Neuro Midterm-2 PDF

Make flowchart of nervous system organization using the following terms Afferent: Nerve cells that carry information toward the central nervous system (or farther centrally within the spinal cord and brain) are called afferent neurons Efferent: nerve cells that carry information away from the brain...

Make flowchart of nervous system organization using the following terms Afferent: Nerve cells that carry information toward the central nervous system (or farther centrally within the spinal cord and brain) are called afferent neurons Efferent: nerve cells that carry information away from the brain or spinal cord (or away from the circuit in question) are called efferent neurons. lNervous System Match-Up Term Description 1. Central Nervous System (CNS) A. Connects the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) B. Responsible for 'fight or flight' responses. 3. Somatic Nervous System C. Regulates homeostasis and 'rest and digest' functions.  4. Autonomic Nervous System D. Includes the brain and spinal cord. 5. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) E. Includes motor nerves to skeletal muscles and sensory nerves from sense organs. 6. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) F. Part of the PNS that manages voluntary movements and sensory information. Definitions LIST:: Blood-brain barrier: The blood-brain barrier consists of tight gaps between endothelial cells that prevent large molecules from passing into the brain. It is one of the protective mechanisms of the nervous system to shield the brain from potentially harmful substances​ Action potential: An action potential is a short-lived change in membrane polarity in neurons, usually occurring when sodium ion channels open at the axon hillock, allowing positive ions to flood in. This process leads to a temporary positive charge in the neuron​ Graded potential: Graded potentials refer to changes in membrane potential that are not large enough to trigger an action potential but can influence it if multiple graded potentials accumulate​ EPSP/IPSP: Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) increase the likelihood of triggering an action potential by depolarizing the membrane, while inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) decrease this likelihood by hyperpolarizing the membrane​ Innate immunity: The innate immune system is a general-purpose defense mechanism that responds quickly to pathogens. Cells like macrophages play a key role by engulfing invaders​ Adaptive immunity: The adaptive immune system involves specific immune responses activated by cytokines, such as T cells attacking infected cells or B cells producing antibodies​ Cytokines: Cytokines are chemical messengers released by immune cells like macrophages. They coordinate the immune response by signaling the body to respond to infection or injury​ Neurotransmitter: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers synthesized and stored in neurons that are released into synapses to communicate with other neurons​ Hormone: Hormones are signaling molecules, often released by glands like the adrenal cortex, that influence physiological functions such as stress responses (e.g., cortisol)​ HPA Axis: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a central stress response system that regulates the release of cortisol, affecting both the immune and nervous systems​ SAM axis: The sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) axis activates the release of adrenaline and norepinephrine during stress, affecting the immune system and preparing the body for immediate challenges Dendrite: Dendrites are tree-like structures that gather information from other neurons and convey it to the cell body​ Neuron: A neuron is a specialized cell for transmitting information. It consists of dendrites, a cell body (soma), an axon, and an axon terminal​ Soma: The soma, or cell body, is the core of the neuron, containing the nucleus and DNA​ Myelin: Myelin is a fatty substance produced by glial cells that insulates axons, speeding up electrical signal conduction​ Nodes of Ranvier: Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath where ion channels are exposed, allowing action potentials to jump from node to node, increasing the speed of signal transmission​ Axon terminal: The axon terminal is the knob-like structure at the end of an axon that releases neurotransmitters into the synapse Synapse: A synapse is the junction between two neurons where chemical communication occurs via neurotransmitters​ Receptor: Receptors are specialized proteins on the postsynaptic neuron that bind neurotransmitters, allowing ion channels to open and changing the membrane potential​ Adrenal medulla: The adrenal medulla is the inner part of the adrenal gland that secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, hormones involved in the fight-or-flight response Adrenal cortex: The adrenal cortex is the outer part of the adrenal gland that secretes cortisol, a hormone that regulates stress responses​ Cortisol: Cortisol is a stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex, helping the body cope with stress by shutting down non-essential functions like the immune response​ Norepinephrine/epinephrine: These are stress hormones produced by the adrenal medulla that activate the body's fight-or-flight response​ Limbic system: The limbic system, which includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex, is involved in emotion, memory, and responses to psychological stress Basal ganglia: The basal ganglia are subcortical structures involved in motor control and other functions Cerebral cortex: The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions such as perception, decision-making, and language​ Meninges and parts: The meninges are protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord, including the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater​ Fill in the blanks: 1. The resting potential is the electrochemical charge difference across the neuron's membrane when it is not actively sending a signal, typically around -70 mV​ 2. When a neuron receives a stimulus that causes a change in membrane potential, it generates a graded potential, which can lead to the threshold for an action potential​ 3. An action potential occurs when the neuron's membrane depolarizes sufficiently, resulting in a rapid change in voltage that propagates along the axon in an all-or-none fashion​ 4. At resting potential, the inside of the neuron is negatively charged compared to the outside​ 5. The main ion responsible for establishing the resting potential is potassium (K⁺)​ 6. The sodium-potassium pump actively transports sodium ions out of the neuron and potassium ions into the neuron against the concentration gradient​ 7. The resting potential is essential for the generation of an action potential when a neuron is activated​  8. Any change in the resting potential due to stimulation is referred to as a graded potential​ 9. The immune system is circulatory, allowing it to travel freely throughout the body. 10. The biopsychosocial model attributes mental health to complex interactions of biological, psychological, and social factors. For the EPSP/IPSP-related questions: 1. An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) occurs when a neurotransmitter binds to receptors and causes depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane​ 2. An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) occurs when neurotransmitter binding leads to hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane​ 3. The axon hillock is the region of the neuron where the summed potential is integrated to determine if an action potential will be generated​ 4. The process of adding multiple EPSPs and IPSPs to determine the overall change in membrane potential is called summation​ 5. If the sum of EPSPs is greater than the sum of IPSPs, the neuron is more likely to reach the threshold and fire an action potential​. 6. EPSPs usually result from the influx of sodium (Na⁺) ions, while IPSPs often involve the influx of chloride (Cl⁻)ions​ 7. The time course of EPSPs and IPSPs can vary, with EPSPs typically being shorter than IPSPs​ 8. The axon hillock has a high density of voltage-gated Na⁺ channels, making it sensitive to changes in membrane potential​ 1. The cerebral cortex is divided into how many main lobes? A) Three B) Four C) Five D) Six 2. Which lobe is primarily responsible for processing visual information? A) Frontal Lobe B) Parietal Lobe C) Occipital Lobe D) Temporal Lobe 3. The primary motor cortex is located in the ________ lobe. A) Parietal B) Frontal C) Temporal D) Occipital 4. The area of the cortex involved in language production is known as: A) Broca's area B) Wernicke's area C) Auditory cortex D) insular cortex F) striate cortex Which lobe is responsible for processing sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain? A) Frontal Lobe B) Parietal Lobe C) Occipital Lobe D) Temporal Lobe The central sulcus separates which two lobes of the brain? A) Frontal and Occipital B) Frontal and Parietal C) Parietal and Temporal D) Temporal and Occipital Correct terms related to the HPA (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal) axis and the SAM (Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary) axis. 1. TThe HPA axis begins with the hypothalamus release CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone), which stimulates the pituitary gland. 2. The pituitary gland then secretes ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone), which acts on the adrenal glands. 3. The adrenal glands produce cortisol, a key hormone involved in stress response. 4. In the SAM axis, the sympathetic nervous system activates the adrenal medulla, leading to the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. 5. The primary function of the HPA axis is to regulate long-term stress responses through hormonal release, while the SAM axis primarily manages acute (short-term) responses. 6. The effect of epinephrine is to increase heart rate, blood flow to muscles, dilate pupils, and decrease the rate of digestion. 3. What is the function of the axon? A) To receive incoming signals B) To transmit electrical impulses away from the cell body C) To store neurotransmitters D) to make the neuron look cool 4. What is the role of the myelin sheath? A) To make the neuron look cool in a neuroanatomy textbook B) To increase the velocity of electrical signal propagation down an axon C) To receive incoming signals from other neurons D) to secrete dopamine into synaptic cleft What part of the neuron is responsible for receiving signals from other neurons? A) Axon B) Dendrites C) Soma D) the myelin sheath E) endocannabinoid receptors The part of the cns is responsible for regulating basic survival functions such as heart rate and breathing is the: A) Cerebrum B) Brainstem C) Limbic System D) Cerebellum E) the lungs…duh that’s where the air flows dude The structure that connects the two hemispheres of the brain is called the: A) Corpus Callosum B) Cerebral Cortex C) Thalamus D) Hippocampus E) the split brain gyrus In the peripheral nervous system, the ________ is responsible for the "fight or flight" response. A) Somatic B) Sympathetic C) Parasympathetic D) Enteric E) vagus nerve Which cell type is involved in the immune response of the central nervous system? A) Schwann Cells B) Oligodendrocytes C) Astrocytes D) Microglia E) type I golgi fiber The area of the brain primarily involved in the formation of new long term memories is the: A) Amygdala B) the spinothalamic tract C) Hippocampus D) prefrontal cortex D) Thalamus E) area postrema Ventricular System Quiz Choose the best answer for each question related to the ventricular system of the brain. 1. What is the primary function of the ventricular system? A) To produce hormones B) To circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which cushions and protects brain in neurocranium and provides nutrients and stuff C) To transmit electrical signals with fluids D) To connect different brain regions with nerve fiber tract pathway thingies Phineas gets hit with a piece of rebar into his frontal cortex, which of the following symptoms is he likely to experience A)difficulty with motor planning and executive function B) vision problems C) problems with balance Who characterized the concept of stress? (/1) a) Luigi Galvani b) Alessandro Volta c) Hans Selye d) A.A. Berthold True or false: glutamate is an inhibitory neuron that hyperpolarizes the post-synaptic membrane. a) True b) False What is the view of the brain from the side when cut lengthwise? (/1) a) Coronal b) Sagittal c) Horizontal d) Lateral A tumor is found at the bottom of the brain. What directional area of the brain was it found in/on? (/1) a) Dorsal b) Medial c) Temporal d) Ventral 1. Explain the difference between temporal and spatial summation The difference between temporal summation and spatial summation lies in how the signals from different synapses combine to influence a neuron's membrane potential: Temporal summation: This occurs when multiple signals (action potentials) from the same presynaptic neuron arrive in quick succession at a single synapse. The effects of these signals accumulate over time, potentially leading to the threshold being reached and an action potential being fired. Spatial summation: This involves the simultaneous input of signals from multiple presynaptic neurons at different locations on the postsynaptic neuron. The combined effects of these signals from various synapses can summate to bring the membrane potential to threshold and generate an action potential. Both processes help determine whether a neuron will reach the threshold to fire an action potential, but temporal summation relies on rapid timing, while spatial summation relies on the number of inputs from different sources. Explain in your own words the Yerkes-Dodson law The Yerkes-Dodson law explains the relationship between arousal (or stress) and performance. It suggests that performance improves with increased arousal but only to a certain point. Once the level of arousal exceeds an optimal level, performance starts to decline. In simple terms, moderate levels of stress or excitement can help you perform better, but too little or too much stress can reduce your effectiveness. 1. Explain resting membrane potential The resting membrane potential is the electrical charge difference across the membrane of a neuron when it is not actively sending a signal. This potential is typically around -70 mV, with the inside of the cell being more negative than the outside. This charge difference is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump, which actively transports Na+ ions out of the cell and K+ ions into the cell, and by the unequal distribution of ions across the membrane. 2. Describe the limbic system and its function The limbic system is a collection of brain structures involved in regulating emotions, memory, and certain behavioral responses. Key structures include: Amygdala: Plays a role in emotional responses, particularly fear and aggression. Hippocampus: Essential for forming new memories. Cingulate cortex: Involved in emotional regulation and decision-making. Overall, the limbic system is crucial for emotional processing, memory formation, and linking emotions with memories. 3. How are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems different? Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses during stressful situations. It increases heart rate, dilates pupils, and directs blood flow to muscles. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes "rest and digest" functions, conserving energy by slowing the heart rate and increasing digestion. 4. What are the physiological effects of activating the sympathetic nervous system during a stress response? When the sympathetic nervous system is activated during a stress response, it prepares the body for immediate action (fight or flight). The physiological effects include: Increased heart rate and blood pressure. Dilated pupils to improve vision. Increased blood flow to muscles, reducing blood flow to non-essential organs like the digestive system.  Release of adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine, which further enhance the fight-or-flight response. Faster breathing to increase oxygen supply to muscles. Sweating to cool the body during heightened activity. 5. Rachel is playing soccer, and someone kicks a soccer ball at her head. Her vision starts going blurry, and she starts seeing stars. Which part of the brain has most likely been affected? The occipital lobe, located at the back of the brain, is responsible for processing visual information. If Rachel's vision becomes blurry and she sees stars, it is likely that the occipital lobe has been affected. 6. Name each lobe of the brain and 1 function associated with each: Frontal lobe: Higher-level functions such as motor control and decision-making. Parietal lobe: Processes spatial information and helps with the sense of self in space. Occipital lobe: Responsible for vision and visual processing. Temporal lobe: Involved in hearing, language perception, and certain memory functions. 7. Which part of the brain controls balance and fine motor coordination? The cerebellum is the part of the brain responsible for balance, fine motor coordination, and posture. It is often referred to as a "mini brain" because of its distinctive structure and its important role in motor control. 8. Define: HPA Axis The HPA axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis) is a major component of the body’s stress response system. It involves: 1. Hypothalamus: Releases CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone), which signals the pituitary. 2. Pituitary gland: Releases ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone), which stimulates the adrenal glands. 3. Adrenal glands: Release cortisol, a hormone that helps the body manage stress. 9. Who was Volta and how was he important in our understanding of electrical signaling? Alessandro Volta was an Italian physicist known for inventing the electric battery, which was the first device capable of providing a continuous electric current. His work helped demonstrate that electricity could be generated chemically, laying the foundation for understanding electrical signaling in biological systems, such as neurons. 10. What are the major classes of neurotransmitters and some examples from each class? Amino acids: Glutamate (excitatory), GABA (inhibitory). Monoamines: Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine. Peptides: Endorphins, substance P. Acetylcholine: Involved in muscle activation and memory. 11. How do neurons in the cortex differ from neurons in the subcortical and brainstem regions? Cortical neurons: Primarily involved in higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, voluntary movement, and perception. They are arranged in layers. Subcortical and brainstem neurons: Involved in basic life functions, emotion, and movement regulation. They are more involved in essential survival functions and lack the layered organization of cortical neurons. 12. Name 2 ways a neurotransmitter is deactivated: 1. Reuptake: The neurotransmitter is reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron. 2. Enzymatic degradation: Specific enzymes break down the neurotransmitter (e.g., acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine). 13. Define what an Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) is: An EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential) is a temporary depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane caused by the influx of positively charged ions (usually Na+). This makes the neuron more likely to fire an action potential if the threshold is reached. 14. Define a negative feedback loop and give an example: A negative feedback loop is a regulatory mechanism in which a change in a system causes a response that counteracts the initial change, maintaining balance. Example: The HPA axis regulating cortisol levels. When cortisol levels are high, the hypothalamus and pituitary reduce CRH and ACTH production, leading to lower cortisol levels. 15. Define a positive feedback loop and give an example: A positive feedback loop amplifies the initial stimulus rather than counteracting it. Example: During childbirth, oxytocin is released to intensify uterine contractions, which leads to more oxytocin release until the baby is born. 16. Explain how the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures work together: The cerebral cortex handles higher cognitive functions, such as decision-making and perception, while subcortical structures like the limbic system and basal ganglia are involved in emotion, memory, and motor control. Together, they integrate cognitive functions with emotional and motor responses, allowing for coordinated behavior. For example, the cortex may process a stressful situation, while the subcortical structures handle the emotional and physical response. 1. Explain neural signaling in 5 steps: 1. Resting potential: The neuron is at rest with a stable membrane potential of about -70 mV. 2. Depolarization: When the neuron is stimulated, sodium (Na+) channels open, and Na+ flows into the cell, causing the membrane potential to become more positive. 3. Action potential: If the depolarization reaches the threshold, an action potential is fired, and the membrane potential rapidly spikes to about +30 mV. 4. Repolarization: Potassium (K+) channels open, and K+ leaves the cell, bringing the membrane potential back toward the negative resting state. 5. Hyperpolarization and Return to Resting: The membrane potential briefly dips below -70 mV before stabilizing back to the resting potential, ready for the next signal. 2. What are the 7 principles of hormone action? 1. Hormones act gradually. 2. Hormones change the intensity or probability of behaviors. 3. The relationship between hormones and behavior is reciprocal. 4. Hormones can have multiple effects on different targets. 5. Hormones are secreted in small bursts (pulsatile secretion). 6. Hormones interact with each other to modulate effects. 7. Hormones are regulated by circadian clocks and environmental factors. 3. What are the 2 main types of effects of cortisol? 1. Metabolic effects: Cortisol increases blood glucose levels by promoting gluconeogenesis, which helps provide energy during stress. 2. Immune effects: Cortisol has anti-inflammatory properties but can suppress the immune system if elevated for prolonged periods. 4. What is psychological resilience? Psychological resilience is the ability to mentally and emotionally cope with or recover from stress, adversity, or challenges. It enables individuals to adapt and bounce back after facing difficulties. 5. What are the major endocrine glands and their functions? 1. Pituitary gland: The master gland that regulates other endocrine glands. 2. Adrenal glands: Release cortisol (stress hormone) and adrenaline for stress response. 3. Thyroid gland: Controls metabolism by releasing thyroid hormones. 4. Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar levels through insulin and glucagon. 5. Gonads (testes/ovaries): Produce sex hormones such as testosterone and estrogen. 6. Pineal gland: Produces melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles. 6. How does the maternal immune system affect the fetus? The maternal immune system can impact fetal development through the release of cytokines, particularly during infections or immune activation. Overactivation of the maternal immune response has been linked to an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders like autism and schizophrenia in the fetus. 7. Describe the differences between electrical and chemical communication of neurons: Electrical communication: Involves the transmission of action potentials along the axon through the movement of ions (Na+, K+). It is fast and allows for the rapid propagation of signals. Chemical communication: Occurs at the synapse, where neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. It is slower but allows for more modulation and complex signalingxplain how negative feedback is used to control various functions in the body: Negative feedback helps regulate processes by maintaining homeostasis. In the HPA axis, for example, when cortisol levels rise due to stress, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland detect this and reduce the production of CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone) and ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone), leading to lower cortisol production and restoring balance. 9. Define the electrophysiology of the neuron: Electrophysiology refers to the study of the electrical properties of neurons, including the membrane potential and the generation of action potentials. Neurons communicate through changes in electrical charge across their membranes, driven by the movement of ions like sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+). 10. What is allostatic load? Allostatic load refers to the cumulative "wear and tear" on the body that results from chronic exposure to stress and the physiological responses associated with it. Over time, this can lead to health problems such as cardiovascular disease and cognitive decline. 11. What does PANDAS stand for? PANDAS stands for Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections. It is a condition in which streptococcal infections trigger an autoimmune response that affects the brain, leading to sudden-onset OCD and tics in children. 1. Label the different ventricles of the brain: The ventricles of the brain are interconnected cavities that produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The major ventricles are: Lateral ventricles (1st and 2nd): Located in each cerebral hemisphere. Third ventricle: Located in the diencephalon. Fourth ventricle: Located between the brainstem and cerebellum. 2. What is the DSM? The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) is a manual used by healthcare professionals to diagnose and classify mental health conditions. It provides standardized criteria for diagnosing various mental disorders. 3. What is the difference between fast response and slow response pathways (SAM)?  Fast response pathway (SAM): Involves the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla, which releases epinephrine and norepinephrine. This prepares the body for immediate action (fight or flight). Slow response pathway (HPA): Involves the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex, which releases cortisol for long-term stress adaptation. 4. Until the atomic theory, what was not possible? Until the atomic theory was developed, it was not possible to explain chemical reactions in terms of indivisible units (atoms). This theory provided a foundation for understanding the composition and behavior of matter at the microscopic level. 5. What is the ventricle system? The ventricle system consists of interconnected cavities in the brain that produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The system helps cushion the brain, maintain pressure, and remove waste. 6. How does the appearance of a brain region affect its function? The appearance of a brain region, such as the folds (gyri) and grooves (sulci) of the cerebral cortex, affects its function by increasing the surface area available for neurons. This allows for more complex processing. Regions with distinct structures, like the cerebellum, are specialized for tasks such as motor coordination. 7. Action potential, including the graph with its voltages: Resting potential: -70 mV Depolarization: +30 mV (due to Na+ influx) Repolarization: Drops back to negative values (due to K+ outflow) Hyperpolarization: Potential dips below -70 mV briefly Return to resting potential: Na+/K+ pump restores balance 8. What is a synapse? A synapse is the junction between two neurons where electrical signals are converted into chemical signals through the release of neurotransmitters. The synapse allows communication between neurons. 9. Cerebrum vs Cerebellum function and anatomy: Cerebrum: Responsible for higher cognitive functions like thinking, decision-making, and voluntary movement. It consists of two hemispheres with four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal).  Cerebellum: Located below the cerebrum, it controls balance, coordination, and fine motor movements. 10. Hormonal vs neural similarities and differences: Similarities: Both involve signaling molecules that bind to specific receptors to initiate a response. Differences: Neural signaling is fast and localized, using neurotransmitters, while hormonal signaling is slower, using hormones that travel through the bloodstream to affect distant targets. 11. Excitatory NTs vs Inhibitory NTs: Excitatory neurotransmitters: Increase the likelihood of firing an action potential (e.g., glutamate). Inhibitory neurotransmitters: Decrease the likelihood of firing an action potential (e.g., GABA). 12. Epinephrine vs Norepinephrine: Epinephrine (adrenaline): Released by the adrenal medulla during the fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate and energy availability. Norepinephrine: Also involved in the fight-or-flight response, but more focused on increasing alertness and attention. It acts both as a hormone and neurotransmitter. The bible of the neuroscience is the DSM-5 Draw and label a neuron 1. How hormones sometimes act as NTs or hormones? Certain chemical messengers can act as both neurotransmitters and hormones depending on their location and mode of transmission. For example, epinephrine and norepinephrine act as neurotransmitters when released at synapses in the nervous system, while they function as hormones when released by the adrenal glands into the bloodstream to trigger body-wide effects, such as during the fight-or-flight response. 2. Steroids and how do they work? Steroids are a class of hormones that pass through cell membranes and bind to intracellular receptors. Once inside the cell, the steroid-receptor complex moves into the nucleus and regulates gene expression, leading to changes in protein synthesis. Steroids control various physiological functions such as metabolism, inflammation, and immune responses. 3. What are the 2 main structures of the immune system, and what are their functions? 1. Innate immune system: Provides immediate, non-specific defense against pathogens. It includes barriers like the skin and immune cells like macrophages. 2. Adaptive immune system: Provides a targeted and specific response to pathogens, with memory to recognize them in future encounters. This system involves T-cells and B-cells that can produce antibodies. 4. What is a synapse? A synapse is the junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic neuron, cross the synaptic cleft, and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, transmitting signals between the cells. 5. What defines sickness? Sickness is defined as a physiological and psychological state where normal body functions are impaired due to infection, disease, or other factors. It can manifest in symptoms like fever, fatigue, and cognitive impairment. 6. What's the process of an action potential? 1. Resting potential: The neuron is at rest, with a membrane potential of around -70 mV. 2. Depolarization: Sodium (Na+) channels open, allowing Na+ to enter, causing the membrane potential to rise to about +30 mV. 3. Repolarization: Potassium (K+) channels open, allowing K+ to leave the cell, bringing the membrane potential back down. 4. Hyperpolarization and Return to Resting: The potential briefly dips below -70 mV before returning to the resting state. 7. Shutting down the stress response: Mention HPA Axis and Negative Feedback: The HPA (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal) Axis regulates the stress response. When cortisol levels rise due to stress, the hypothalamus and pituitary detect this and reduce CRH and ACTH production, respectively. This forms a negative feedback loop that lowers cortisol production, shutting down the stress response once the body is stabilized. 8. What is the difference between Endocrine vs Exocrine glands? Endocrine glands: Release hormones directly into the bloodstream (e.g., adrenal glands). Exocrine glands: Release substances through ducts to external surfaces (e.g., sweat glands). 9. What would happen to the resting membrane potential entered the neuron? (Make it clearer): If positive ions (e.g., Na+) entered the neuron, the resting membrane potential would become less negative (depolarization), moving the neuron closer to firing an action potential. If negative ions (e.g., Cl⁻) entered, the membrane potential would become more negative (hyperpolarization), making the neuron less likely to fire. 10. Explain and differentiate the fast and slow response pathways of stress (2-4 sentences): The fast response pathway involves the Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary (SAM) system, which activates the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline and norepinephrine for immediate "fight or flight" responses. The slow response pathway involves the HPA axis, which results in the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex to manage prolonged stress. 11. Describe the interaction between action potentials and synaptic transmissions: An action potential travels down the axon to the axon terminal, where it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse. These neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, creating a graded potential (either excitatory or inhibitory), which influences whether the postsynaptic neuron will fire its own action potential. 12. What are the four steps of synaptic transmission? 1. Neurotransmitter synthesis: Neurotransmitters are produced and stored in synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic neuron. 2. Release: An action potential triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. 3. Receptor binding: Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. 4. Termination: Neurotransmitters are either broken down, reabsorbed, or diffuse away from the synaptic cleft. 13. Describe the difference between the effects of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters: Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., glutamate) depolarize the postsynaptic membrane, making it more likely that the neuron will fire an action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA) hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane, making it less likely for the neuron to fire an action potential. 1. What are the four ways that neurotransmitters can be deactivated? 1. Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the presynaptic neuron. 2. Enzymatic degradation: Enzymes break down neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine). 3. Diffusion: Neurotransmitters diffuse away from the synaptic cleft. 4. Glial cell uptake: Glial cells can absorb excess neurotransmitters. 2. Label the scale of chronic stress from neurotoxic (transient to permanent): Chronic stress initially leads to reversible changes in brain structure, particularly in the hippocampus. Over time, prolonged stress can lead to permanent damage with impaired memory, emotional dysregulation, and increased risk of mental health disorders. 3. Recognize the Yerkes-Dodson law's different performance levels: Low arousal: Performance is low due to lack of motivation. Optimal arousal: Performance peaks at moderate levels of arousal. High arousal: Performance declines due to excessive stress or anxiety. 4. Know brain disorders caused by inflammation: Inflammation in the brain has been linked to disorders such as: PANDAS (Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections). Multiple Sclerosis. Neuroinflammatory conditions like encephalitis. 5. Label temporal spacing stimulus one and two: Temporal spacing refers to how stimuli are presented over time. Stimulus one and stimulus two need to be spaced apart adequately to prevent overlap and ensure effective processing. 6. How is stress good? Stress, when moderate and short-term, can be beneficial (eustress) by improving focus, motivation, and performance. It helps prepare the body to respond to challenges. 7. Differences between SAM and HPA axis: SAM axis: Involves the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medulla, releasing epinephrine and norepinephrine for immediate stress responses (fight or flight). HPA axis: Involves the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex, releasing cortisol to manage long-term stress. 8. Define the ACT Hormone: ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) is released by the pituitary gland in response to CRH from the hypothalamus. It stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. 9. Explain the HPA axis and the process in which it releases cortisol: The HPA axis starts with the hypothalamus releasing CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone), which signals the pituitary to release ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone). ACTH travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands, which then release cortisol, a hormone involved in the stress response. 10. What is EPSP and its purpose? An EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential) is a temporary depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane caused by positively charged ions entering the neuron. Its purpose is to bring the neuron closer to the threshold for firing an action potential. 11. One similarity and one difference between hormonal and neural signaling: Similarity: Both involve chemical messengers that bind to specific receptors to elicit a response. Difference: Neural signaling is fast and localized, whereas hormonal signaling is slower and affects distant targets via the bloodstream. 12. What needs to happen for an action potential to be fired off? For an action potential to fire, the neuron must reach a threshold potential (around -50 mV) due to depolarization caused by the influx of positive ions (e.g., Na+). This triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels, allowing the action potential to propagate down the axon. What is the difference between the cortical and subcortical regions of the brain? Cortical regions: The cerebral cortex is involved in higher-order functions such as perception, reasoning, decision-making, and voluntary movement. It consists of four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Subcortical regions: Located beneath the cortex, subcortical structures (e.g., limbic system, basal ganglia, thalamus) handle more fundamental processes like emotion, memory, and basic survival functions. 2. What is the process of an action potential? 1. Resting potential: The neuron is at -70 mV. 2. Depolarization: Na+ channels open, causing Na+ to enter the neuron, raising the membrane potential to +30 mV. 3. Repolarization: K+ channels open, allowing K+ to leave the neuron, restoring the membrane potential.  4. Hyperpolarization: The potential dips below -70 mV briefly. 5. Return to resting potential: The Na+/K+ pump restores the resting state. 3. Action potential vs. Resting potential: Action potential: A rapid, temporary change in the membrane potential due to depolarization, leading to signal transmission (+30 mV). Resting potential: The stable, negative charge of the neuron when not transmitting signals (-70 mV). 4. Compare and Contrast hormones versus neurotransmitters: Hormones: Released by glands, travel through the bloodstream, slower, affect distant organs. Neurotransmitters: Released by neurons at synapses, fast-acting, affect nearby cells. 5. Name two ways that hormonal signaling differs from neural signaling: 1. Speed: Neural signaling is much faster than hormonal signaling. 2. Distance: Neural signals are localized, whereas hormones travel throughout the bloodstream. 6. Differences and similarities with chemical and electrical signaling of neurons: Electrical signaling: Action potentials, fast, involves ion movement (Na+, K+). Chemical signaling: Involves neurotransmitter release at synapses, slower but allows for greater modulation. 7. Explain the steps to activating the SAM pathway: 1. Stress activates the hypothalamus. 2. The sympathetic nervous system is stimulated. 3. The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine, triggering the fight-or-flight response. 8. Explain the difference between a PSP and an action potential: PSP (Postsynaptic Potential): Graded response, can be excitatory (EPSP) or inhibitory (IPSP), localized to the synapse. Action potential: All-or-none response that propagates down the axon once the threshold is reached. 9. How has the DSM evolved over time? The DSM has evolved to include more refined diagnostic criteria, additional mental health disorders, and greater understanding of mental illnesses. Early editions had fewer diagnoses, while modern versions incorporate more nuanced and evidence-based categorizations. 10. Resting voltage of a presynaptic neuron: The resting potential of a presynaptic neuron is around -70 mV. 11. What are some negative/positive effects of cortisol on the body? Positive: Helps manage stress, increases glucose availability for energy, and reduces inflammation. Negative: Chronic exposure can lead to immune suppression, weight gain, memory issues, and mood disorders. 12. How are hormonal communication and neural signaling similar? Both systems involve the release of chemical messengers (hormones or neurotransmitters) that bind to specific receptors to elicit a response in target cells. 13. Why do we "choke" when under stress? When under stress, the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which is responsible for higher cognitive functions, becomes inhibited, and the basal ganglia, which controls habitual behavior, takes over. This can lead to automatic or less effective responses, causing performance to decline in high-pressure situations. 1. Describe neural signaling in 5 steps: 1. Resting potential: The neuron is at rest with a membrane potential of about -70 mV. 2. Depolarization: Sodium (Na+) channels open, and Na+ enters the neuron, causing the membrane potential to become more positive. 3. Threshold: Once the membrane potential reaches the threshold (~-50 mV), an action potential is triggered. 4. Repolarization: Potassium (K+) channels open, allowing K+ to exit the cell, restoring the membrane potential. 5. Hyperpolarization and return to resting potential: The membrane briefly becomes more negative than the resting potential before returning to -70 mV. 2. What are the major parts and functions of the Limbic System? Amygdala: Involved in emotion, particularly fear and aggression. Hippocampus: Essential for memory formation and spatial navigation.  Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis (hunger, thirst, body temperature) and the stress response. Cingulate gyrus: Involved in emotional processing and behavior regulation. The cerebral cortex has a characteristically wrinkled appearance. This is a space-saving tactic. By crumpling up, the cortex is able to fit more grey matter into the same amount of space.Gyrus (pl. gyri) – “ring, circle (G.)”: A bump or convolution between grooves. Sulcus (pl. sulci) – “furrow, trench (L.)”: A groove between gyri. 3. Describe the differences between the SAM Axis and the HPA Axis: SAM Axis (Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary Axis): Manages the "fight or flight" response. It activates the sympathetic nervous system, leading to the release of adrenaline and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla for immediate action. HPA Axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis): Involves the release of cortisol in response to prolonged stress. It starts with the hypothalamus releasing CRH, which triggers ACTH from the pituitary, leading to cortisol release from the adrenal cortex. 4. What are the 3 basic regions of the brainstem and their function? 1. Midbrain: Controls vision, hearing, motor control, and alertness. 2. Pons: Regulates breathing, communication between different parts of the brain, and sensations like hearing and balance. 3. Medulla oblongata: Controls autonomic functions like heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion. 5. Why is it important to have T-regulatory cells? T-regulatory cells are important because they help maintain immune system balance by suppressing immune responses and preventing autoimmune diseases. They regulate other immune cells to ensure that the immune system doesn’t attack the body’s own tissues. 6. What is the difference between efferent and afferent nerves? Afferent nerves: Carry sensory information from the body to the central nervous system (CNS). Efferent nerves: Transmit signals from the CNS to muscles or glands to produce movement or action. 7. Where is cerebrospinal fluid circulated? Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates within the brain's ventricles, the central canal of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It cushions the CNS, removes waste, and provides nutrients. 8. What are meninges? Describe the 3 layers. Meninges are protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. The 3 layers are: 1. Dura mater: The outermost, tough layer. 2. Arachnoid mater: The middle, web-like layer that holds cerebrospinal fluid. 3. Pia mater: The innermost layer that adheres to the brain and spinal cord. 9. How does the action potential happen? An action potential occurs when the neuron’s membrane potential reaches the threshold due to depolarization caused by Na+ influx. This triggers a rapid sequence of depolarization, repolarization (K+ outflow), and hyperpolarization before returning to the resting potential. 10. Describe the composition and organization of a neural network: A neural network is composed of interconnected neurons that transmit signals. Neurons are organized into layers: Input layer: Receives signals. Hidden layer: Processes signals. Output layer: Sends the final response. 11. What is the general adaptation syndrome? The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) is a model of the body's stress response, consisting of three stages:  1. Alarm: The body recognizes a threat and activates the fight-or-flight response. 2. Resistance: The body adapts to the stressor, maintaining high levels of energy and hormone output. 3. Exhaustion: Prolonged exposure to stress depletes the body’s resources, leading to burnout or illness. How is the immune system activated? The immune system is activated when pathogens (e.g., bacteria, viruses) are recognized by immune cells like macrophages or dendritic cells. These cells detect foreign antigens and trigger an immune response. This response can be innate (non-specific) or adaptive (specific, involving T-cells and B-cells). 2. What is prenatal immunity? Prenatal immunity refers to the passive immunity a fetus receives from the mother during pregnancy. This protection is mainly through antibodies (IgG) transferred across the placenta, providing the baby with immunity to diseases that the mother has encountered. 3. Where does the word adrenaline come from? The word adrenaline is derived from the Latin word adrenal ("ad" meaning "near" and "renal" meaning "kidney") because the adrenal glands, which produce adrenaline, are located on top of the kidneys. 4. How is shutting off the immune system beneficial for short-term stressors? During short-term stress, shutting down the immune system temporarily helps to conserve energy and resources that the body needs to respond to immediate threats (fight or flight). This suppression prevents unnecessary inflammation and redirects energy to essential functions like increased heart rate and muscle activity. 5. What is phagocytosis? Phagocytosis is the process by which certain immune cells, like macrophages and neutrophils, engulf and digest pathogens or debris. It is a critical component of the innate immune response. 6. What is the difference between tracts and nerves? Tracts: Bundles of axons located within the central nervous system (CNS). Nerves: Bundles of axons located outside the CNS, in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). 7. Describe the pathway of the negative feedback loop—give an example: A negative feedback loop is a process that maintains homeostasis by counteracting changes in the body. An example is the HPA axis regulating cortisol. When cortisol levels are high, the hypothalamus reduces the production of CRH (Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone), and the pituitary reduces ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) release, which lowers cortisol production. 8. List 3 differences between the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System, with examples: 1. Function: ○ Sympathetic: Activates the "fight or flight" response (e.g., increased heart rate). ○ Parasympathetic: Activates the "rest and digest" response (e.g., slows heart rate). 2. Pupil response: ○ Sympathetic: Dilates pupils. ○ Parasympathetic: Constricts pupils. 3. Digestive activity: ○ Sympathetic: Inhibits digestion. ○ Parasympathetic: Stimulates digestion. 9. Explain how neural signaling works: Neural signaling involves: 1. A stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane, reaching the threshold. 2. An action potential is triggered and propagates down the axon. 3. The action potential reaches the axon terminal, releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse. 4. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, generating a response. 10. What causes psychiatric disease? Psychiatric diseases can be caused by a combination of factors including genetics, neurochemical imbalances, environmental stressors, and brain structure abnormalities. 11. How has the DSM evolved over time? The DSM has evolved by expanding diagnostic categories, refining criteria, and incorporating new research into mental health disorders. Earlier versions had fewer diagnoses and broader categories, while modern versions offer more specific and evidence-based criteria for diagnosis. 12. Briefly explain the difference between neuron (electrical) and endocrine (hormonal) signaling: Neural signaling: Fast, electrical transmission of signals along neurons, with neurotransmitters used to communicate between cells at synapses. Hormonal signaling: Slower, involving hormones released by glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect distant target cells. 13. Describe the components of the central nervous system (CNS) and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) and their functions: CNS (Central Nervous System): Composed of the brain and spinal cord, it processes sensory information and coordinates responses, including motor commands. PNS (Parasympathetic Nervous System): A part of the autonomic nervous system, it conserves energy by slowing the heart rate, increasing digestion, and promoting relaxation. Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements by transmitting signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. Receives sensory input from the external environment and relays it to the CNS. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate. Divided into two subsystems: 1. Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for "fight or flight" during stressful situations. 2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes "rest and digest" functions, slowing down the body and conserving energy during relaxation. Explain the importance of the myelin sheath on a neuron’s axon: The myelin sheath is a fatty layer that wraps around the axon of a neuron. Its primary function is to: Increase the speed of electrical impulse transmission by allowing the signal to "jump" between gaps in the sheath, called nodes of Ranvier, through a process called saltatory conduction.  Protect the axon and prevent signal loss, ensuring efficient communication between neurons. 2. What are the two types of cells found in the brain, and what do they do? 1. Neurons: The primary signaling cells that transmit electrical impulses and facilitate communication within the brain and nervous system. 2. Glial cells: Support neurons in various ways, including maintaining homeostasis, forming myelin, and protecting the brain from pathogens. Types of glial cells include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia. 3. What are four ways that neurotransmitters can be removed from the synaptic cleft? 1. Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron. 2. Enzymatic degradation: Specific enzymes break down neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine). 3. Diffusion: Neurotransmitters diffuse away from the synaptic cleft. 4. Glial uptake: Glial cells remove neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft. 4. What are two things the stress response accomplishes? 1. Increases alertness and readiness: The body becomes primed for action, improving focus and physical responses to immediate threats. 2. Mobilizes energy resources: Glucose and fatty acids are released into the bloodstream for energy to sustain physical activity. 5. What are the three stages of the stress model (General Adaptation Syndrome)? 1. Alarm stage: The body recognizes a threat and activates the fight-or-flight response. 2. Resistance stage: The body attempts to adapt to the stressor and maintain balance. 3. Exhaustion stage: Prolonged stress depletes the body’s resources, leading to fatigue and increased risk of illness. 6. What is the build-up of chronic stress over time called (aka. wear and tear)? The build-up of chronic stress over time is referred to as allostatic load. 7. What is productive or beneficial stress called? Productive stress is known as eustress. It helps improve performance and focus. 8. What innate immune system cell can send out "tentacles" and intake pathogens? Dendritic cells are innate immune cells that send out extensions (tentacles) to capture and process pathogens, then present antigens to T-cells for an adaptive immune response. 9. How is the DSM-5 organized from front to back? The DSM-5 is organized by: 1. Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders that typically manifest in childhood and adolescence. 2. Mood and anxiety disorders. 3. Neurocognitive disorders, substance-related disorders, and other mental health conditions in later sections. 10. What are the three layers of the meninges from top to bottom? 1. Dura mater: The tough outer layer. 2. Arachnoid matter: The web-like middle layer. 3. Pia mater: The delicate inner layer that directly covers the brain and spinal cord. In the brain, white matter and gray matter refer to different types of tissue that serve distinct roles: Gray matter: Primarily consists of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons. It is involved in processing and interpreting information, as it contains the synapses where communication between neurons happens. Gray matter is found in areas such as the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for higher brain functions like thinking, perceiving, and controlling voluntary muscles. White matter: Made up mostly of myelinated axons (the long fibers that transmit signals between different parts of the brain and between the brain and spinal cord). The myelin sheath gives white matter its color and allows for faster transmission of electrical signals. White matter connects different parts of gray matter together and facilitates communication across brain regions. Summary: Gray matter = processing centers (neuron cell bodies). White matter = communication pathways (myelinated axons). Gray matter is found primarily in the following regions of the brain:  Cerebral cortex: The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level functions such as thought, perception, and voluntary movement. Basal ganglia: Deep in the brain, involved in movement regulation. Thalamus: Relays motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, involved in motor control and coordination. White matter is located beneath the gray matter of the cerebral cortex, connecting different gray matter areas of the brain to each other. It forms the inner part of the brain and includes structures such as: Corpus callosum: A large white matter structure that connects the two hemispheres of the brain. Internal capsule: A major white matter pathway that transmits signals between the cerebral cortex and lower brain structures or the spinal cord. White matter serves as the "wiring" of the brain, facilitating communication between different brain regions. Gray matter serves as the "processing centers."