Globalization and Global Politics PDF
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This document provides a chapter on globalization and global politics. It explores the concept, historical aspects, and contemporary challenges of globalization. The chapter examines the factors driving globalization, including technological advancements and economic interdependence, along with the complexities of global governance in managing the challenges related to global risks.
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CHAPTER 2: Globalization and global politics lobalization refers to the widening, deepening, and acceleration of worldwide connectivity or G interconnectedness. It can be described as a "drinking world," "networked world," or "global village." This phenomenon unifies and divides the world;...
CHAPTER 2: Globalization and global politics lobalization refers to the widening, deepening, and acceleration of worldwide connectivity or G interconnectedness. It can be described as a "drinking world," "networked world," or "global village." This phenomenon unifies and divides the world; nations, communities, and households are interconnected through complex webs of global trade, finance, and production networks. The 2008 Global Financial Crisis (GFC) is an example that no country could isolate itself from global market fluctuations Historical Narrative: Traditional views of globalizationemphasize a Western-centric perspective, tracing its evolution from the "age of discovery" (1450-1850), continuing to the late nineteenth century belle epoque (1850-1914) or Pax Britannica, then to Pax Americana (1945-1989), finally reaching the most recent phase of post-cold war neoliberal globalization (1990-2008). apping Gloabalization: M In 2007, globalization was at its peak, accounting for 53% of global GDP. FollowingGFC, Globalization has slowed, leading to discussions of "deglobalization" or "slowbalization," further worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical tensions like Russia's invasion of Ukraine Today only a few governments have resources to resist global market speculation against their national currency without significant domestic economic consequences ○ Transnational CorporationsTNCs dominate the global economy, with revenues exceeding the GDP of many countries and accounting for over 33% of world output. Contemporary globalization is directly associated with the revolution in modern transportation and communication technologies Digital technologies enable small businesses to access international markets; cheap, instantaneous, offer round the clock communication and information flows ○ Enables movement like BLM and contributes to the rise of nationalist populism through transnational networks ○ 38,000 international NGOs operate 167 countries, illustrating the reach of global civil society ○ Support illicit activities like human trafficking and money laundering, learning to more disorderly and violent world Globalization Engines ○ technics(technological change and social organization) ○ economics(markets and capitalism) ○ politics(power, interests, and institutions) Goldin and Mariathasan highlight that global connectivity creates complex interdependencies across various systems resulting in systemic risks National borders offer little protection from global threats In response, global governance manages the challenges of globalization ○ It shapes domestic policies and practices, enabling collaboration between national and local governments As a result of COVID-19 pandemic, there has been noticeable change in migration patterns G lobal migration rose to 280 million, 3.6% of the world population The influx fueled fear about cultural impacts and national identities Migration highlight global inequalities and fosters cultural hybridization, blending influence into new expressions nalyzing Globalization A Globalization is characterized by: Stretching of Social, political, cultural, and economic activities extend across borders; climate change The Intensification of global connections. The accelerating pace at which ideas and goods circulate the world The deepening of interactions between local and global The developing awareness among people and states of being part of a global system. Globalization is indicative of unfolding structural change in the scale of human social and economic organization human affairs are now organized on transnational, regional and global scales "deterritorialization" However, experiences of globalization are different, individuals or groups with power benefit from opportunities that come with globalization where's the poorest remain marginalized and disconnect from these benefit; reinforces inequality and exclusion The concept of globalization is associated with a process of time-space compression Advancement in technology make distances seem smaller, complicating the exercise of power and accountability; contributing to aunty-globalism Internationalism refers to the growing connection between sovereign independent nation-states International interdependence refer to mutual dependency between sovereign states such that each is sensitive and vulnerable to the action of the other Debating Globalization Skeptics:Argue that globalization is highly exaggerated, ‘conceptual folly’that distracts attention from the ‘real’ forces which determine world politics: state power, geopolitics, nationalism, capitalism, and imperial- ism Realists argue that geopolitics and the anarchical structure of the state system are the principal determinants of world politics Marxist skeptics argue that globalization has its origins in the inevitable expansionary logic of capitalism, sharing much in common with the imperialisms of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries ○ Globalists:Affirm globalization and its significance as a fundamental source of disruptive change in world politics Transformationalists:Argue globalization is transforming world politics and requires a corresponding conceptual shift. 2.3 The crisis of globalization and the liberal world order he globalization crisis reflects on unraveling the tacit international consensus which promoted T and sustained globalization or more accurately the neoliberal model of globalization, since the end of the cold war. Three development are central to this: Global populist revolt: rise in political movement against mainstream politics and globalization Return of great power rivalry: rise of new power; China, India and Brazil. Growing securitization of global connectivity: addressing international connection as security issue Debate ○ Skeptics:the crisis of liberal world order and globalization are associated with the decline in western liberal hegemony and implosion of the neoliberal globalization project in the aftermath of the GFC ○ Globalist Liberal globalists:warn that with the current rules-based international order collapse, we could face a dystopian future where international relations are governed solely by the power of the strongest states. The only effective solution is to strengthen and defend the estsisting order through a coalition of democracies Transformational globalists:argues the crisis of liberal world order and globalization are exaggerated The liberal world order has never been entirely liberal, nor universal, nor orderly and has always been contested They believe we are entering a new global era that can be more inclusion instead of reverting to the past Amitav Acharya describes the emerging global order as a "multiplex order" characterized by: ○ Decentered: No single global hegemon, resulting in a multipolar system. ○ Diverse: More inclusive and less Western-centric than the liberal world order. ○ Complex: Multiple overlapping levels of governance and strong interdependence. ○ Pluralistic: Involves various actors beyond states, with power widely distributed. lobalization and the transformation of world politics G Globalization challenges traditional approaches to world politics by: Promoting a geocentric perspective that emphasizes global systems over state-centric models. Revealing the Western-centric biases in International Relations (IR), encouraging a more inclusive study and practice. Highlighting transformational changes rather than continuities in world politics. Key transformations include: From International to Planetary Politics: local decision impact global communities From Liberal to Post-Western Global Order: A power shift to China, India, and Brazil From Intergovernmentalism to Global Governance: The evolution of a complex governance system that requires states to cooperate internationally, reshaping the concept of state sovereignty. F rom National Security to a World Risk Society: necessitating global responses to issues like climate change and pandemics. From Hegemonic Power to Diffused Power: Power is no longer the monopoly of states, there is a growing power of non-state actors From Liberal Peace to Structural Conflict: While globalization is often linked to peace, it also reproduces structural inequalities, leading to conflict on various levels. CHAPTER 4: International history of the twentieth century First World War (WWI): Known as the Great War; marked the onset of modern, industrialized warfare. Resulted in massive casualties and the collapse of four empires: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman. Post-war shift: US and USSR emerged as superpowers. Modern War of WWI Debated responsibility, particularly Germany’s. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand sparked the conflict. Nationalism contributed to beliefs in a quick victory, but the war devolved into trench warfare. Treaty of Versailles: Attempted to create a new order but failed to address grievances, fostering resentment in Germany. Second World War (WWII): Altered US-USSR relations from allies to adversaries; introduced nuclear weapons, shifting global dynamics. The legacy included widespread confrontations and the establishment of nuclear capabilities. Modern War of WWII Economic turmoil post-WWI, particularly the Great Depression, contributed to the rise of extremist parties (e.g., Hitler). Appeasement Policies: Britain and France's ineffective attempts to manage German expansion (e.g., Munich Agreement). Blitzkrieg Tactics: Rapid military strategies used by Germany, leading to significant early victories. ○ The German attack on the USSR extended the war from short and limited campaigns to total warfare Invasion of the USSR (1941): Revealed Nazi ambitionsand brutality. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the US into the war in Europe, and eventually forced Germany into war on two fronts (again) Debate persists about whether the atomic bomb should have been used in 1945 End of empire Decolonization was founded on the principle of self- determination, marking the decline of European colonial powers. Various factors influenced decolonization ○ The attitude of the colonial power ○ The ideology and strategy of anti-imperialist forces The role of external powers ○ Post-1945, Britain granted independence to 49 territories, notably India (1947) and many African nations in the 1960s. After 1945, France withdrew from Indochina only after military defeat by the Viet Minh. In Africa, France withdrew from the empire while attempting to preserve its influence. The process of decolonization was relatively peaceful in many cases; in others, it led to revolutionary wars (Algeria, Malaya, and Angola) whose scale and ferocity reflected the attitudes of the colonial powers and nationalist movements. Different European powers had differing attitudes to decolonization after 1945: some sought to preserve their empires, in part (the French) or whole (the Portuguese) Independence and national liberation became embroiled in cold war conflicts when the superpowers and/or their allies became involved, for example in Vietnam. Whether decolonization was judged successful depends, in part, on whose perspective you adopt—that of the European power, the independence movement, or the people themselves. Cold war The rise of the US as global powers post-1945 shaped international relations. ○ Its relationship with the USSR provided a crucial dynamic in world affairs affected every part of the world ○ historians have debated with vigour and acrimony who was responsible for the collapse of the wartime alliance between Moscow and Washington. The rise of the Soviet Union as a global power after 1945 was equally crucial. ○ Disagreements remain about when and why the cold war began, and who was responsible, some historians date the origins of the cold war to the Russian Revolution of 1917, while most focus on events between 1945 and 1950. The cold war had distinct phases, during which tension and the risk of direct confrontation grew and receded ○ 1945–53: onset of the cold war EUROPE Tensions arose from failure to implement Yalta and Potsdam decisions on Germany and Eastern Europe, especially Poland. Balancing self-determination and security was difficult, leading to Western fears of Soviet ideological expansion. U.S. aid to Turkey and Greece (1947) framed as a defensive response to Soviet threats; Marshall Plan vital for Western recovery. Soviet-aligned regimes replaced democratic forces except in Yugoslavia under Tito. Stalin's blockade of West Berlin (1948) led to a U.S.-led airlift, ending in May 1949 Formation of NATO in April 1949 ensured collective defense commitments to Western Europe. ASIA M ao Zedong's victory in the Chinese Civil War (1949) shifted U.S. and Soviet perceptions North Korea's invasion of South Korea (1950) triggered a three-year conflict, testing U.S. resistance to aggression MIDDLE EAST Israel was established in 1948 with support from both superpowers. Soviet shift to supporting Arab nationalism; Israel aligned more closely with the U.S. Gamal Abdel Nasser's pan-Arabism complicated Cold War dynamics. The U.S., Britain, and France maintained intricate ties with Arab states, influenced by historical and strategic interests. 1953–69: conflict, confrontation, and compromise ○ Korean War Consequences: Increased U.S. military presence in Western Europe due to perceived Soviet threats; reliance on American security grew. Belief in a monolithic communism controlled by Moscow, not universally accepted by European allies. West Germany's rearmament (1954) led to the Warsaw Pact's creation (1955). build-up of conventional and nuclear forces by both superpowers; concerns over U.S. extended deterrence ○ By the 1960s, approximately 7,000 nuclear weapons were in Western Europe. ○ NATO's strategy included nuclear arms to counter Soviet conventional superiority. Khrushchev's modernization efforts sparked reform movements in Eastern Europe; Soviet intervention in Hungary (1956) coincided with the attack on Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel, precipitated by Nasser’s seizure of the Suez Canal. Eisenhower opposed allied actions, leading to Britain's withdrawal and strained U.S.-UK relations. Khrushchev's Foreign Policy: Sought coexistence while supporting revolutionary movements, causing Western fears of global communism. U.S. democratic values were often compromised for Cold War interests. Both the US and USSR developed strong intelligence agencies for assessing adversaries and global interventions. Cuban Missile Crisis: U.S. opposition to Castro and Cuba's ties with Moscow led to the crisis in 1962, marking a peak in Cold War tension. Post-1962 Stability: A period of coexistence emerged, though nuclear arsenals continued to expand. D ebate over whether the growth constituted an arms race or stemmed from internal pressures. New nuclear states included Britain, France, China, India, and Pakistan, with Israel and South Africa also developing capabilities. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was established in 1968 to limit the arms race and prevent new nuclear developments. ○ 1969–79: the rise and fall of détente Soviet–Chinese Relations deteriorated by 1969, leading to military clashes, influencing détente between Moscow and Washington. Détente in Europe originated from Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik, recognizing Berlin and East Germany’s sovereignty. Key Figures: Nixon and Kissinger pivotal in détente and Sino-American rapprochement. during this phase in Soviet–American relations, Both supported friendly regimes; political upheavals in the Third World tested control. 1973 Arab-Israeli War: Superpower involvement shifted Egypt's allegiance from Moscow to Washington, temporarily isolating Egypt in the Arab world and alleviated Israel's dual-front war fears. Soviet Support in the Third World reflected Moscow’s confidence and ideological competition with the West and China. Soviet support for revolutionary movements, like in Ethiopia (1975) and Angola (1978), was seen as undermining détente. Critics argued that SALT failed to curb Soviet military advancements, increasing U.S. vulnerability. The view from Moscow was different in comparison to US, reflecting divergent assumptions about the scope and purpose of détente and the nature of nuclear deterrence The 1979 overthrow of the Shah reduced American influence in the region and created a hostile regime. December 1979, NATO decided to deploy missiles in response to Soviet military actions; Soviet intervention in Afghanistan led to widespread condemnation. President Jimmy Carter withdrew SALT II from Senate ratification and called for an Olympic boycott; increased military focus and political pressure culminated in Reagan's election in 1980. 1979–86: ‘the second cold war’ ○ Critics argued that the Soviets were achieving nuclear superiority. Some suggested strategies that aimed for victory in a nuclear war. Reagan's Election (1980) marked a shift in focus to nuclear missile issues; NATO's missile deployment heightened tensions. R eagan’s policies included the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), perceived as an attempt to regain nuclear dominance. Second Cold War (1979-1986): Characterized by fears of nuclear war and Reagan's confrontational rhetoric; U.S. military interventions reflected a belligerent stance. Support for the Contras in Nicaragua led to international controversy and legal challenges. Anxiety in Soviet leadership over U.S. intentions, leading to incidents like the death of a South Korean airliner in 1983. Misinterpretation of NATO exercises (e.g., “Able Archer”) heightened fears of a potential NATO attack. Aging leaders (Brezhnev, Andropov, Chernenko) hindered Soviet foreign policy until Gorbachev's rise in 1985. Gorbachev Introduced "glasnost" and "perestroika," leading to significant changes in foreign relations and increased Eastern European sovereignty. INF Treaty (1987) banned intermediate-range missiles, seen as a success for Gorbachev and NATO. Post-Gorbachev George H. W. Bush completed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) to reduce long-range nuclear weapons. Emphasis on building trust through arms agreements, though nuclear arms control continued rather than disarmament. Legacy of the Cold War: End marked progress in nuclear arms control but not disarmament; nuclear weapons remain a global issue. C old war dynamics intensified some civil and regional wars, but may have limited others CHAPTER 5: From the end of the cold war to a new world dis-order? The modern world system was largely shaped by two major wars of the twentieth century; WW1 which led to the Russian Revolution and the dissolution of European empires WW2 which resulted in restructured global power; Germany and Japan under Allied control, Widespread devastation in Europe and Asia, Former colonies faced political turmoil, Emergence of the US and USSR as superpowers. Initial hopes for great power cooperation were short-lived, giving way to the Cold War Cause of the Cold War Deep incompatibility between the social and economic systems of East (USSR) and West (US). Mutual fears regarding each other's intentions. Ongoing nuclear arms race created insecurities The Cold War began in Europe but extended to the Global South, resulting in over 25 million deaths from various conflicts (Korea, Vietnam, South Asia, Southern Africa). Influence on International Relations (IR) T he Cold War heavily influenced the development of the discipline of International Relations. ○ Hans J. Morgenthau: His textbook "Politics Among Nations"became foundational in IR. ○ Kenneth Waltz: "Man, The State, and War" establishedkey realist concepts. Both scholars promoted realism as the leading IR paradigm during the Cold War. Waltz's Contribution: ○ Argued that bipolarity (two major powers) created stability, rationalizing the Cold War. ○ This perspective contributed to a belief among IR scholars that the conflict would be permanent. The Fall of the Soviet Union Initial assumptions were that the USSR, as a superpower, would maintain control over Eastern Europe and prevent German unification. However, factors leading to the USSR's collapse: ○ Discontent in Eastern Europe. ○ Economic stagnation worsened by failed reforms post-1985. ○ Cost of competing with the more advanced Western economies. ○ Internal nationalities and tensions, notably in Ukraine. Ongoing debate among historians about the inevitability of the Soviet collapse. Transformation of the International Order The collapse of Soviet power in Eastern and Central Europe and the subsequent dissolution of the USSR led to: ○ A significant shift from a bipolar system (two balancing powers) to a unipolar system dominated by the United States. New questions emerged regarding: ○ Stability of the new international order. ○ Longevity of US primacy. ○ The nature of US foreign policy without a primary adversary. Bill Clinton’s Presidency and Foreign Policy Election of Bill Clinton (1992): ○ Elected with a focus on domestic issues over international affairs. ○ Emphasized economic policies linking domestic prosperity to global competitiveness. Foreign Policy Approach: ○ Reluctance for military intervention post-Cold War, influenced by the 1993 Somalia incident. ○ Engagement in international issues, including: Military intervention in the former Yugoslavia. Advocacy for NATO enlargement. Efforts to resolve regional conflicts (e.g., Northern Ireland). Criticism: ○ Critics claimed Clinton lacked a coherent grand strategy, labeling his approach a "liberal holiday from history." ○ D espite no clear state enemy, Clinton recognized threats from non-state actors like Al Qaeda. Emphasis on Globalization Clinton promoted globalization as an unstoppable force, advocating for: ○ The dismantling of economic barriers globally. ○ Increased trade and foreign direct investment (FDI). ○ Growth of global wealth from $22 trillion in 1990 to $33 trillion in 2000. Emergence of large economies like India and China as significant global players. Economic and Social Consequences Concerns about Clinton’s policies included: ○ Growing economic inequality. ○ Loss of manufacturing jobs, particularly to countries like China. Social Divisions: Economic growth masked underlying issues. Dani Rodrik's Observations: Highlighted emerging social fissures between "winners" (educated, skilled individuals thriving in globalization) and "losers" (those left behind), sowing seeds for future political challenges. cholars have been long interested in why powerful empires (e.g., Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, S European colonial empires, Soviet Union) eventually fell. Fall of empires often does not lead to stability or prosperity. Post-Soviet Russia: Challenges and Transitions 1. Nuclear Arsenal Management: ○ Key issue post-USSR: Control of nuclear weapons. ○ Concerns over weapons proliferation and maintaining control within Russia. 2. Break-up of the USSR ○ 25 million Russians ended up outside modern Russia. ○ Tensions with former Soviet states (e.g., Ukraine, Georgia) arose from Russia's imperial mindset. 3. Economic Transition: ○ Shift from a centralized planned economy to a market economy. ○ The military-industrial complex became outdated, leading to economic difficulties. ○ Painful market reforms (from 1992) caused severe economic decline: Industrial production dropped significantly. Living standards plummeted. Regions reliant on military production suffered greatly. 4. Financial Crisis (1998): ○ Economic collapse wiped out savings and eroded public support for Boris Yeltsin’s regime. ○ Yeltsin resigned in 1999. Vladimir Putin's Rise and Policies Selection as Successor: ○ Chosen by Yeltsin, coming from a KGB background with little original vision. Understanding of Power: Ruthless approach to governance, suppressing opposition. ○ Restoration of Russian Prestige: ○ Viewed the USSR's disintegration as a tragedy; aimed to restore Russian influence. ○ Assertive against NATO expansion and Western disregard for Russia's security. Evolving Relations with the West Realist Perspective: ○ Initial Western engagement due to economic ties (oil and gas) and shared interests against terrorism. Complexity in Relations: ○ Putin’s actions led to tensions, culminating in discussions of a "new cold war." Key Events: ○ 2008 Russian intervention in Georgia. ○ Support for Bashar al-Assad in Syria. ○ 2014 crisis in Ukraine; illegal annexation of Crimea and conflict in eastern Ukraine. Current Landscape (Post-2022) Military Intervention in Ukraine: ○ Marked escalation in tensions, referred to as a "hot" phase of a new cold war. Strategic Ambitions: ○ Supported diplomatically by China, Putin’s ambitions appear limitless despite Russia’s economic challenges. Long-term Outlook: ○ Uncertainty about whether aggressive policies will enhance Russia's power or lead to ongoing conflict with the West, especially given Russia's relatively smaller economy compared to the US and China. Europe: rise and decline? Benefits of the Cold War: Europe and Germany united after the Cold War. Eastern European states gained the right to self-determination The risk of serious conflict diminished, enhancing stability The breakup of Yugoslavia (1990-1999) highlighted the challenges of this transition. Debates on Europe's Future Divergent Views on Security: ○ European Security Arrangements:Countries like France advocated for independent European security (reiterated by Macron in 2022). ○ US Ties:Central and Eastern European nations favored maintaining strong ties with the US and NATO. Concept of a United Europe: ○ Some envisioned a "United States of Europe" for greater global influence. ○ Others, notably the UK, emphasized a Europe of sovereign nation-states, resisting deeper integration (contributing to Brexit). Enlargement and Integration Challenges Integration of Eastern Europe: ○ T he process of bringing Eastern nations into Western structures was termed "enlargement." ○ By 2007, the EU had grown to 27 members and NATO to 26. Criticism of Rapid Enlargement: ○ Some critics argued that rapid expansion diluted the core values of the EU and NATO, undermining integration efforts. Role of Institutions Resilience of the EU and NATO: ○ Institutions demonstrated importance in managing Europe's transition and preventing anarchy. Limitations in Security Powers: ○ Reluctance to transfer significant security authority to EU bodies, with limited military capabilities among member states (mainly UK and France). Military Interventions: ○ Military actions in Libya (2011) and Mali (2012) were driven by individual nations rather than a collective European effort. Economic and Soft Power Economic Influence: ○ By the early 21st century, the EU had a market larger than that of the US and remained its primary economic partner. Soft Power Assets: ○ Europe maintained significant soft power but struggled to unite around common objectives, particularly in times of crisis. Crises and Challenges Euro Crisis and Refugee Crisis: ○ Economic difficulties, particularly in Greece, and the refugee situation stressed the EU’s cohesion. Brexit and US Politics (2016): ○ UK's vote to leave the EU and the election of Donald Trump, who criticized NATO and the EU, created an existential crisis for Europe. Aftermath and Recovery: ○ Despite initial turmoil, the EU regained political resolve; Trump's rhetoric inadvertently reinforced the case for EU unity and highlighted the chaos of Brexit. China in a new Asian century? Historical Context Colonial and Post-Colonial Impact: ○ Asia was subject to European powers in the 19th century and Japanese aggression before 1945. ○ This history contributed to significant instability during the Cold War. Cold War Conflicts in Asia: ○ Major conflicts included: Korean War Vietnam War Partition of India Cambodian genocide Vietnam-Cambodia conflict Chinese invasion of Vietnam Contrast with Europe: ○ Post-war Europe achieved some stability, forming a liberal security community. ○ Asia remained a complex mix of nations with deep-rooted nationalistic tensions. Post-Cold War Developments Outcomes of 1989: ○ Europe saw free elections, territorial resolutions, and Germany’s reunification. ○ In contrast, Asia retained powerful communist regimes (North Korea, Vietnam, China) and unresolved territorial disputes. Reactions to the End of the Cold War China's Response: ○ The Chinese Communist Party tightened control after observing Gorbachev’s reforms in the USSR. North Korea's Strategy: ○ Aimed to prevent collapse by using nuclear threats to secure regime survival. Predictions of Rivalry: ○ Scholars like Aaron Friedberg warned of potential rivalries in Asia, akin to Europe’s bloody past. ○ This prediction was not initially borne out by events. Economic Transformation in Asia Economic Advances: ○ Post-1990s, Asia became a central player in the global economy, representing about 60% of the world’s population. ○ Some commentators began speaking of an emerging “Asian century.” Factors for Economic Success: ○ Cultural values promoting entrepreneurship. ○ Security provided by the US during the Cold War. ○ Role of ASEAN in regional management. ○ Initial economic dynamism from Japan, followed by China's rapid growth. China’s "Peaceful Rise": ○ Initially seen as a benign ascent; aimed to reassure neighbors and the US. ○ US policy favored integrating China into the global economy. Shifts in Perception and Policy Emerging Concerns: ○ Chinese assertiveness in the South China Sea. ○ Military modernization and aggressive foreign policy under Xi Jinping (post-2013). ○ Increased tension over Taiwan and internal policies in Hong Kong and Xinjiang. Realist Perspectives: ○ The rise of great powers often leads to assertive behavior, as argued by realist scholars like Mearsheimer. Regional Implications Geopolitical Dynamics: ○ Asian nations find themselves caught between a rising China and a traditionally dominant US. ○ Increasing pressure on these nations to navigate complex relationships and security concerns. Current Context: ○ The region is feeling the strain of opposing forces, although it may not be at a crisis point akin to 1914. A new Global South? Economic Success in Asia Post-Colonial Aspirations: ○ Nationalist movements aimed for political independence, rapid economic development, and a state-led approach to development. ○ Varieties of socialist ideas were adopted, with some countries, like India, looking to the USSR for models. Challenges Faced by New Nations Elite Corruption and Governance Issues: ○ New elites often succumbed to power, leading to turbulence, military rule, and one-party dictatorships. Economic Inefficiency: ○ Postcolonial economies were often inefficient and accumulated significant debts by the 1970s. ○ The end of the Cold War undermined the belief in state-led development. Legacy of the ‘Third World’ Project Civil Wars and Opportunities: ○ Ongoing civil wars, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, contrasted with opportunities for rejoining the global economy. Impact of Superpower Withdrawal: ○ Some states collapsed into chaos without support from superpowers, exemplified by Somalia's crisis. Structural Reforms and Inequality: ○ Implementation of Western-style reforms often resulted in increased inequality, diminished public services, and rampant corruption. Economic Reintegration and Its Consequences Mixed Results of Economic Reforms: ○ Structural reforms didn't always alleviate economic distress and often worsened living conditions. Migration as a Response: ○ Many people from the Global South migrated to more prosperous areas, seeking better opportunities, reminiscent of the old Third World dynamics. Achievements Amidst Challenges Growing Middle Class: ○ Africa has the fastest-growing middle class; South Asian nations have made strides in reducing extreme poverty. Stability in Latin America: ○ No major interstate wars in Latin America since the Chaco War (1932-1935). India’s Economic Growth: ○ India has seen significant economic growth since the 1990s, becoming the sixth largest economy by 2022, with potential to rise further. Ongoing Challenges Post-COVID-19 Impact of the Pandemic: ○ COVID-19 exacerbated existing challenges in the Global South, including weak public health systems and economic vulnerabilities. Economic Disruptions: ○ The pandemic caused a collapse in tourism and significant drops in foreign remittances. Two International Orders: ○ The situation highlighted disparities between the Global South and industrialized North, reflecting ongoing inequalities in the global order. The Middle East in turmoil: 9/11, the Arab Spring, and after Connection Between Wealth Distribution and Terrorism The relationship between global wealth inequality and terrorism remains debated. The 9/11 attacks marked a significant turning point in international relations, akin to the end of the Cold War. Motivations Behind 9/11 Osama bin Laden and Al Qaeda were driven by motivations beyond social justice; their political vision was seen as retrogressive. The modernity of their methods (e.g., using jet planes as weapons) contrasted with traditional warfare strategies like containment and deterrence. U.S. Response to Terrorism The George W. Bush administration's initial response was controversial and arguably counterproductive. The shift from a legitimate war in Afghanistan to the Iraq War (seen as a “war of choice”) was a major strategic error. The Iraq War ultimately left Iran as a regional power and exacerbated jihadi terrorism. Reasons for the Iraq Intervention Various theories explain the U.S. decision to invade Iraq: ○ Dependency on oil and maintaining access. ○ Influence of the Israel lobby. ○ A perceived need to restore U.S. credibility post-Clinton era. The official rationale focused on eliminating Saddam Hussein’s alleged weapons of mass destruction. Consequences of the Iraq War The war failed to establish a stable democracy in Iraq. It contributed to the rise of the Islamic State, leading to widespread devastation in Iraq and Syria. Arab Spring and Subsequent Turmoil B eginning in 2011, many Middle Eastern countries saw uprisings against autocratic rulers. Initial hope during the Arab Spring turned to chaos: ○ Libya:NATO intervention led to instability. ○ Egypt:Replacement of Mubarak with another autocrat,al-Sisi. ○ Syria:Severe humanitarian crisis, with millions displacedand hundreds of thousands dead. Factors Behind Middle Eastern Volatility Multiple explanations for the region's instability: ○ Role of Islam in fostering anti-modernist sentiments. ○ Economic failures in providing opportunities for citizens. ○ Sectarian divides between Sunni and Shi’a states. Western Influence: ○ Western-imposed borders and support for autocrats contributed to regional grievances. ○ Historical events (e.g., Balfour Declaration) and U.S. interventions have left lasting impacts rom Obama to Trump to Biden F Barack Obama's Election (2008) Marked a major turning point in U.S. politics. Context:Influenced by the unpopular Iraq War (described as a "dumb war") and the severe economic crisis, the worst since the 1930s. Primary Challenges: ○ Economic recovery. ○ Restoring U.S. standing internationally. ○ Shifting focus from the Middle East to Asia. Obama's Foreign Policy Approach Shift in Perspective: ○ Believed the world was moving towards a "post-American" order, with rising influence of China and BRIC countries. ○ Advocated for managing changes in the international system rather than resisting them. Criticism:While considered pragmatic, some viewedhis approach as unfocused. Donald Trump's Presidency Platform:Attacked globalization as un-American; diverged sharply from traditional U.S. foreign policy. Stances on Key Issues: ○ Climate change denial. ○ Criticism of NATO and international institutions. ○ Engaged positively with authoritarian regimes (e.g., Saudi Arabia) while rejecting reforms. Domestic Popularity:Maintained strong approval ratingsdespite controversial policies; aimed to "Make America Great Again." Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic Initial Response:Trump denied the pandemic's seriousness,later politicized it, blaming China. Consequences:Economic fallout and health crisis worsenedunder his administration. Election Outcome:Despite losing to Biden by 5 millionvotes, Trump claimed the election was stolen, leading to the Capitol riot on January 6, 2021. Challenges Faced by Joe Biden Difficult Legacy: ○ Low international reputation for the U.S. ○ Increased domestic polarization. ○ Ongoing pandemic struggles. Goals:Aimed to unite the country and restore international credibility through engagement with European allies. "America is back":Initial positive response from the international community. Ongoing Challenges Withdrawal from Afghanistan:Mismanaged exit led tocriticism domestically and internationally. Geopolitical Rivalries: ○ Russia and China presenting a united front. ○ New multipolar world dynamics as outlined in a February 2022 communiqué by Putin and Xi. Implications:The U.S. faces significant challenges in maintaining its position and addressing the ambitions of Russia and China in their respective regions. CHAPTER 7: Liberal internationalism ver half of the world’s countries are broadly liberal, more than any other regime type (Desilver O 2019). Predominantly found in Europe and the Americas, with increasing presence in parts of Africa and Asia. Liberal values have not significantly influenced global governance structures. Stanley Hoffmann's Critique ○ Liberalism embodies self-restraint, moderation, and peace. ○ International politics often involves conflict and unstable peace. Realist Perspective:Progress, law, and justice require a common power, challenging the liberal project. Liberal Internationalismargues that power politics stem from ideas, which can change. ○ Enlightenment thinkers like Kant, J. S. Mill, and Bentham laid foundations for liberal internationalism. Bentham introduced the term "international" in 1780, emphasizing relations between sovereign states. Post-World War I Idealism: ○ The League of Nations was formed to prevent conflicts and manage disputes. ○ Established the Woodrow Wilson Chair, promoting the study of international politics. Aimed to prevent future global destruction through a collaborative international order. Contemporary Crisis (21st Century): i. Growing sense of crisis in U.S. leadership and global followership. ii. Scholars like G. John Ikenberry question the ability of rising powers (e.g., Brazil, China, India) to assume leadership roles. iii. Uncertainty about a post-Western world’s commitment to liberal internationalist norms. .2 Founding ideas of nineteenth-century liberal internationalism 7 Kant and Bentham are the two leading liberal thinker of the Enlightenment TheyReacted to the brutality of international relations, which Kant described as a "lawless state of savagery." Both sought to establish governance for peace and war, promoting freedom and justice through reason. Jeremy Bentham: ○ Coined the term "international" and promoted concepts like "codification." ○ Advocated for a new international jurisprudence based on equality among sovereigns. ○ Utilitarian principle: “the greatest happiness of the greatest number” applied to international relations. Immanuel Kant: ○ P roposed the idea ofperpetual peacethrough transformation of individual consciousness, republican constitutionalism, and a federation of states. Differentiated between abolishing war (desired goal) versus merely regulating it. Michael Doyle(1986): ○ Argues that Liberal states have created a “separate peace” ○ Identified two aspects of the Kantian legacy: Restraint among liberal states. "International imprudence" with non-liberal states. ○ Challenges to the Thesis: Need to explain why war is "unthinkable" among liberal states. Kant argued that if the decision to use force were taken by the people, rather than by the prince, then the frequency of conflicts would be drastically reduced Counter evidence: Conflicts can occur between liberal and non-liberal states, often tied to wealth and historical alliances (e.g., Canada and the U.S.). liberal states tend to be wealthy, and therefore have less to gain by engaging in conflicts than poorer authoritarian states. liberal states tend to be in relations of amity with other liberal states (e.g. Canada and US) Political Consequences of the Democratic Peace Thesis Francis Fukuyama’s "The End of History?" (1989): ○ Celebrated liberalism’s victory over other ideologies, claiming it leads to stability and peace. Caution from Other Theorists: ○ Doyle (1995) noted that liberal democracies are as aggressive as any other type of state in their relations with authoritarian regimes and stateless peoples .3 Internationalism and institutionalism: peace through law 7 The idea of a natural harmony of interests in inter- national political and economic relations came under challenge in the early part of the twentieth century Britain and Germany had interdependent economies pre-WWI, contradicting the belief that economic ties lead to peace. After WW1, the contradictions of European civilization culminated resulting in 15 million deaths and the end of three empires. Shift in Liberal Thought Post-WWI Peace is not natural but must be consciously created. Leonard Woolfargued that peace and prosperity required ‘consciously devised machinery Woodrow Wilsonargued that peace could only be secured with the creation of an international organization to regulate international relations and prevent anarchy. ○ S uggested transferring German and Ottoman territories under League of Nations oversight. ○ Emphasized that peace requires regulations and the capability to enforce them, similar to domestic governance. Wilson’s Fourteen Points (1918):Advocated for a “general association of nations” to maintain peace, leading to the creation of theLeague of Nations. ○ A system where all states agree to respond collectively to aggression. ○ Differentiated from alliances that respond to specific threats. ○ Article 16 of the League's charter required member states to stop normal relations with any state that goes to war, impose sanctions, and, if needed, provide their armed forces to the League Council to restore peace. ○ The league’s constitution called of self-determination of nations; many nation did not have the capabilities of doing so and required support from superpowers ○ As a result, the League of Nations experiment with collective security was a disaster. It became dominated by self-interest and the U.S. refusal to join exemplified its weaknesses. With the Soviet Union in opposition for ideological reasons, the League of Nations quickly became a talking shop for the ‘satisfied’ powers Hitlers reoccupation of the Rhineland in 1936 marked a significant failure for the League, leading to its decline. The thinkers of the inter-war period were not straightforward Benthamites who thought that reason and science could resolve political disputes, instead, there was a backward-looking and conservative strand to their internationalism. ○ Thinkers like Gilbert Murray and Alfred Zimmern opposed giving the League coercive powers, fearing it could empower non-Western states. ○ There was a reluctance to consider political alternatives to state sovereignty or democratic international governance. After 1945 the language of liberal internationalism was more pragmatic ○ The United Nations was created to address global security needs, incorporating lessons from the League's failures. Introduced a veto system for the five permanent members of the Security Council, altering traditional collective security models. Initial cooperation post-Cold War (e.g., Gulf War) was short-lived, with subsequent interventions (Kosovo, Iraq) sidelining the UN in favor of coalitions led by the U.S. and allies. .4 The challenges confronting liberal internationalism 7 Rise of Liberal Ideas Liberal Ascendancy: ○ O ver the last two centuries, liberalism has emerged as a dominant ideology in world politics, especially after the Cold War. ○ Early 1990s optimism led to the idea of a "new world order," with institutions like the UN Security Council functioning as intended. ○ British PM Tony Blair (1999) claimed, “we are all internationalists now.” ○ By the second decade of the 21st century, confidence in the liberal international order has declined. ○ Recurring crises and disagreements in the multilateral institutions designed to provide governance over security, trade, and finance have dem- onstrated that cooperation is harder to achieve and to sustain than liberals assumed ○ The ongoing violence in the Middle East and Africa, the uneven record of post- cold war liberal foreign policies in delivering a more secure and just world order, and continued unrest trig- gered by global economic inequalities have turned the triumphalism of the ‘liberal decade’ to despondency. G. John Ikenberry the most prominent analyst of influence liberal ideas mapped three phases of liberal internationalism: ○ Liberal Internationalism 1.0:Inter-war idealism and the failed transition to a rule-based order. ○ Liberal Internationalism 2.0:Post-1945, the U.S. established liberal principles in the UN Charter and other institutions, promoting cooperation over short-term gains. Ikenberry argues American-led international order is experiencing a crisis today American dominance is increasingly seen as inadequate for supporting the liberal order. There are signs the world no longer wants an order; liberal principle of sovereign equality is under threat due to US intervenations ○ Example: NATO Intervention in Libya (2011): Controversy arose over the shift from civilian protection to regime change. ○ Liberal Internationalism 3.0:A future model moving away from a sovereignty-based order towards one where global institutions become the new rulers of the world; driven by liberal values Liberalism has often produced unequal benefits for Western vs. non-Western states. Contemporary liberal scholars focus more on preserving the existing order than reforming it for greater justice. Liberal internationalism has a long-standing inclination to embrace imperialism, driven by the desire for new markets and wealth. In the past, militaries collaborated with trading companies to secure favorable trade conditions, akin to ancient expansionist states like Athens and Rome. While outright territorial expansion is largely rejected today, some liberal thinkers support informal empire as a means to address security challenges. F igures like Robert Cooper and Michael Ignatieff have proposed a light imperial approach to manage instability in post-colonial regions. There is a consensus among scholars that sovereign states can no longer solely uphold the liberal order, leading to a hierarchical world where some states have greater sovereignty than others. CHAPTER 8: Marxist theories of international relations hen the Cold war ended in the late 1980s, the defeat of communism and the victory of global W ‘free market capitalism’, led to the assumption that the ideas of Karl Marx was history and capitalism and liberal democracy were the future. Ironically, communist parties in China, Vietnam, and Cuba retaijned power and adapted to global capitalism. In 2020, the problems of capitalism have persisted including economic instability and environmental degradation. Basic needs of many remain unmet, highlighting inequality. Due to this Marx is regaining importance as an intellectual figure due to parallels between his era and today’s technological, socio-economic, and political turmoil. Marx’s examination of capitalism's dynamism and contradictions remains unmatched, connecting various crises and resistance movements. Contrast with Liberalism and Realism: Marxist thought exposes deeper truths about global politics that mainstream theories overlook. Events like wars and treaties are influenced by underlying capitalist structures. Marxist theories argue that the effects of global capitalism are to ensure that the powerful and wealthy prosper at the expense of the powerless and the poor ‘Accumulation of wealth at one pole is, therefore, at the same time accumulation of misery, agony of toil, slavery, ignorance, brutality at the opposite pole’ .2 The essential elements of Marxist theories of world politics 8 Marx's Perspective on International Affairs Inaugural Address (1864):Marx emphasized the need for the working class to understand international politics. ○ However, much of Marx's work on international affairs is journalistic rather than theoretical. ○ Marx did not fully incorporate international dimensions into his theoretical framework on capitalism. Common Elements in Marxist Theories: 1. Marxist theorists advocate for analyzing the social world as a totality, rejecting arbitrary divisions between disciplines (e.g., history, economics, sociology). They argue that a comprehensive understanding of world politics go beyond these disciplinary boundaries. 2. A key Marxist principle is that historical change reflects economic development. Economic forces drive history, with tensions between means and relations of production leading to social change. 3. The economic base influences the legal, political, and cultural superstructure of society. Changes in the economic leads to transformations in societal institutions and practices. 4. Marxists see society as full of conflict between different classes, especially between the capitalists and workers 5. M arxists believe analysts should not remain neutral observers but should actively seek to change the world. Marx’s goal was to facilitate the overthrow of capitalist society and the establishment of communism. .3 Marx internationalized: from imperialism to world-systems theory 8 Marx primarily analyzed 19th-century British capitalism, largely overlooking its international aspects. Early 20th-century thinkers expanded on Marx’s ideas to include capitalism’s transnational nature, especially imperialism. Rosa Luxemburg ○ The Accumulation of Capital (1913) argued that Marx's closed-system view missed the importance of colonies, capitalism must expand into non-capitalist areas to survive. Lenin Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917)adapted Marx’s thesis, but argued that capitalism evolved into monopoly capitalism, creating a core-periphery structure: ○ Core:Dominant countries that exploit the periphery. ○ Periphery:Less-developed nations that suffer exploitation. With the development of a core and periphery, there was no longer an automatic harmony of interests between all workers as posited by Marx. ○ the capitalists of the core could pacify their own working class through the further exploitation of the periphery. Lenin’s views were taken up by theLatin American Dependency School Raúl Prebisch (1949):argued that countries in the periphery were suffering as a result of what he called ‘the declining terms of trade’, where manufactured goods become more expensive relative to raw materials, worsening the economic position of peripheral countries. André Gunder Frank & Fernando Henrique Cardoso:Further analyzed the dependency of less industrialized countries on advanced capitalist societies. World-Systems Theory Immanuel Wallerstein (1930–2019): ○ World-systems theory analyzes global history as a series of interconnected world systems that rise and fall over time ○ The modern world system began in Europe around the sixteenth century and expanded globally, driven by capitalism. Wallerstein defines capitalism as a system focused on producing goods for sale in a market to generate profit, based on individual or collective ownership. ○ In terms of the geography of the modern world systemWallerstein added a semi-periphery, which has traits of both core and peripheral regions, playing crucial economic and political roles. ○ A ccording to world-systems theorists, the core, semi-periphery, and periphery are linked in a system where wealth flows from the periphery to the core, deepening poverty in peripheral regions. ○ Wallerstein contended that all systems have life cycles (beginning, middle, end). The capitalist system is no exception. ○ Wallerstein (1995) argued that the end of the Cold War marked a crisis phase for the current system, which will eventually be replaced by something new. Wallerstein’s Critique:He viewed contemporary globalization discourse as a misinterpretation of reality, suggesting it reflects a historical world system now in decline. Feminist Marxism Feminist theorists, inspired by Engels, analyze women's roles in both domestic labor and as cheap labor in the workforce: ○ Maria Mies (1998):argued that women play a central role in the maintenance of capitalist relations; sexual division of labour She highlighted the unpaid labor of women in developed countries and the exploitation of women in developing countries, viewing them as the "last colony." 8.4 Gramscianism Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) — the importance of hegemony Background:Italian Marxist, founding member of theItalian Communist Party, imprisoned in 1926. ○ Influential ideas primarily come from hisPrison Notebooks; no single theoretical treatise. ○ Why has it proven to be so difficult to promote revolution in Western Europe? Gramsci expanded on Machiavelli’s view of power as a combination of coercion and consent. He argued that maintaining societal order involves both force and the agreement of the people. While traditional Marxists focused on coercion as the main tool of the ruling class, Gramsci noted that in more developed societies, consent is also crucial. This means that people accept and support the ruling class's values and ideas, often without realizing it. Consent is spread through civil society institutions that shape people's beliefs and values, helping the ruling class maintain its dominance. ○ Gramsci introduced the idea of a “historic bloc,” which refers to the interplay between economic structures and political/cultural practices. Both must be considered together to understand societal change ○ For society to change, the ruling class’s hegemony must be challenged. This involves a "counter-hegemonic struggle" in civil society to create a new set of beliefs and values that can replace the existing order. Robert W. Cox (1926–2018)—the analysis of ‘world order ’ B ackground:Canadian scholar who introduced Gramsci’s ideas to international relations and political economy. “Theory is always for some one, and for some purpose,” ○ any theoretical framework or idea is created with specific interests and goals in mind ○ However, There is no clear separation between facts and values, prompting the need to examine theories that claim objectivity and determine their beneficiaries and purposes. ○ Cox critiques realism, especially neorealism, arguing that these theories serve the interests of elites in developed states and reinforce the status quo, making current international relations seem natural and unchangeable. ○ Problem-Solving vs. Critical Theory: Problem-Solving Theory:Accepts the current order and reinforces status quo. Critical Theory:Challenges the existing order and seeks social change. ○ Cox applies Gramsci’s notion of hegemony to the international realm, arguing that dominant powers shape a world order that benefits them, gaining consent even from disadvantaged groups. He identifies "free trade" as the hegemonic idea propagated by the UK and US, which, while perceived as universally beneficial, primarily serves the interests of the hegemon and is less advantageous for peripheral states. 8.5 Critical theory Both Gramscianism and critical theory emerged in Western Europe 1920s-1030s during a period marked by the failure of Marxist revolutions and the rise of fascism. Although both strands are influenced by Marxism, they focus on different issues: Gramscian Thought: More concerned with international political economy. Critical Theory: Engages with international society, ethics, and security (e.g., critical security studies). Frankfurt School: Critical theory developed out of the work of the Frankfurt School A group of influential thinkers (e.g., Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse) who fled Nazi Germany and contributed significantly to critical theory, primarily in the U.S. Jürgen Habermas emerged as a leading figure in contemporary social theory. Key Features of Critical Theory Focus on Superstructure: ○ Critical theorists emphasize culture, bureaucracy, authoritarianism, family structures, and media's role rather than economic base analysis. Skepticism about the Proletariat ○ Critical theorists question whether the working class can lead emancipatory change, arguing that mass culture and commodification have absorbed the proletariat, making them less revolutionary. ○ M arcuse describes modern society as "one-dimensional," limiting the ability to conceive alternatives. Meaning of Emancipation ○ Traditional Marxist views equate emancipation with mastery over nature through technology, which can lead to domination over other ○ Early critical theorists advocate for a reconciliation with nature as a form of true emancipation ○ Habermas shifts the focus to communication and radical democracy, emphasizing participation beyond state borders and identifying barriers to that participation. Andrew Linklater:Builds on Habermas's principles to argue that emancipation in international relations involves expanding the moral responsibilities of political communities. He believes that right now, we mainly feel a sense of duty to people within our own country's borders, but Critical theorists find this unacceptable. They want a world where we feel just as responsible for people in other countries as we do for our fellow citizens. Linklater sees the European Union as a positive example of this shift. It shows a movement toward greater cooperation and shared responsibility across borders. 8.6 New Marxism New Marxists:A group of scholars who directly engage with Marx’s original writings, representing a departure from other Marxist and post-Marxist trends. Self-Identification:They often prefer "historical materialists," but this term overlaps with Gramsci-inspired writers, complicating its use. Approach:Focus on reinterpreting and reclaiming neglected ideas from Marx, critiquing developments in Marxism, and contributing original theories on contemporary issues. Key Figures 1. David Harvey: ○ Prominent advocate for "returning to Marx." ○ Known for his analyses of Marx'sCapital, which have gained significant online attention and been published in book form. 2. Kevin B. Anderson: ○ Author ofMarx at the Margins(2010), which explores Marx's writings on nationalism, ethnicity, and race, highlighting lesser-known aspects of his thought. 3. Justin Rosenberg: ○ Developed an analysis based on Trotsky's concept of "uneven and combined development." Trotsky's Concept of Uneven and Combined Development Trotsky's Concept: ○ Trotsky's idea that development paths for countries differ based on timing and conditions, with implications from global capitalism. ○ C ountries begin their capitalist journeys at different times and conditions. The evolution of capitalism in one country influences and shapes the context for others.
