Neuroanatomy Introduction PDF

Neuroanatomy Nick Hurst  Neurological anatomy and physiology Aims and To understand the structure of a nerve cell objective Be able to explain how information is transmitted To be able to explain the development of the nervous system Be abl...

Neuroanatomy Nick Hurst  Neurological anatomy and physiology Aims and To understand the structure of a nerve cell objective Be able to explain how information is transmitted To be able to explain the development of the nervous system Be able to explain the organisation of the nervous system Identify regions of the brain and spinal cord and their functions Investigate the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system and how they relate to medical conditions  Complex!! Versatile achievement of evolution Detects changes to external and internal (blood sugar level, temperature) environment What is the Brings appropriate responses in muscles, organs and glands nervous Higher functions Learning/memory/cognition/self-awareness system Can be damaged by inherited or developmental abnormalities, diseases or traumatic injury (huntingtons-congential but develop symptoms later in life) We still have a lot to learn!!  Basic structure and functional unit of the Nervous System is the nerve cell – NEURONE Human body contains 1010 (100,000,000,000) Neurone Function Receive and integrate incoming information from sensory receptors or other neurones Transmit information to other neurones or EFFECTOR organs  Neurone structure Separate entity Highly specialised to fulfil their function Has a limiting cell membrane Information passed between neurones at specialist region – SYNAPSES Wide diversity of shapes and sizes of neurones All share common characteristics Single cell body Variable number of branching process DENDRITES – receptive function Majority sensory dendrites AXON – carries information away from cell body NERVE TERMINAL – end of the  Receives stimuli Coded information – changes in electrical activity Activated: reverses polarity Reaches action potential the Goes back to resting potent Via the synapses – between the Axon and the Dendrite Neurotransmitters – diffuse across narrow gap of pre and post-synaptic membranes Bind to receptors in post- synaptic cell inducing changes to membrane potential Either: Depolarise membrane Hyper-polarise membrane  LEM Specific conditions A b h Lambert- T Eaton n Myasthenic T syndrome w d (LEMS) e p Myasthenia Mya gravis R in p re M  Neuroglia cells (or Glia) No direct role in information processing Essential for normal functioning of the neurone ---3 main types of glia Oligodendroglia (Oligodendrocytes) Other Form the Myelin sheath Assist with increasing rate of conduction of action major cells potential No smooth trasnmition if myelin degrades of the Astroglia (Astrocytes) nervous Believed to form the “blood-brain barrier” Protects the brain by controlling what can enter the brain from blood system Example: antihistamine – first gen small molecule easy transmission but second gen is larger molecule so helps reduce drowsiness Microglia Phagocytic role in local tissue response to nervous system damage Helps keeps nervous system healthy, prevent damage  Afferent Neurones – Carry information from peripheral receptors to the CNS If information reaches a conscious level – Sensory neurones Efferent Neurones – Carry impulses away from the CNS If innovert skeletal muscle – Motor Neurones Interneurones – Vast amount of neurones located entirely within CNS Picture: https://neupsykey.com/introduction-and-overview Developme nt of the https://www.youtube.com/watch? nervous v=Tp25wrm-AoA&feature=youtu.be system Week 3: Week 5: Week 7: Outer layer of grey matter (Cerebral Cortex) Telencephalon Divides into 2 cerebral hemispheres Prosencephalon Inner mass of white matter (Cerebrum/ forebrain) Diencephalon Contains mainly the Thalamus Ectoder Mesencephalon Stays relatively m (Midbrain) undifferentiated (surrounded by grey Metencephalon matter) Pons Rhombenciephalon Cerebellum (Hindbrain) Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata (Medulla)  Brain stem = Medulla, Pons and midbrain Central cavity develops into system of chambers – Ventricles Contains Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Within brain there are 4 venticles (spaces) Cerebral Spinal What is CSF? Fluid (Csf) : cushion for brain/spinal cord (all) to protect it Picture: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/37851354365794037  Acts as a cushion – basic mechanical and immunological barrier Produced by Choroid Plexus (1 in each ventricle) 150ml volume (produced several times a day) Cerebral Reabsorbed at Arachnoid villi – increased hydrostatic pressure here in subarachnoid Spinal Fluid space Hydrocephalus – obstruction of flow of CSF within ventricular system Causes? Treatment? CT scan Grey matter – Enriched with nerve cell bodies eg. Central portion of spinal cord, surface of cerebral hemisphere White matter – Mostly nerve processes (usually axons) Usually myelinated (covered in myelin – pale in colour) R L 1 = Right side cerebral hemisphere 2 = Grey matter 3 = White matter Hydrocephalus Nuclei – Nerve cells bodies with similar anatomical connections and functions ie. Motor neurones innovating related muscles tend to be located in groups Picture: http://w-radiology.com/white-gray-matter.ph Picture: https://neupsykey.com/introduction-and-overview Organisation of the nervous system Nervous system Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system (CNS) (PNS) Brain Spinal Cord Cranial Nerves Spinal nerves Cervical Sacral Thoracic Lumbar  Automatic Nervous System (ANS) No control over Present in both CNS and PNS Split into sympa Neurones that detect changes in and control activity of the viscera Sympathetic: Innovate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and secretory glands released nora Caused dilatio Automatic Nervous System rate dependin Parasympathe Ach released myscarinic / n Allows enzym Sympathetic Parasympathetic Has opposite effects of functions Vessels dilate  Central Nervous System (CNS) 3 different layers: Coverings of brain and spinal cord Bones of skull and vertebral column1.periosteal dura mater: Subarachoid space – look like spider web which contains csf floating around Dura mater – touch skull Miningeal mater – can have infmallation – meningitis -> increase pressure/swell Symptoms: weakness, blindess, confusion, fever -> affecting nerve function Fever: body response to kill infection (bacterial/viral) Picture:https://www.thoughtco.com/brain-anatomy-meninges-4018883  When tak vessel this and stop b Blood supply to the brain - NEVER time Supplied by: Plauqe flo Internal carotid (from common carotid artery) stroke Vertebral arteries (from subclavian artery) Ensure th Circle of Willis arteries a happening Circle of w space Head injur Subaracho there whic death https://neupsykey.com/introduction-and-overview/ https://www.scienceabc.com/humans/circle-of-willis-anatomy-diagram-and-  Venous drainage of the brain No valves Deep cerebral veins forebrain Superficial veins Lie in subarachnoid space Dural venous sinuses Deep and superficial veins drain in to this Internal jugular vein : https://www.slideshare.net/indiandentalacademy/veins-of-head-neck-ppt  Brain stem Thalamus can be/not considered as part of the brain stem in different books Controlls automated signals https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2zjlB 4ctu4 Picture: http://pmcanatomy.blogspot.com/2014/02/brainstem-neuroanatomy.html  Most important part of the brain Medulla Transfers messages to and from the thalamus and spinal cord Involuntary functions Oblongata Such as? Sensory and motor neurons from forebrain and midbrain travel through medulla 3 sections Caudal medulla Mid-medulla Rostral medulla 4 cranial nerves originate Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) Vagus nerve (CN X) Accessory nerve (CN XI) Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)  2.5cm long Pons Specific function Sort and relay messages between different sections of the brain Contains nuclei – 4 cranial nerves originate Trigeminal nerve (CN V) Abducens nerve (CN VI) Facial nerve (CN VII) Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) Associated with: Respiration eye movement Swallowing facial expression Bladder control facial sensation Hearing posture Equilibrium sleep Taste Nerves pass through then transmit to wehre needed  Mainly for eye movement/hear Function for motor movement Midbrain Particularly eye movement and auditory and visual processing Divided into 2 sections Dorsal portion – Tectum Contains Inferior Colliculi and Superior Colliculi (part of visual system) Ventral portion – Tegmentum Contains Trochlear and Oculomotor nuclei 2 cranial nerves originate (III and IV)  Reticular Formation Complex matrix of neurones Extends throughout length of brain stem Widespread afferent and efferent connections Has long axons Necessary for survival! Controls: Level of consciousness Cardiovascular system Respiratory system Not all nerves travel through brain stem – but slow process Fast signals use reticular formation process -whizzes through all sections of brain https://study.com/academy/lesson/reticular-formation-definition- stem functions-quiz.html  Main function – process information to and Thalamus from the spinal cord and cerebellum Surrounded by cerebral hemispheres Size of a small hens egg! (5-7cm) Largest component of the dicephalon Supplied by blood by 4 branches of the posterior cerebral artery https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/posterior- Brain stem lesions Problem with brain stem can cause physical probems Unilateral brain stem lesion Unilateral – one side Causes: CVA, tumour, MS Bilateral – both side Outcome: Unilateral affects on side of the Ipsilateral cranial nerve dysfunction body Contralateral spastic hemiparesis Hyperreflexia and extensor plantar response Contralateral hemisensory loss Left side of brain controls right Bilateral lesions side of body Vice versa Destroys vital centres for respiration and circulation coma and death Brian tumour in left side brain – right side body affected https://www.grepmed.com/images/3568/brownsequard-patterns-loss-diagnosis-bilaterality- Picture: https://www.neuropsychotherapist.com/the-limbic-system/ Limbic system Supports diffe areas of funct AC Anterior commissure loong term me AN Anterior nucleus of thalamus DG Dentate gyrus emotions, FR Fasciculus retroflexus motivation IN Interpeduncular nucleus LT Lamina terminalis MB Mammillary body MD Mediodorsal thalamic nucleus MF Medial forebrain bundle MT Mammillothalmic tract NA Nucleus accumbens OB Olfactory bulbs OC Optic chiasm OL Olfactory striae lateral OS Olfactory striae medial OT Olfactory tract PG Pituitary gland PT Paraterminal gyrus SA Subcallosal area SM Stria medullaris SN Septal nuclei SP Septum pellucidum ST Stria terminallis 4 Main structures of limbic system to know 1. Amygdala 2. Hypothalamus 3. Basal Ganglia 4. Hippocampus  Have right and left amygdala Amygdala Cognitive processing, tensio –involved in cognitive process facial evaluation (how someo Episodic-autobiographical memory (EAM) looks like to determine their Attentional and emotional processes Link to Fear, anxiety, aggression L: believed to induce happin Social processing – facial evaluation anxiety sadness –linked to a than normal): research lokin to increase size R: negative emtotions only a Right Amygdala Left Amygdala - ? Induce negative emotions - ?induce pleasant (fear and sadness) (happiness) or unpleasant - Role in declarative memory (fear, anxiety, sadness) emotions  Hippocampus – consolidation of information for short and long term memory – Spatial memory (enable navigation) Damage to hippocampus Vast effects on overall cognitive functioning -leads to dementia (short term memory loss – inability to make new memories) - Schizophrenia and severe depression Hippocampus nerve cell -before(a) Hippocampus has(b) and after shrunk oestrogen treatm - Oestrogen effects neurological connections - Recent study shown increase in neural connections within hippocampus ?a treatment for preventing Alzheimer's? Picture: http://psycheducation.org/brain-tours/memory-learning-and-emotion-the-hippocampus/  Basal Ganglia Group of structures deep within cerebral hemispheres In the cerebrum Caudate Putamen Globus pallidus In the midbrain Substantia nigra In the diencephalon Subthalamic nucleus Collective function: facilitate movement and inhibit competing movement Ie – allow reaching and grasping and pen, Inhibiting countermovement – ie flexion Results in smooth movement Facilitate behaviours  Diseases effecting basal ganglia Parkinson's disease Dopaminergic neurons of substantia nigra degenerate Contradictory movement inhibited – leads to rigidity and slow movement Inadequete dopamine released Huntington’s disease Globus pallidus unusually active (degeneration of the neurons) Jerky and writing involuntary movements Degenarations of neurones Other Now being investigated to better understand Tourette’s syndrome, schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder  Ensure preservation of internal Hypothala environment of the body Interoceptor signals – initial mus homeostatic response From internal organs and body fluids 2 types of inputs Neural and circulatory Circulatory – circulating blood provides: Physical – temp  dilate vessels, sweat Chemical – ph, blood glucose Hormonal signals – growth,  Neural – 2 sources Nucleus solitarius of the medulla to hypothalamus – signals from barorecptors and chemoreceptors Neural arousal communicated by 2 structures (in midbrain) Hypothala Reticular formation (direct and indirect) Monoaminergic nuclei (via medial forebrain mus bundle) Intimate relationship with pituitary gland Size of a pea “Master gland” Produces hormones Directs certain processes Stimulates other glands  Pituitary gland Orchestrator of the endocrine system Posterior pituitary Receives vasopressin and oxytocin from hypothalamus Anterior pituitary Produces: Adrenocorticotropic hormone – stimulate adrenal gland to release cortisol Luteinising hormone – stimulate sex hormone production Follicle-stimulating hormone Thyroid-stimulating hormone – thyroid T3,4 Growth hormone – regulate growth, metabolism Prolactin – stimulate milk production  Tumours c Lead to under or over production of circulating hormones Diabetes, Growth disorders – dwarfism, gigantism Sexual dysfunction – precocious puberty Body water control – diabetes insipidus, Tumours of pathological drinking Eating – obesity, bulimia hypothalamu Adrenal cortical control – cushing’s s and disease, adrenal insufficiency pituitary gland Adjacent to optic chiasma Pituitary adenomas – may lead to bitemporal visual field loss  Picture: https://www.haikudeck.com/the-brain--education-presentation-IS6ZoQ2jhq Cerebellum - Largest part of hindbrain - Connected to brain stem - Inferior, middle and superior cerebellar peduncles - Medulla, Pons and midbrain respectively - Motor function – unconscious level - Maintenance of equilibrium (balance) - Influences posture - Muscle tone - Co-ordinates movement  Midline lesion (ie tumour) Loss of postural control – topple over/fall over Unilateral cerebellar hemispheric lesion - tremor Ipsilateral incoordination Arm (intention tremor) Leg (unsteady gait_ Lesions of Bilateral dysfunction (caused by alcoholic intoxication, hypothyroidism, inherited cerebellar degeneration, MS) the slowness and slurring of speech (dysarthria) Incoordination of both arms cerebellum Staggering, wide based, unsteady gait (cerebellar ataxia) Lesion can also impair: Alcohol Coordination of eye movement (Nystagmus) – affects common symptom of MS cerebellum so sometimes not disease but alcohol  Picture: https://antranik.org/the-cerebral-hemispheres/ Cerebral Hemispheres Largest part of the forebrain Superficial layer grey matter Cerebral cortex Complex patter of: Ridges (Gyri) Furrows (Sulci) Maximises surface area Extensive mass of white matter (Axons) under the surface Cerebral hemisphere divided into 4  Cerebral cortex - Forms the outer surface of the cerebral hemisphere - Several millimetres thick - Necessary for conscious awareness, thought, memory and intellect - Most sensory modalities ascend (via the thalamus) - Consciously perceived and interpreted - Highest level at which motor system is represented - Actions are conceived and initiated Functions of the lobes Frontal cerebral lesions Stroke or tumours produce 3 kinds of symptoms 1 – Focal epileptic seizures Simple focal, complex partial, generalised 2 – sensory/motor deficits 3 – Psychological deficits If focal lesion is space occupying Raised intracranial pressure Focal Space occupying lesion is another word for tumour