper execution, etc.) and may not be an appropriate avenue for someone of limited resources, trading experience and low risk tolerance. A market participant should therefore carefully consider whether such trading is suitable for him/her based on these parameters. Market participants, who trade in derivatives are advised to carefully read the Model Risk Disclosure Document, given by the broker to his clients at the time of signing agreement. Model Risk Disclosure Document is issued by the members of Exchanges and contains important information on trading in Equities and F&O Segments of exchanges. All prospective participants should read this document before trading on Capital Market/Cash Segment or F&O segment of the Exchanges. 13 This page has been intentionally kept blank 14 Chapter 2: Understanding Index 2.1 Introduction to Index Index is a statistical indicator that measures changes in the economy in general or in particular areas. In case of financial markets, an index is a portfolio of securities that represent a particular market or a portion of a market. Each Index has its own calculation methodology and usually is expressed in terms of a change from a base value. The base value might be as recent as the previous day or many years in the past. Thus, the percentage change is more important than the actual numeric value. Financial indices are created to measure price movement of stocks, bonds, T-bills and other type of financial securities. More specifically, a stock index is created to provide market participants with the information regarding average share price movement in the market. Broad indices are expected to capture the overall behaviour of equity market and need to represent the return obtained by typical portfolios in the country. 2.2 Significance of Index A stock index is an indicator of the performance of overall market or a particular sector. It serves as a benchmark for portfolio performance - Managed portfolios, belonging either to individuals or mutual funds; use the stock index as a measure for evaluation of their performance. It is used as an underlying for financial application of derivatives – Various products in OTC and exchange traded markets are based on indices as underlying asset. 2.3 Types of Stock Market Indices Indices can be designed and constructed in various ways. Depending upon their methodology, they can be classified as under: Market capitalization weighted index In this method of calculation, each stock is given weight according to its market capitalization. So higher the market capitalization of a constituent, higher is its weight in the index. Market capitalization is the market value of a company, calculated by multiplying the total number of shares outstanding to its current market price. For example, ABC company with 5,00,00,000 shares outstanding and a share price of Rs 120 per share will have market capitalization of 5,00,00,000 x 120 = Rs 6,00,00,00,000 i.e. 600 Crores. Let us understand the concept with the help of an example: There are five stocks in an index. Base value of the index is set to 100 on the start date which is January 1, 1995. Calculate the present value of index based on following information. 15 Stock price as Number Today’s Sr. Stock on January 1, of shares stock price No. Name 1995 (in Rs.) in lakhs (in Rs.) 1 AZ 150 20 650 2 BY 300 12 450 3 CX 450 16 600 4 DW 100 30 350 5 EU 250 8 500 Old Value New Value Shares Old M. of Portfolio New of portfolio Old in Cap (in Old (price * New M. New (price * Price Lakhs lakhs) weights weightage) price Cap weight weightage) 150 20 3000 0.16 23.94 650 13000 0.31 198.82 300 12 3600 0.19 57.45 450 5400 0.13 57.18 450 16 7200 0.38 172.34 600 9600 0.23 135.53 100 30 3000 0.16 15.96 350 10500 0.25 86.47 250 8 2000 0.11 26.60 500 4000 0.09 47.06 18800 1 296.28 42500 1 525.06 Market capitalization (Mcap) = Number of Shares * Market Price Old value of portfolio is equated to 100. Therefore, on that scale new value of portfolio would be (525.05/ 296.27)*100 = 177.22 Thus, the present value of Index under market capitalization weighted method is 177.22. Popular indices in India Sensex and Nifty were earlier designed on market capitalization weighted method. Free-Float Market Capitalization Index In various businesses, equity holding is divided differently among various stake holders – promoters, institutions, corporates, individuals etc. Market has started to segregate this on the basis of what is readily available for trading or what is not. The one available for immediate trading is categorized as free float. And, if we compute the index based on weights of each security based on free float market cap, it is called free float market capitalization index. Indeed, both Sensex and Nifty, over a period of time, have moved to free float basis. SX40, index of MCX-SX is also a free float market capitalization index. Price-Weighted Index A stock index in which each stock influences the index in proportion to its price. Stocks with a higher price will be given more weight and therefore, will have a greater influence over the performance of the Index. Let us take the same example for calculation of price-weighted index. 16 Stock price as Number Today’s Sr. Stock on January 1, of shares stock price No. Name 1995 (in Rs.) in lakhs (in Rs.) 1 AZ 150 20 650 2 BY 300 12 450 3 CX 450 16 600 4 DW 100 30 350 5 EU 250 8 500 Computation of the index would be as follows: Stock price as Price Today’s Price Stock on January 1, Price weighted stock price Price weighted Name 1995 (in Rs.) weights Prices (in Rs.) weights Prices AZ 150 0.12 18 650 0.254902 166 BY 300 0.24 72 450 0.176471 79 CX 450 0.36 162 600 0.235294 141 DW 100 0.08 8 350 0.137255 48 EU 250 0.2 50 500 0.196078 98 1250 310 2550 532 We equate 310 to 100 to find the current value, which would be (532/310)*100 = 171.7268 Dow Jones Industrial Average and Nikkei 225 are popular price-weighted indices. Equal Weighted Index An equally-weighted index makes no distinction between large and small companies, both of which are given equal weighting. The value of the index is generated by adding the prices of each stock in the index and dividing that by the total number of stocks. Let us take the same example for calculation of equal weighted index. Stock price as Number Today’s Sr. Stock on January 1, of shares stock price No. Name 1995 (in Rs.) in lakhs (in Rs.) 1 AZ 150 20 650 2 BY 300 12 450 3 CX 450 16 600 4 DW 100 30 350 5 EU 250 8 500 Base level of this index would be (150+300+450+100+250)/5 = 250. We equate this to 100. Current level of this index would be (650+450+600+350+500)/5 = 510. It means current level of index on the base of 100 would be (510/250)*100 = 204. 17 2.4 Attributes of an Index A good market index should have following attributes: It should reflect the market behaviour It should be computed by independent third party and be free from influence of any market participant It should be professionally maintained Impact Cost Liquidity in the context of stock market means a market where large orders are executed without moving the prices. Let us understand this with help of an example. The order book of a stock at a point in time is as follows: Buy Sell Sr. No. Quantity Price (in Rs.) Price (in Rs.) Quantity Sr. No. 1 1000 4.00 4.50 2000 5 2 1000 3.90 4.55 1000 6 3 2000 3.80 4.70 500 7 4 1000 3.70 4.75 100 8 In the order book given above, there are four buy orders and four sell orders. The difference between the best buy and the best sell orders is 0.50 - called bid-ask spread. If a person places a market buy order for 100 shares, it would be matched against the best available sell order at Rs. 4.50. He would buy 100 shares for Rs. 4.50. Similarly, if he places a market sell order for 100 shares, it would be matched against the best available buy order at Rs. 4 i.e. the shares would be sold at Rs.4.Hence, if a person buys 100 shares and sells them immediately, he is poorer by the bid-ask spread i.e. a loss of Rs 50. This spread is regarded as the transaction cost which the market charges for the privilege of trading (for a transaction size of 100 shares). Now, suppose a person wants to buy and then sell 3000 shares. The sell order will hit the following buy orders: Sr. No. Quantity Price (in Rs.) 1 1000 4.00 2 1000 3.90 3 1000 3.80 While the buy order will hit the following sell orders: Quantity Price (in Rs.) Sr. No. 2000 4.50 1 1000 4.55 2 There is increase in the transaction cost for an order size of 3000 shares in comparison to the transaction cost for order for 100 shares. The “bid-ask spread” therefore conveys transaction cost for small trade. 18 Now, we come across the term called impact cost. We have to start by defining the ideal price as the average of the best bid and offer price. In our example it is (4+4.50)/2, i.e. Rs. 4.25. In an infinitely liquid market, it would be possible to execute large transactions on both buy and sell at prices that are very close to the ideal price of Rs.4.25. However, while actually trading, you will pay more than Rs.4.25 per share while buying and will receive less than Rs.4.25 per share while selling. Percentage degradation, which is experienced vis-à-vis the ideal price, when shares are bought or sold, is called impact cost. Impact cost varies with transaction size. Also, it would be different for buy side and sell side. Buy Quantity Buy Price (in Rs.) Sell Price (in Rs.) Sell Quantity 1000 9.80 9.90 1000 2000 9.70 10.00 1500 3000 9.60 10.10 1000 To buy 1500 shares, Ideal price = (9.8+9.9)/ 2 = Rs.9.85 Actual buy price = [(1000*9.9)+(500*10.00)]/1500 = Rs.9.93 Impact cost for (1500 shares) = {(9.93 - 9.85)/9.85}*100 = 0.84 % 2.5 Index management Index construction, maintenance and revision process is generally done by specialized agencies. For instance, all NSE indices are managed by a separate company called “India Index Services and Products Ltd. (IISL)”, a joint venture between Standard and Poor’s (S&P), National Stock Exchange (NSE) and CRISIL Ltd. (Now a part of Standard & Poor’s). Index construction is all about choosing the index stocks and deciding on the index calculation methodology. Maintenance means adjusting the index for corporate actions like bonus issue, rights issue, stock split, consolidation, mergers etc. Revision of index deals with change in the composition of index as such i.e. replacing some existing stocks by the new ones because of change in the trading paradigm of the stocks / interest of market participants. Index Construction A good index is a trade-off between diversification and liquidity. A well diversified index reflects the behaviour of the overall market/ economy. While diversification helps in reducing risk, beyond a point it may not help in the context. Going from 10 stocks to 20 stocks gives a sharp reduction in risk. Going from 50 stocks to 100 stocks gives very little reduction in risk. Going beyond 100 stocks gives almost zero reduction in risk. Hence, there is little to gain by diversifying beyond a point. Stocks in the index are chosen based on certain pre-determined qualitative and quantitative parameters, laid down by the Index Construction Managers. Once a stock satisfies the eligibility criterion, it is entitled for inclusion in the index. Generally, final decision of inclusion or removal of a security from the index is taken by a specialized committee known as Index Committee. Index Maintenance and Index Revision 19 Maintenance and Revision of the indices is done with the help of various mathematical formulae. In order to keep the index comparable across time, the index needs to take into account corporate actions such as stock splits, share issuance, dividends and restructuring events. While index maintenance issue gets triggered by a corporate action, index revision is an unabated phenomenon to ensure that index captures the most vibrant lot of securities in the market and continues to correctly reflect the market. 2.6 Major Indices in India These are few popular indices in India. BSE Sensex CNX Nifty SX 40 BSE Midcap CNX Nifty Junior BSE-100 CNX Defty BSE-200 CNX Midcap BSE-500 CNX 500 2.7 Application of Indices Traditionally, indices were used as a measure to understand the overall direction of stock market. However, few applications on index have emerged in the investment field. Few of the applications are explained below. Index Funds These types of funds invest in a specific index with an objective to generate returns equivalent to the return on index. These funds invest in index stocks in the proportions in which these stocks exist in the index. For instance, Sensex index fund would get the similar returns as that of Sensex index. Since Sensex has 30 shares, the fund will also invest in these 30 companies in the proportion in which they exist in the Sensex. Index Derivatives Index Derivatives are derivative contracts which have the index as the underlying asset. Index Options and Index Futures are the most popular derivative contracts worldwide. Index derivatives are useful as a tool to hedge against the market risk. Exchange Traded Funds Exchange Traded Funds (ETFs) is basket of securities that trade like individual stock, on an exchange. They have number of advantages over other mutual funds as they can be bought and sold on the exchange. Since, ETFs are traded on exchanges intraday transaction is possible. Further, ETFs can be used as basket trading in terms of the smaller denomination and low transaction cost. The first ETF in Indian Securities Market was the Nifty BeES, introduced by the Benchmark Mutual Fund in December 2001. Prudential ICICI Mutual Fund introduced SPIcE in January 2003, which was the first ETF on Sensex. 20 Chapter 3: Introduction to Forward and Futures 3.1 Introduction to forward and futures Contracts Forward contract is an agreement made directly between two parties to buy or sell an asset on a specific date in the future, at the terms decided today. Forwards are widely used in commodities, foreign exchange, equity and interest rate markets. Let us understand with the help of an example. What is the basic difference between cash market and forwards? Assume on March 9, 2009 you wanted to purchase gold from a goldsmith. The market price for gold on March 9, 2009 was Rs. 15,425 for 10 gram and goldsmith agrees to sell you gold at market price. You paid him Rs.15, 425 for 10 gram of gold and took gold. This is a cash market transaction at a price (in this case Rs.15, 425) referred to as spot price. Now suppose you do not want to buy gold on March 9, 2009, but only after 1 month. Goldsmith quotes you Rs.15, 450 for 10 grams of gold. You agree to the forward price for 10 grams of gold and go away. Here, in this example, you have bought forward or you are long forward, whereas the goldsmith has sold forwards or short forwards. There is no exchange of money or gold at this point of time. After 1 month, you come back to the goldsmith pay him Rs. 15,450 and collect your gold. This is a forward, where both the parties are obliged to go through with the contract irrespective of the value of the underlying asset (in this case gold) at the point of delivery. Essential features of a forward are: It is a contract between two parties (Bilateral contract). All terms of the contract like price, quantity and quality of underlying, delivery terms like place, settlement procedure etc. are fixed on the day of entering into the contract. In other words, Forwards are bilateral over-the-counter (OTC) transactions where the terms of the contract, such as price, quantity, quality, time and place are negotiated between two parties to the contract. Any alteration in the terms of the contract is possible if both parties agree to it. Corporations, traders and investing institutions extensively use OTC transactions to meet their specific requirements. The essential idea of entering into a forward is to fix the price and thereby avoid the price risk. Thus, by entering into forwards, one is assured of the price at which one can buy/sell an underlying asset. In the above-mentioned example, if on April 9, 2009 the gold trades at Rs. 15,500 in the cash market, the forward contract becomes favourable to you because you can then purchase gold at Rs. 15,450 under the contract and sell in cash market at Rs. 15,500 i.e. net profit of Rs. 50. Similarly, if the spot price is 15,390 then you incur loss of Rs. 60 (buy price – sell price). 21 Major limitations of forwards Liquidity Risk Liquidity is nothing but the ability of the market participants to buy or sell the desired quantity of an underlying asset. As forwards are tailor made contracts i.e. the terms of the contract are according to the specific requirements of the parties, other market participants may not be interested in these contracts. Forwards are not listed or traded on exchanges, which makes it difficult for other market participants to easily access these contracts or contracting parties. The tailor made contracts and their non- availability on exchanges creates illiquidity in the contracts. Therefore, it is very difficult for parties to exit from the forward contract before the contract’s maturity. Counterparty risk Counterparty risk is the risk of an economic loss from the failure of counterparty to fulfil its contractual obligation. For example, A and B enter into a bilateral agreement, where A will purchase 100 kg of rice at Rs.20 per kg from B after 6 months. Here, A is counterparty to B and vice versa. After 6 months, if price of rice is Rs.30 in the market then B may forego his obligation to deliver 100 kg of rice at Rs.20 to A. Similarly, if price of rice falls to Rs.15 then A may purchase from the market at a lower price, instead of honouring the contract. Thus, a party to the contract may default on his obligation if there is incentive to default. This risk is also called default risk or credit risk. In addition to the illiquidity and counterparty risks, there are several issues like lack of transparency, settlement complications as it is to be done directly between the contracting parties. Simple solution to all these issues lies in bringing these contracts to the centralized trading platform. This is what futures contracts do. Futures contract Futures markets were innovated to overcome the limitations of forwards. A futures contract is an agreement made through an organized exchange to buy or sell a fixed amount of a commodity or a financial asset on a future date at an agreed price. Simply, futures are standardised forward contracts that are traded on an exchange. The clearinghouse associated with the exchange guarantees settlement of these trades. A trader, who buys futures contract, takes a long position and the one, who sells futures, takes a short position. The words buy and sell are figurative only because no money or underlying asset changes hand, between buyer and seller, when the deal is signed. Features of futures contract In futures market, exchange decides all the contract terms of the contract other than price. Accordingly, futures contracts have following features: Contract between two parties through Exchange Centralised trading platform i.e. exchange Price discovery through free interaction of buyers and sellers Margins are payable by both the parties Quality decided today (standardized ) Quantity decided today (standardized) 22 Futures terminologies Let us understand various terms in the futures market with the help of quotes on Nifty futures from NSE: Quotes given on the NSE website for Nifty futures as on August 9, 2010 1. Instrument type : Future Index 2. Underlying asset : Nifty 3. Expiry date : August 26, 2010 4. Open price (in Rs.) : 5448 5. High price (in Rs.) : 5489.40 6. Low price (in Rs.) : 5436.75 7. Closing price (in Rs.) : 5482 8. Last Traded price (in Rs.) : 5478.50 9. No of contracts traded : 228447 10. Turnover in lakhs : 624319.03 11. Underlying value (in Rs.) : 5486.15 12. Open Interest : 32062850 Spot Price: The price at which an asset trades in the cash market. This is the underlying value of Nifty on August 9, 2010 which is 5486.15. Futures Price: The price of the futures contract in the futures market. The closing price of Nifty in futures trading is Rs. 5482. Thus Rs. 5482 is the future price of Nifty, on a closing basis. Contract Cycle: It is a period over which a contract trades. On August 9, 2010, the maximum number of index futures contracts is of 3 months contract cycle- the near month (August 2010), the next month (September 2010) and the far month (October 2010). Every futures contract expires on last Thursday of respective month (in this case August 26, 2010). And, a new contract (in this example - November 2010) is introduced on the trading day following the expiry day of the near month contract (in this example – on August 27, 2010). Expiration Day: The day on which a derivative contract ceases to exist. It is last trading day of the contract. The expiry date in the quotes given is August 26, 2010. It is the last Thursday of the expiry month. If the last Thursday is a trading holiday, the contracts expire on the previous trading day. On expiry date, all the contracts are compulsorily settled. If a contract is to be continued then it must be rolled to the near future contract. For a long position, this means selling the expiring contract and buying the next contract. Both the sides of a roll over should be executed at the same time. Currently, all equity derivatives contracts (both on indices and individual stocks) on NSE are cash settled whereas on BSE, derivative contracts on indices are cash settled while the contracts on individual stocks are delivery settled. Tick Size: It is minimum move allowed in the price quotations. Exchanges decide the tick sizes on traded contracts as part of contract specification. Tick size for Nifty futures is 5 23 paisa. Bid price is the price buyer is willing to pay and ask price is the price seller is willing to sell. Contract Size and contract value: Futures contracts are traded in lots and to arrive at the contract value we have to multiply the price with contract multiplier or lot size or contract size. For CNX Nifty, lot size is 50, for Sensex Index futures contract, it is 15 and for SX40 futures contract on MCX-SX, it is 25. For individual stocks, it varies from one stock to another. The lot size changes from time to time. In the Nifty quotes given above, contract value would be equal to Nifty Futures Price * Lot Size = 5482 * 50 = Rs.2,74,100. Basis: The difference between the spot price and the futures price is called basis. If the futures price is greater than spot price, basis for the asset is negative. Similarly, if the spot price is greater than futures price, basis for the asset is positive. On August 9, 2010, spot price > future price thus basis for nifty futures is positive i.e. (5486.15-5482 = Rs.4.15). Importantly, basis for one-month contract would be different from the basis for two or three month contracts. Therefore, definition of basis is incomplete until we define the basis vis-a-vis a futures contract i.e. basis for one month contract, two months contract etc. It is also important to understand that the basis difference between say one month and two months futures contract should essentially be equal to the cost of carrying the underlying asset between first and second month. Indeed, this is the fundamental of linking various futures and underlying cash market prices together. During the life of the contract, the basis may become negative or positive, as there is a movement in the futures price and spot price. Further, whatever the basis is, positive or negative, it turns to zero at maturity of the futures contract i.e. there should not be any difference between futures price and spot price at the time of maturity/ expiry of contract. This happens because final settlement of futures contracts on last trading day takes place at the closing price of the underlying asset. It may be noted that we also have global indices being traded on BSE and NSE denominated in Indian Rupees. For example, NSE has derivative contracts on S&P 500, Dowjones & FTSE100 whereas BSE has derivative contracts on iBovespa (Brazilian index), MICEX (Russian index), Hang Seng (Hongkong index) & FTSE / JSE Top40 (South African index). The National Stock Exchange has also launched future contracts on India Volatility Index (VIX) enabling traders to hedge market risk arising out of volatility in Feb. 2014. Other exchanges are also working on introducing derivative contracts on volatility index. Cost of Carry Cost of Carry is the relationship between futures prices and spot prices. It measures the storage cost (in commodity markets) plus the interest that is paid to finance or ‘carry’ the asset till delivery less the income earned on the asset during the holding period. For equity derivatives, carrying cost is the interest paid to finance the purchase less (minus) dividend earned. 24 For example, assume the share of ABC Ltd is trading at Rs. 100 in the cash market. A person wishes to buy the share, but does not have money. In that case he would have to borrow Rs. 100 at the rate of, say, 6% per annum. Suppose that he holds this share for one year and in that year he expects the company to give 200% dividend on its face value of Rs. 1 i.e. dividend of Rs. 2. Thus his net cost of carry = Interest paid – dividend received = 6 – 2 = Rs. 4. Therefore, break even futures price for him should be Rs.104. It is important to note that cost of carry will be different for different participants. Margin Account As exchange guarantees the settlement of all the trades, to protect itself against default by either counterparty, it charges various margins from brokers. Brokers in turn charge margins from their customers. Brief about margins is as follows: Initial Margin The amount one needs to deposit in the margin account at the time entering a futures contract is known as the initial margin. Let us take an example - On August 7, 2010 a person decided to enter into a futures contract. He expects the market to go up so he takes a long Nifty Futures position for August expiry. On August 7, 2010 Nifty closes at 5439.25. The contract value = Nifty futures price * lot size = 5439.25 * 50 = Rs.2,71,962.50. Therefore, Rs 2,71,962.50 is the contract value of one Nifty Future contract expiring on August 26, 2010. Assuming that the broker charges 10% of the contract value as initial margin, the person has to pay him Rs. 27,196.25 as initial margin. Both buyers and sellers pay initial margin, as there is an obligation on both the parties to honour the contract. The initial margin is dependent on price movement of the underlying asset. As high volatility assets carry more risk, exchange would charge higher initial margin on them. Marking to Market (MTM) In futures market, while contracts have maturity of several months, profits and losses are settled on day-to-day basis – called mark to market (MTM) settlement. The exchange collects these margins (MTM margins) from the loss making participants and pays to the gainers on day-to-day basis. Let us understand MTM with the help of the example. Suppose a person bought a futures contract on August 7, 2010, when Nifty was 5439.25. He paid an initial margin of Rs.27196.25 as calculated above. Next trading day i.e. August 8, 2010 Nifty futures contract closes at 5482. This means that he benefits due to the 42.75 points gain on Nifty futures contract. Thus, his net gain is of Rs. 2137.5 (42.75 * 50). This money will be credited to his account and next day the position will start from 5482. Open Interest and Volumes Traded 25 An open interest is the total number of contracts outstanding (yet to be settled) for an underlying asset. The quotes given above show us on August 9, 2010 Nifty futures has an open Interest of 32062850. It is important to understand that number of long futures as well as number of short futures is 32062850. This is because total number of long futures will always be equal to total number of short futures. Only one side of contracts is considered while calculating/ mentioning open interest. On August 8, 2010, the open interest in Nifty futures was 30959200. This means that there is an increase of 1103650 in the open interest on August 9, 2010. The level of open interest indicates depth in the market. Volumes traded give us an idea about the market activity with regards to specific contract over a given period – volume over a day, over a week or month or over entire life of the contract. Contract Specifications Contract specifications include the salient features of a derivative contract like contract maturity, contract multiplier also referred to as lot size, contract size, tick size etc. An example contract specification is given below: NSE’s Nifty Index Futures Contracts Underlying index CNX Nifty Contract Multiplier (Lot size) 50 Tick size or minimum price 0.05 index point (i.e., Re 0.05 or 5 paise) difference Last trading day/ Expiration day Last Thursday of the expiration month. If it happens to be a holiday, the contract will expire on the previous business day. Contract months 3 contracts of 1, 2 and 3 month’s maturity. At the expiry of the nearest month contract, a new contract with 3 months maturity will start. Thus, at any point of time, there will be 3 contracts available for trading. Daily settlement price Settlement price of the respective futures contract. Final settlement price Settlement price of the cash index on the expiry date of the futures contract. Price band Price Band is essentially the price range within which a contract is permitted to trade during a day. The band is calculated with regard to previous day closing price of a specific contract. For example, previous day closing price of a contract is Rs.100 and price band for the contract is 10% then the contract can trade between Rs.90 and Rs.110 for next trading day. On the first trading day of the contract, the price band is decided based on the closing price of the underlying asset in cash market. For example, Today is first trading day of a futures contract for an underlying asset i.e. company A. The price band for the contract is decided on the previous day’s closing price of 26 company ‘A’ stock in cash market. Price band is clearly defined in the contract specifications so that all market participants are aware of the same in advance. Sometimes, bands are allowed to be expanded at the discretion of the exchanges with specific trading halts. Positions in derivatives market As a market participant, you will always deal with certain terms like long, short and open positions in the market. Let us understand the meanings of commonly used terms: Long position Outstanding/ unsettled buy position in a contract is called “Long Position”. For instance, if Mr. X buys 5 contracts on Sensex futures then he would be long on 5 contracts on Sensex futures. If Mr. Y buys 4 contracts on Pepper futures then he would be long on 4 contracts on pepper. Short Position Outstanding/ unsettled sell position in a contract is called “Short Position”. For instance, if Mr. X sells 5 contracts on Sensex futures then he would be short on 5 contracts on Sensex futures. If Mr. Y sells 4 contracts on Pepper futures then he would be short on 4 contracts on pepper. Open position Outstanding/ unsettled either long (buy) or short (sell) position in various derivative contracts is called “Open Position”. For instance, if Mr. X shorts say 5 contracts on Infosys futures and longs say 3 contracts on Reliance futures, he is said to be having open position, which is equal to short on 5 contracts on Infosys and long on 3 contracts of Reliance. If next day, he buys 2 Infosys contracts of same maturity, his open position would be – short on 3 Infosys contracts and long on 3 Reliance contracts. Naked and calendar spread positions Naked position in futures market simply means a long or short position in any futures contract without having any position in the underlying asset. Calendar spread position is a combination of two positions in futures on the same underlying - long on one maturity contract and short on a different maturity contract. For instance, a short position in near month contract coupled with a long position in far month contract is a calendar spread position. Calendar spread position is computed with respect to the near month series and becomes an open position once the near month contract expires or either of the offsetting positions is closed. A calendar spread is always defined with regard to the relevant months i.e. spread between August contract and September contract, August contract and October contract and September contract and October contract etc. Opening a position Opening a position means either buying or selling a contract, which increases client’s open position (long or short). 27 Closing a position Closing a position means either buying or selling a contract, which essentially results in reduction of client’s open position (long or short). A client is said to be closed a position if he sells a contract which he had bought before or he buys a contract which he had sold earlier. Limitations of Futures Contract As futures are standardized contracts introduced by the exchanges, they too have certain limitations in the context of limited maturities, limited underlying set, lack of flexibility in contract design and increased administrative costs on account of MTM settlement etc. Differences between Forwards and Futures Feature Forward contracts Futures contracts Operational It is not traded on the It is an exchange-traded mechanism exchanges. contract. Contract Terms of the contracts differ Terms of the contracts are specifications from trade to trade (tailor made standardized. contract) according to the need of the participants. Counter-party Exists, but at times gets reduced Exists but the clearing agency risk by a guarantor. associated with exchanges becomes the counter-party to all trades assuring guarantee on their settlement. Liquidation Low, as contracts are tailor High, as contracts are profile made catering to the needs of standardised exchange-traded the parties involved. Further, contracts. contracts are not easily accessible to other market participants. Price discovery Not Efficient, as markets are Efficient, centralised trading scattered. platform helps all buyers and sellers to come together and discover the price through common order book. Quality of Quality of information may be Futures are traded nationwide. information poor. Speed of information Every bit of decision related and its dissemination is week. information is distributed very dissemination fast. 28 Examples Currency markets are an Commodities futures, Currency example of forwards. Today futures, Index futures and currency futures and options Individual stock futures in India. have been introduced in India, but yet a market for currency forwards exists through banks. 3.2 Pay off Charts for Futures contract Pay off Charts Pay off on a position is the likely profit/ loss that would accrue to a market participant with change in the price of the underlying asset at expiry. The pay off diagram is graphical representation showing the price of the underlying asset on the X-axis and profits/ losses on the Y-axis. Pay off charts for futures In case of futures contracts, long as well as short position has unlimited profit or loss potential. This results into linear pay offs for futures contracts. Futures pay offs are explained in detail below: Pay off for buyer of futures: Long futures Let us say a person goes long in a futures contract at Rs.100. This means that he has agreed to buy the underlying at Rs. 100 on expiry. Now, if on expiry, the price of the underlying is Rs. 150, then this person will buy at Rs. 100, as per the futures contract and will immediately be able to sell the underlying in the cash market at Rs.150, thereby making a profit of Rs. 50. Similarly, if the price of the underlying falls to Rs. 70 at expiry, he would have to buy at Rs. 100, as per the futures contract, and if sell the same in the cash market, he would receive only Rs. 70, translating into a loss of Rs. 30. This potential profit/ loss at expiry when expressed graphically, is known as a pay off chart. The X Axis has the market price of the underlying at expiry. It increases on the Right Hand Side (RHS). We do not draw the X Axis on the Left Hand Side (LHS), as prices cannot go below zero. The Y Axis shows profit & loss. In the upward direction, we have profits and in the downward direction, we show losses in the chart. The below table and pay off chart show long futures pay offs: Long Futures at 100 Market price Long Futures at expiry Pay off 50 -50 60 -40 70 -30 80 -20 90 -10 100 0 29 110 10 120 20 130 30 140 40 150 50 60 Long Futures Payoff 40 20 Profit/Loss (Rs.) 0 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 CMP @ Expiry -20 -40 Long Futures Payoff -60 Short Futures pay off As one person goes long, some other person has to go short, otherwise a deal will not take place. The profits and losses for the short futures position will be exactly opposite of the long futures position. This is shown in the below table and chart: Short Futures at 100 Market price Short Futures at expiry Pay off 50 50 60 40 70 30 80 20 90 10 100 0 110 -10 120 -20 130 -30 140 -40 150 -50 30 60 Short Futures Payoff 40 20 Profit/Loss (Rs.) 0 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 CMP @ Expiry -20 -40 Short Futures Payoff -60 As can be seen, a short futures position makes profits when prices fall. If prices fall to 60 at expiry, the person who has shorted at Rs.100 will buy from the market at 60 on expiry and sell at 100, thereby making a profit of Rs. 40. This is shown in the above chart. 3.3 Futures pricing Pricing of a futures contract depends on the characteristics of underlying asset. There is no single way to price futures contracts because different assets have different demand and supply patterns, different characteristics and cash flow patterns. This makes it difficult to design a single methodology for calculation of pricing of futures contracts. Market participants use different models for pricing futures. Here, our discussion is limited to only two popular models of futures pricing - Cash and Carry model and Expectancy model. Cash and Carry Model for Futures Pricing Cash and Carry model is also known as non-arbitrage model. This model assumes that in an efficient market, arbitrage opportunities cannot exist. In other words, the moment there is an opportunity to make money in the market due to mispricing in the asset price and its replicas, arbitrageurs will start trading to profit from these mispricing and thereby eliminating these opportunities. This trading continues until the prices are aligned across the products/ markets for replicating assets. Let us understand the entire concept with the help of an example. Practically, forward/ futures position in a stock can be created in following manners: Enter into a forward/futures contract, or 31 Create a synthetic forward/futures position by buying in the cash market and carrying the asset to future date. Price of acquiring the asset as on future date in both the cases should be same i.e. cost of synthetic forward/ futures contract (spot price + cost of carrying the asset from today to the future date) should be equivalent to the price of present forward/ futures contract. If prices are not same then it will trigger arbitrage and will continue until prices in both the markets are aligned. The cost of creating a synthetic futures position is a fair price of futures contract. Fair price of futures contract is nothing but addition of spot price of underlying asset and cost of carrying the asset from today until delivery. Cost of carrying a financial asset from today to the future date would entail different costs like transaction cost, custodial charges, financing cost etc whereas for commodities, it would also include costs like warehousing cost, insurance cost etc. Let us take an example from Bullion Market. The spot price of gold is Rs 15000 per 10 grams. The cost of financing, storage and insurance for carrying the gold for three months is Rs. 100 per 10 gram. Now you purchase 10 gram of gold from the market at Rs 15000 and hold it for three months. We may now say that the value of the gold after 3 months would be Rs 15100 per 10 gram. Assume the 3-month futures contract on gold is trading at Rs 15150 per 10 gram. What should one do? Apparently, one should attempt to exploit the arbitrage opportunity present in the gold market by buying gold in the cash market and sell 3-month gold futures simultaneously. We borrow money to take delivery of gold in cash market today, hold it for 3 months and deliver it in the futures market on the expiry of our futures contract. Amount received on honouring the futures contract would be used to repay the financer of our gold purchase. The net result will be a profit of Rs 50 without taking any risk. (In the entire process, we have not considered any transaction cost-brokerage etc.) Because of this mispricing, as more and more people come to the cash market to buy gold and sell in futures market, spot gold price will go up and gold futures price will come down. This arbitrage opportunity continues until the prices between cash and futures markets are aligned. Therefore, if futures price is more than the future fair price of asset/ synthetic futures price, it will trigger cash and carry arbitrage, which will continue until the prices in both the markets are aligned. Similarly, if futures prices is less than the future fair price of asset/ synthetic futures price, it will trigger reverse cash and carry arbitrage i.e. market participants start buying gold in futures markets and sell gold in cash market. Now people will borrow gold and deliver it to honour the contract in the cash market and earn interest on the cash market sales proceeds. After three months, they give gold back to the lender on receipt of the same in futures market. This reverse arbitrage will result in reduction of gold’s 32 spot price and increase of its futures price, until these prices are aligned to leave no money on the table. Cost of transaction and non-arbitrage bound Cost components of futures transaction like margins, transaction costs (commissions), taxes etc. create distortions and take markets away from equilibrium. In fact, these cost components create a non-arbitrage bound in the market i.e. if the futures price is within that bound around the future fair value/ synthetic futures value, arbitrage will not take place. In other words, because of the frictions in the market, for arbitrage to get triggered, it is important for the futures price to fall beyond the non arbitrage bound in either direction for the arbitragers to make profit from the arbitrage opportunities. Fair Price Non arbitrage bound Practically, every component of carrying cost contributes towards widening this non- arbitrage bound. Here, we should appreciate that wider the non-arbitrage bound, farther the markets are from the equilibrium. In other words, for markets to be efficient, different costs of operating in the markets should be as low as possible. Lower costs would narrow down the non-arbitrage bound, which in-turn would ensure the efficient price alignment across the markets. Extension of cash & carry model to the assets generating returns Let us extend the concept of cash and carry model by adding the inflows during the holding period of underlying assets. For instance, underlying asset like securities (equity or bonds) may have certain inflows, like dividend on equity and interest on debt instruments, during the holding period. These inflows are adjusted in the future fair price. Thus, modified formula of future fair price or synthetic futures price is: Fair price = Spot price + Cost of carry - Inflows In mathematical terms, F = S (1+r-q)T Where F is fair price of the futures contract, S is the Spot price of the underlying asset, q is expected return during holding period T (in years) and r is cost of carry. If we use the continuous compounding, we may rewrite the formula as: F= Se(r-q)*T Let us apply the above formula to the index futures market to find the synthetic futures price/ future fair price of an index. Suppose , you buy index in cash market at 5000 level i.e. purchase of all the stocks constituting the index in the same proportion as they are in the index, cost of financing is 12% and the return on index is 4% per annum (spread uniformly across the year). Given this statistics, fair price of index three months down the line should be: = Spot price (1+cost of financing – holding period return) ^ (time to expiration/365) 33 = 5000 (1+0.12-0.04)^(90/365) = Rs. 5095.79 [Alternatively, we could use exponential form for calculating the futures value as spot price * e(r-q)T. Value in that case would have been 5000 * e((0.12-0.04)*90/365) = Rs. 5099.61]. If index futures is trading above 5099, we can buy index stocks in cash market and simultaneously sell index futures to lock the gains equivalent to the difference between futures price and future fair price (the cost of transaction, taxes, margins etc. are not considered while calculating the future fair value). Note: Cost of borrowing of funds and securities, return expectations on the held asset etc. are different for the different market participants. The number of fair values of futures can be equal to the number of market participants in the market. Perhaps the difference among the fair values of futures contracts and non-arbitrage bound for different market participants is what makes the market on continuous basis. Assumptions in cash and carry model Cash and carry model of futures pricing works under certain assumptions. The important assumptions are stated below:* Underlying asset is available in abundance in cash market. Demand and supply in the underlying asset is not seasonal. Holding and maintaining of underlying asset is easy and feasible. Underlying asset can be sold short. No transaction costs. No taxes. No margin requirements. [*This is not an exhaustive list of the assumptions of the model] The assumption that underlying asset is available in abundance in the cash market i.e. we can buy and/or sell as many units of the underlying assets as we want. This assumption does not work especially when underlying asset has seasonal pattern of demand and supply. The prices of seasonal assets (especially commodities) vary drastically in different demand-supply environments. When supplies arrive to the market place, prices are generally low whereas prices are generally high immediately before the supply of the underlying. When an underlying asset is not storable i.e. the asset is not easy to hold/maintain, then one cannot carry the asset to the future. The cash and carry model is not applicable to these types of underlying assets. Similarly, many a times, the underlying may not be sold short. This is true in case of seasonal commodities. Even though this simple form of cash and carry model does not discount for transaction cost, taxes etc. we can always upgrade the formula to reflect the impact of these factors in the model. Margins are not considered while delivering the fair value/ synthetic futures value. That is why this model is suitable for pricing forward contracts rather than futures contracts. 34 Thus, no generalized statement can be made with regard to the use of cash and carry model for pricing futures contracts. Assumptions of the model and characteristics of underlying asset can help us in deciding whether a specific asset can be priced with the help of this model or not. Further, suitable adjustments are made in the model to fit in the specific requirements of the underlying assets. Convenience Yield Let us touch one more concept in futures market called Convenience Yield. We need to go back and have a look at the formula for fair price of futures contract. Fair price of futures contract = Spot price + Cost of carry – Inflows As seen earlier inflows may be in the form of dividend (in case of equity) and interest (in case of debt). However, sometimes inflows may also be intangibles. Intangible inflows essentially mean values perceived by the market participants just by holding the asset. These values may be in the form of just convenience or perceived mental comfort by holding the asset. For instance, in case of natural disaster like flood in a particular region, people start storing essential commodities like grains, vegetables and energy products (heating oil) etc. As a human tendency we store more than what is required for our real consumption during a crisis. If every person behaves in similar way then suddenly a demand is created for an underlying asset in the cash market. This indirectly increases the price of underlying assets. In such situations people are deriving convenience, just by holding the asset. This is termed as convenience return or convenience yield. Convenience return for a commodity is likely to be different for different people, depending on the way they use it. Further, it may vary over a period. In fact, convenience is a subjective issue and may be very difficult to price. Convenience yield sometimes may dominate the cost of carry, which leads futures to trade at a discount to the cash market. In this case, reverse arbitrage is also not possible because no one lends traders the assets to sell short in the cash market. In such situations, practically, the cash and carry model breaks down and cannot be applied for pricing the underlying assets. Expectancy model of futures pricing According to the expectancy model, it is not the relationship between spot and futures prices but that of expected spot and futures prices, which moves the market, especially in cases when the asset cannot be sold short or cannot be stored. It also argues that futures price is nothing but the expected spot price of an asset in the future. This is why market participants would enter futures contract and price the futures based upon their estimates of the future spot prices of the underlying assets. According to this model, Futures can trade at a premium or discount to the spot price of underlying asset. Futures price give market participants an indication of the expected direction of movement of the spot price in the future. 35 For instance, if futures price is higher than spot price of an underlying asset, market participants may expect the spot price to go up in near future. This expectedly rising market is called “Contango market”. Similarly, if futures price are lower than spot price of an asset, market participants may expect the spot price to come down in future. This expectedly falling market is called “Backwardation market”. Price discovery and convergence of cash and futures prices on the expiry It is important to understand what actually futures prices indicate? For instance, if say Jan. 2008 index futures contract is trading today (in December 2007) at 6200, what does it mean. We can explain this by saying that that market expects the cash index to settle at 6200 at the closure of the market on last Thursday (last trading day of the contract). Point is that every participant in the market is trying to predict the cash index level at a single point in time i.e. at the closure of the market on last trading day of the contract, which is Thursday in our example. This results in price discovery of cash index at a specific point in time. Now, we may also state that futures prices are essentially expected spot price of the underlying asset, at the maturity of the futures contract. Accordingly, both futures and spot prices converge at the maturity of futures contract, as at that point in time there cannot be any difference between these two prices. This is the reason why all futures contracts on expiry settle at the underlying cash market price. This principal remains same for all the underlying assets. 6450 Nifty Basis 6250 6050 5850 Nifty Levels 5650 5450 5250 5050 4850 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 7/ 9/ 1/ 2/ 4/ 6/ 8/ 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 /2 /2 /3 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 1/ 12 12 12 Date Spot Futures 3.4 Commodity, Equity & Index Futures The basic concept of a derivative contract remains the same for all the underlying assets, whether the underlying happens to be a commodity or equity or index futures. Some features are very peculiar to commodity derivative markets. In the case of financial derivatives, most of these contracts are cash settled whereas in the case of 36 commodity derivatives, some contracts may settle with physical delivery. Even in the case of physical settlement, financial assets are not bulky and do not need special facility for storage, whereas in commodity market, due to the bulky nature of the underlying assets, physical settlement in commodity derivatives creates the need for warehousing. The varying quality of asset does not really exist as far as financial underlying is concerned but in case of commodities, the quality of the asset underlying a contract can vary significantly. 3.5 Uses of futures Role of different participants in derivatives markets Hedgers Corporations, Investing Institutions, Banks and Governments all use derivative products to hedge or reduce their exposures to market variables such as interest rates, share values, bond prices, currency exchange rates and commodity prices. The classic example is the farmer who sells futures contracts to lock into a price for delivering a crop on a future date. The buyer might be a food-processing company, which wishes to fix a price for taking delivery of the crop in the future. Another case is that of a company due to receive a payment in a foreign currency on a future date. It enters into a forward transaction with a bank agreeing to sell the foreign currency and receive a predetermined quantity of domestic currency. Speculators/Traders Derivatives are very well suited to trading on the prices of commodities and financial assets and on key market variables such as interest rates, stock market indices and currency exchange rates. It is much less expensive to create a speculative position using derivatives than by actually trading the underlying commodity or asset. As a result, the potential returns are much greater. A classic application is the trader who believes that increasing demand or scarce production is likely to boost the price of a commodity. He has two options with him - first option is to buy and store the physical commodity whereas other option is to go long futures contract. Trader chooses the second option to go long futures contract on the underlying asset. If commodity price increases, the value of the contract will also rise and he can reverse back position to book his profit. Arbitrageurs An arbitrage is a deal that produces risk free profits by exploiting a mispricing in the market. A simple arbitrage occurs when a trader purchases an asset cheaply in one location/ exchange and simultaneously arranges to sell it at another location/ exchange at a higher price. Such opportunities are unlikely to persist for very long, since arbitrageurs would rush in to buy the asset in the cheap location and simultaneously sell at the expensive location, thus reducing the pricing gap. As mentioned above, there are three major players in derivatives market – Hedgers, Traders, and Arbitrageurs. Hedgers are there to hedge their risk, traders take the risk which hedgers plan to offload from their exposure and arbitragers establish an efficient link between different markets. 37 Traders take naked positions in the futures market i.e. they go long or short in various futures contracts available in the market. Indeed, capacity of derivatives market to absorb buying/selling by hedgers is directly dependent upon availability of traders, who act as counter-party to hedgers. Accordingly, Traders form one of the most important participants of the derivatives market, providing depth to the market. Hedgers will not be able to hedge if traders were not present in the system. Therefore, for futures market to click, presence of both hedgers and traders is a must. For instance, assume, a farmer expects the price of wheat to fall in near future. He wants to hedge his price risk on wheat produce for next 3 months till the time he has actual produce in his hands and so would like to lock at the forward/ futures price now. Accordingly, farmer can sell futures contracts on the expected quantity of produce. In order to sell this futures contract, he needs a buyer. This buyer may be someone who needs wheat after three months, may be a flour mill or a bakery. However, most of the times, there is a demand supply mismatch in the market and the trader fills the gap between demand and supply. Here trader, counterparty to the farmer, is thinking in contrary i.e. this buyer would buy only if he thinks that actual price of wheat is going to be higher than the contract price for futures three months down the line. Further, the profit of trader would depend upon actual wheat price being more than the contracted futures price at the maturity of futures contract. If it is so, trader would make money otherwise he would lose money. In addition to hedgers and traders, to establish a link between various markets like spot and derivatives, we need a third party called arbitragers. These arbitragers continuously hunt for the profit opportunities across the markets and products and seize those by executing trades in different markets and products simultaneously. Importantly, arbitragers generally lock in their profits unlike traders who trade naked contracts. For example at the end of day (1st March 2012): Market price of underlying asset (in Rs.) 100 March futures 110 Lot size 50 Here an arbitrageur will buy in the cash market at Rs. 100 and sell in the Futures market at Rs. 110, thereby locking Rs. 10 as his profit on each share. On the expiration date, suppose price (in Rs.) of the underlying asset is 108. Cash Market Futures Buy 100 Sell 110 Sell 108 Buy 108 +8 +2 Total profit would therefore be 10*50 = Rs. 500. Suppose price (in Rs.) of the underlying asset is 95 on the expiration date. Cash Market Futures Buy 100 Sell 110 Sell 95 Buy 95 -5 +15 Total profit is 10*50 = Rs. 500. 38 In the entire activity, the transaction cost and impact cost have not been considered. In real life, the transaction cost has to be considered like the brokerage, service Tax, Securities Service Tax etc. Here, it may be interesting to look at the risks these arbitragers carry. As seen before, arbitragers are executing positions in two or more markets/products simultaneously. Even if the systems are seamless and electronic and both the legs of transaction are liquid, there is a possibility of some gap between the executions of both the orders. If either leg of the transaction is illiquid then the risk on the arbitrage deal is huge as only one leg may get executed and another may not, which would open the arbitrager to the naked exposure of a position. Similarly, if contracts are cash settled in both or one of the markets, it would need reversal of trades in the respective markets, which would result in additional risk on unwinding position with regard to simultaneous execution of the trades. These profit focused traders and arbitrageurs fetch enormous liquidity to the products traded on the exchanges. This liquidity in turn results in better price discovery, lesser cost of transaction and lesser manipulation in the market. Uses of Index futures Equity derivatives instruments facilitate trading of a component of price risk, which is inherent to investment in securities. Price risk is nothing but change in the price movement of asset, held by a market participant, in an unfavourable direction. This risk broadly divided into two components - specific risk or unsystematic risk and market risk or systematic risk. Unsystematic Risk Specific risk or unsystematic risk is the component of price risk that is unique to particular events of the company and/or industry. This risk is inseparable from investing in the securities. This risk could be reduced to a certain extent by diversifying the portfolio. Systematic Risk An investor can diversify his portfolio and eliminate major part of price risk i.e. the diversifiable/unsystematic risk but what is left is the non-diversifiable portion or the market risk-called systematic risk. Variability in a security’s total returns that are directly associated with overall movements in the general market or economy is called systematic risk. Thus, every portfolio is exposed to market risk. This risk is separable from investment and tradable in the market with the help of index-based derivatives. When this particular risk is hedged perfectly with the help of index-based derivatives, only specific risk of the portfolio remains. Therefore, we may say that total price risk in investment in securities is the sum of systematic risk or market risk and unsystematic risk or specific risk. Before we get to management of systematic risk with index futures, we need to understand Beta - a measure of systematic risk of a security that cannot be avoided through diversification. It measures the sensitivity of a stock / portfolio vis-a-vis index 39 movement over a period of time, on the basis of historical prices. Suppose a stock has a beta equal to 2. This means that historically a security has moved 20% when the index moved 10%, indicating that the stock is more volatile than the index. Stocks / portfolios having beta more than 1 are called aggressive and having beta less than 1 are called conservative stocks / portfolios. In order to calculate beta of a portfolio, betas of individual stocks are used. It is calculated as weighted average of betas of individual stocks in the portfolio based on their investment proportion. For example, if there are four stocks in a portfolio with betas 0.5, 1.1, 1.30 and 0.90 having weights 35%, 15%, 20% and 30% respectively, the beta of this portfolio would be 0.87 (0.5*0.35 +1.10*0.15 +1.30*0.20 +0.90*0.30). A generalized formula for portfolio beta can be written as W1 β1+W2 β2+…+ Wn βn= βp Where, W1 is weight of stock 1, β1 is the β of stock 1, W2 is weight of stock 2, β2 is the β of stock 2, Wn is weight of stock n, βn is the β of stock n and βp is the β of portfolio. Information on beta of individual stocks is readily available in various financial newspapers, magazines and information vending networks like Bloomberg, Reuters etc. Now, let us get to management of systematic risk. Assume you are having a portfolio worth Rs.3,00,000 in cash market. You see the market may be volatile due to some reasons. You are not comfortable with the market movement in the short run. At this point of time, you have two options: (1) sell the entire portfolio and buy later and (2) hedge by the use of Index futures to protect the value of this portfolio from the expected fall in the market. As an investor you are comfortable with the second option. If the prices fall, you make loss in cash market but make profits in futures market. If prices rise

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