Natural Farming Practical Manual PDF

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF NATURAL FARMING 2(1+1) PRACTICAL MANUAL  Practical exercises: Exercise Title No. 1 Indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) for seed, tillage and weed management 2 Indigenous technology knowl...

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF NATURAL FARMING 2(1+1) PRACTICAL MANUAL  Practical exercises: Exercise Title No. 1 Indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) for seed, tillage and weed management 2 Indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) for water and nutrient management 3 Indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) for insect-pest management 4 Indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) for disease management 5 On-farm inputs preparation methods and protocols – Jivamrita, Amritpani and Beejamruta 6 On-farm inputs preparation methods and protocols in plant protection 7 Studies in green manuring in-situ and green leaf manuring and their quantification 8 Studies on different types of botanical and animal urine and dung based aerated and non aereated inputs for plant growth and nutrient management 9 Study of different type of botanicals and animal urine and dung for pest and disease management 10 Weed management practices in natural farming 11 Certification and standards in natural farming (organic farming) 12 Techniques of indigenous seed production, storage and marketing 13 Preparation of complete nutrient budget and partial budget of natural farming 14 Calculation of costs and returns for crop and farming system in natural farming 15 Calculation of carbon sequestration and water saving 16 Calculation of Ecosystem Services of Bio Diversity & Pollinators in Natural Farming Practical Exercise No. 1: Indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) for seed, tillage and weed management ITK for seed production: Indigenous Technology Knowledge (ITK) for seed production under natural farming encapsulates the rich tapestry of wisdom woven by indigenous communities over generations. This intricate knowledge system harmonizes with nature, fostering sustainable and regenerative practices that prioritize biodiversity, soil health, and community resilience. 1. Seed Selection and Saving: Seed selection is a meticulous process deeply embedded in indigenous agricultural traditions. Local varieties, finely attuned to specific environmental conditions, are carefully chosen for their adaptability and resilience. Indigenous farmers have honed the skill of saving seeds, selecting them from the healthiest and most robust plants. This practice not only ensures the preservation of desirable traits but also serves as a form of decentralized genetic conservation. Community seed banks play a crucial role in safeguarding this diversity, providing a resilient foundation for natural farming in the face of environmental uncertainties. 2. Crop Rotation and Interplanting: Indigenous farming systems emphasize the importance of biodiversity, and crop rotation and interplanting are integral to this approach. By rotating crops, farmers mitigate soil nutrient depletion and reduce the prevalence of pests and diseases. Interplanting, or companion planting, involves strategically planting different crops together to enhance mutual growth benefits and create a balanced ecosystem. This not only optimizes land use but also contributes to the overall health of the soil, fostering a resilient and sustainable agricultural environment. 3. Natural Pest Control: Indigenous communities leverage the natural checks and balances within ecosystems to manage pests sustainably. Beneficial insects, such as ladybugs and predatory beetles, are encouraged to thrive as natural predators of harmful pests. Moreover, the integration of plants with natural insect-repelling properties forms a protective barrier around crops. This holistic approach reduces reliance on chemical pesticides, preserving the health of the soil and supporting the delicate balance of the ecosystem. 4. Organic Fertilization: Traditional composting techniques are fundamental to indigenous farming practices for organic fertilization. Farmers skillfully blend locally available organic materials to create nutrient- rich compost that enhances soil fertility. Green manure, the cultivation of cover crops that are later incorporated into the soil, further enriches it with essential nutrients. These organic fertilization practices not only support plant growth but also improve soil structure, water retention, and microbial activity, fostering a sustainable and regenerative soil ecosystem. 5. Water Conservation: Indigenous communities have developed ingenious water conservation techniques suited to their local landscapes. Traditional irrigation methods, including rainwater harvesting and gravity-fed systems, are employed to optimize water use. Drawing on local knowledge, farmers adapt irrigation practices to align with natural rainfall patterns. Mulching, a practice deeply rooted in indigenous wisdom, involves covering the soil with organic materials to reduce evaporation and enhance soil moisture retention. These methods contribute to water conservation efforts, ensuring judicious use of this precious resource. 6. Seasonal Farming Calendar: Observation of nature is a guiding principle in indigenous farming, shaping the development of a seasonal farming calendar. Traditional farmers keenly observe the behavior of birds, insects, and specific plant species as indicators of optimal planting and harvesting times. This knowledge, combined with traditional calendars based on lunar or seasonal cycles, ensures that agricultural activities align harmoniously with the natural rhythms of the environment. Synchronizing planting and harvesting with nature not only optimizes yields but also enhances the sustainability of farming practices. 7. Cultural Practices: Indigenous farming extends beyond utilitarian considerations, embracing cultural practices and beliefs. Ceremonial rituals associated with planting and harvesting instill a spiritual connection to the land, fostering a sense of responsibility for environmental stewardship. Community collaboration is intrinsic to these practices, with knowledge shared and passed down through generations. The communal aspect of indigenous farming not only strengthens community bonds but also promotes a collective commitment to sustainable and regenerative agricultural practices. 8. Adaptation to Climate Change: In the face of climate change, indigenous communities showcase remarkable adaptability. Traditional methods of predicting weather patterns, often based on local observations passed down through generations, guide farmers in adjusting their agricultural practices. The cultivation of crop varieties that have demonstrated resilience to local climate challenges ensures food security and sustainable livelihoods in the face of changing environmental conditions. ITK for tillage management: Indigenous Technology Knowledge (ITK) for tillage management under natural farming reflects a profound understanding of the land and an emphasis on sustainable and regenerative practices. Traditional wisdom handed down through generations offers insights into soil health, erosion prevention, and efficient land use. Here are key aspects of ITK related to tillage management: 1. Minimal Tillage Practices: Indigenous communities often embrace minimal tillage or no-till practices, recognizing the importance of preserving soil structure and minimizing disruption to the ecosystem. Minimal tillage reduces soil erosion, promotes water retention, and enhances the overall health of the soil. This approach aligns with the principles of natural farming, emphasizing a more harmonious coexistence with the land. 2. Use of Hand Tools: Traditional hand tools play a significant role in indigenous tillage management. The use of hand tools, such as hoes and digging sticks, allows for more precise and targeted cultivation, minimizing soil disturbance compared to mechanized equipment. This manual approach helps maintain the integrity of the soil structure while providing farmers with a closer connection to the land. 3. Crop Residue Incorporation: Rather than removing crop residues, indigenous tillage management often involves incorporating them back into the soil. This practice enhances organic matter content, improves soil fertility, and contributes to the development of a resilient soil structure. Crop residue incorporation also aids in water retention and prevents erosion by providing ground cover. 4. Contour Plowing: In hilly or sloping terrains, indigenous communities may employ contour plowing techniques. This involves plowing along the contours of the land, effectively creating natural barriers to water runoff. Contour plowing helps reduce soil erosion by preventing water from gaining momentum and carrying away valuable topsoil. This practice is a testament to the adaptability of indigenous tillage methods to diverse geographical landscapes. 5. Rotational Fallowing: Rotational fallowing is a traditional practice that involves periodically leaving fields uncultivated. Indigenous communities understand the importance of allowing the land to rest and regenerate. This practice helps replenish soil nutrients, control pests and diseases, and promote overall soil health. Rotational fallowing is a sustainable approach to tillage management that aligns with the cyclical patterns of nature. 6. Community Collaboration in Tilling: Tillage activities in indigenous communities often involve collective efforts. Community members collaborate during peak agricultural seasons, sharing labor and resources. This communal approach not only fosters a sense of unity but also enables the efficient management of large tracts of land. Community collaboration in tillage aligns with the principles of collective responsibility and sustainable land use.  7. Integration of Livestock: In some indigenous farming systems, the integration of livestock in tillage management is common. Animals, such as oxen or draft horses, may be used for plowing fields. This practice not only reduces the reliance on machinery but also provides an additional source of organic matter through the incorporation of animal manure. Integrating livestock into tillage activities represents a holistic approach to farming that considers both plant and animal components of the ecosystem. 8. Seasonal Timing of Tillage: Indigenous communities often time their tillage activities based on seasonal and environmental cues. For example, tillage may be carried out after the rainy season to take advantage of moist soil conditions. This strategic timing minimizes soil compaction and ensures that the land is prepared optimally for planting. Indigenous farmers' attunement to the natural cycles of the environment guides their decisions in tillage management. ITK for weed management Indigenous Technology Knowledge (ITK) plays a crucial role in sustainable and natural farming practices, especially in the context of weed management. Traditional and indigenous knowledge systems have been passed down through generations, incorporating wisdom derived from local ecosystems. Implementing ITK in weed management under natural farming can contribute to ecological balance, biodiversity conservation, and the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices. Weed management is a critical aspect of natural farming, as weeds can compete with crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight, leading to reduced yields. ITK offers a holistic approach to address this challenge, leveraging local wisdom and resources. Here are key aspects of Indigenous Technology Knowledge for weed management in natural farming: 1. Crop Rotation and Companion Planting: Indigenous communities often practice crop rotation and companion planting to naturally suppress weed growth. Certain crops have allelopathic properties, releasing chemicals that inhibit the germination and growth of weeds. For example, intercropping legumes with cereals can suppress weed growth while fixing nitrogen in the soil, benefiting overall soil fertility. 2. Mulching Techniques: Traditional mulching methods involve the use of organic materials like straw, leaves, and crop residues to cover the soil surface around plants. This not only conserves moisture and regulates temperature but also helps in suppressing weed growth by blocking sunlight and preventing weed germination. Mulching is a simple yet effective ITK practice that reduces the need for synthetic herbicides. 3. Herbal Extracts and Biopesticides: Indigenous communities often rely on herbal extracts and biopesticides derived from locally available plants to control weeds. Plants with natural herbicidal properties are identified and used to prepare extracts that can be sprayed on weeds. Neem, for instance, is known for its  pesticidal properties and has been traditionally used in many cultures for pest and weed management. 4. Traditional Hand Tools and Implements: Indigenous farmers use traditional hand tools and implements for weeding, minimizing the reliance on mechanized equipment and chemical inputs. Hand weeding with locally crafted tools allows for precision in targeting weeds while avoiding damage to crops. This practice not only helps in effective weed control but also preserves the traditional knowledge associated with tool- making. 5. Biological Control: Encouraging natural predators and beneficial organisms is another aspect of ITK in weed management. For example, ducks or geese are sometimes used in rice paddies to consume weeds and insects. This integrated approach helps maintain a balance in the ecosystem, reducing the need for external interventions. 6. Water Management: Efficient water management is integral to weed control. Indigenous knowledge often emphasizes practices such as controlled flooding and furrow irrigation to minimize weed growth. By optimizing water use, farmers can create conditions unfavorable for weed proliferation. 7. Community Participation and Knowledge Sharing: Indigenous communities often engage in collective weed management practices, fostering community participation and knowledge sharing. This collaborative approach ensures the preservation and transmission of ITK related to weed management. Traditional community-based systems promote a sustainable and shared understanding of farming practices. Practical Exercise No. 2: Indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) for water and nutrient management SOME INDIGENOUS NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES Over the ages, farmers tested, by trial and error, several techniques for collecting, processing and use of organic resources in crop production. Some of these are specific to Andhra Pradesh and others are similar to the ones adopted by farmers in other parts of the country. A brief account of these indigenous technologies is given below. Farmyard manure (FYM) Among the organic sources of nutrients, FYM represents most commonly and extensively used manure. Application of FYM straight away or after composting is common with several of the fanners. It is traditionally used in upland crops, high ' value vegetable and oilseed crops. In villages of rainfed areas dung is collected even from the cattle and buffalo trekking routes and the grazing areas. In some villages, the community lands where cattle graze, are auctioned annually for collecting the dung. The manure pits are usually dug near to cattle or buffalo sheds. Normally the manure pits are circular or rectangular in shape and 1 to 3' deep. A large number &f farmers are still adopting heap method for storing the cattleshed wastes. While a sizable number of farmers are found using pit method, very few farmers are following the covered pit method, which is the best way of storing this material before application to fields. In some areas the manure pits are provided on all sides, with a wall made up of cotton, sorghum or castor stalks. In order to protect the material piled up in the heap from getting disturbed by wind, fowls etc., farmers either keep stones around the heap, erect bamboo sticks or /allies prepared out of bamboo fibre. There are fanners who also use the flat stones (Cuddapah slabs) of irregular shapes at some intervals around the heap to protect the material. However, farmers are not aware of nutrient losses which are likely during heavy rainfall event. These farmers need to be educated on adopting the covered pit method to improve the quality of FYM being applied to fields. Farmers of the state also maintain cattle depending upon need and their financial status. Rich farmers or those, who depend upon dairy as a business, maintain good number of cattle in their sheds. It has been observed that the urine of the animal is collected separately into pits near the sheds and used for sprinkling on the heap of FYM. An innovative method adopted by a farmer of Rangareddy district is furnished in Raikunta village near Samshabad {Ranga Reddy District) has innovatively designed a system to utilise the cattleshed wastes in different ways apart from growing crops and fodders. Indigenous nutrient management technology. Usually manure is removed in the summer and applied to the field. Farmyard manure is applied once in three to four years to a particular field. It implies that out of the total area or holdings with a particular farmer, only 30 to 40% area receives manure in a particular year and rest goes without any fertilisation or may receive fertilizer as per the financial resources of the farmer. Green manuring Growing blackgram and greengram after kharif rice is an age-old practice. The pods are harvested at maturity. Straw of these leguminous crops may provide 20- 25 kg N to the following rice crop. In-situ green manuring and green leaf manuring are also being practised to varying extent in rice based cropping systems depending on their accessibility and availability. Dhaincha, Pillipesara, sunhemp and cowpea are the popular green manure crops. The green manure seed is broadcast when the monsoon sets in and the crop is allowed to grow till flowering (6 weeks) stage and then the green succulent biomass is ploughed in to have in-situ incorporation of the material. This is followed by flooding the field and keeping it under submergence for 10 to 15 days before transplanting of rice. In some areas of coastal districts, even the rabi rice gets green manuring done by broadcasting or dibbling the seed in between rice rows when the water is withdrawn before maturity. By the time, the rabi rice transplanting is done, this crop gets sufficient time to grow and put up biomass. However, in other districts, viz., Chittor, Cuddapah, Anantapur, Khammam, Nizamabad, Karimnagar etc. only green manuring during kharif and green leaf manuring for rabi crops is adopted. Growing dhainchatoreclaim sodic soils is a Indigenous nutrient management technology in Andhra Pradesh practice followed in several parts of the state. Green leaf manure trees like Gliricidia, Pongamia, neem and leguminous shrubs etc. are grown on field bunds and waste lands, and the young branches and igs are cut, brought to field and incorporated into fields during puddling operation prior to rice transplanting. Green manure crops like Dhaincha, Pillipesara, sunhemp and cowpea are grown after the harvest of paddy, especially in coastal Andhra Pradesh. These crops are partly used for green or dry fodder purpose and partly incorporated nto field at puddling. Weeds like Ipomoea, Lantana, water hyacinth are spreading in waste lands. Biomass of these weeds is cut and incorporated into fields in someareas. Dhaincha, besides being a high yielder r-”'. withstand adverse seasonal conditions like drought and waterlogging. 1 ftsBadabada (wild indigo) was observed to be least susceptible to insect pests. This can also serve as good green manure crop in i ice fields. Concerted Government action is needed to educate farmers more on use of ,adequate/recommended quantities of organic manure to help in sustaining the yields ofcrops besides maintaining the soil productivity. Making green manure seeds availableand growing species suitable for green leaf manuring throughout the state on wastelands and encouraging farmers to take up such activity on community basis would help in long way in crop production, specifically when the fertilizer costs are escalating and the fertilisers are going out of reach of the poor and marginal fanners. Penning of sheep, goat, cattle and pig Sheep and goat penning is a normally accepted and widely adopted practice in the state. These are commonly reared in rainfed areas and also in areas nearer to hills and forest. Penning, the practice of keeping sheep flock on the farm lands during night and collecting their droppings on the farm itself, is a common practice. On each piece of land, penning is continued for 2 to 4 days depending on the size of the flocks togetheror accumulate sufficient manure to improve the fertility status of the soil. The shepherds migrate from dryland areas to wetland areas during early summer especially after the harvest of the rice crop. The sheep get good nourishment and penning helps to restore the soil fertility status. During rainy season when standing crops are in fields, the sheep are confined in temporary sheds and manure is collected at a particular site and is sold tofarmers. Cattle penning is done on the field by shifting the site every day, thus making animals move the entire area of the field. Farmers of Kamareddy and Danakonda mandals of Nizamabad district are seen adopting pig penning too. It appears that these farmers believe that pig manure improves the quality of crops especially that of chillies. |Depending upon the onset of monsoon, the ploughing activity is taken up on the field. The organic manures are usually applied either just before the onset of monsoon or just when the monsoon sets in. Application of organic manures is done during months of May to July by most of the farmers. Some farmers even apply organic manures at thetime of last ploughing during land preparation. Poultry manure Use of poultry manure, of late, is becoming popular owing to the expansion of poultry industry in the state especially in district like Hyderabad. Poultry litter is sold to the farmers from the poultry farms. The farmers apply poultry manure to remunerative or commercial cropslike cotton and chillies. In general, farmers have bitter experiences with this material when they applied it to the fields. They observed that the growing seedlings are damaged because of such application. It appears that the farmers using the material are not aware of the correct usage. The poultry manure has to be allowed to mature by heaping it separately for at least 15 days and then shift toField for spreading. The high uric acid and N content of the material causes scorching of the young leaves and, hence, the crop shows i Indigenous nutrient management technology in Andhra Pradesh bumt-up appearance. However, farmers who use poultry litter do not face this problem so seriously when compared with those who apply the pure droppings in the field. The farmers are also not fully aware that the poultry manure is a good source of some micro nutrients like Zn, Cu etc. which are added incidentally through feed mixtures. Bio gas slurry Use of biogas manure/slurry is also getting popularity with farmers due to increased installation of biogas plants. The biogas slurry contains 1.99% N, and 1.02% P compared to the raw dung composition of 1.55% N and 0.76% P. Similarly, C:N ratio of the slurry is much lower(23.20) compared to the raw dung (36.78). The ash content is also higher in the slurry (22.6%) than in the dung (17.7%). In towns and cities, raw sewage water is generally used for cultivating grasses and vegetables, its heavy metal contents being ignored as a threat for animal arid human consumption, respectively. Mixing of clay in sandy soils Coastal sandy soils are poor in fertility, have high infiltration, low waterholding capacity and poor aggregation. To improve the physical properties and also to improve general fertility status, the farmers of this belt bring black soil and mix it with the sandy soils. During summer the dry black soil is carted to the field, kept in small heaps and ploughed down and mixed with sandy soil with the onset of monsoon season. Farmyard manure is also applied in abundant amounts. Clay mixing and farmyard manure additions bring about considerable improvement in the soil physical conditions and fertility status and thus help to raise thecrop productivity level. Addition of organic materials and sand or soil to soils Red soils are poorly aggregated, low in fertility especially low in organic matter, N and P status. Surface crusting is also a problem in these soils. Addition of organic materials may help in the aggregation and improve fertility status. Groundnut is traditionally an important crop on red soils. In Chittoorand Anantapur districts farmers collect and apply groundnut shells to paddy fields after decorting the pods and collecting the seeds. In red soils growing groundnut, sand is cartedand mixed with red soils to improve the physical properties of the soil especially the aeration. Sometimes to level the field or improve its physical properties, red soil is also brought and mixed with red soil. In dryland areas of Rayalaseema, tamarind trees are also in abundance. After separating the tamarind, the fruit residues (fruit coat, veins etc.) are collected and applied to paddy fields. Transporting soil from waste lands/hilly areas to cultivated fields once in 5 to 6 years is a common practice in Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh to avoid the loss of the productivity ofthe cultivated soils. Tank silt application Inchalka soils (sandy loams) belt of Telangana, the general fertility status of the upland soils is poor. For irrigating the crops, several rainwater harvesting tanks have been constructed. Over the years, clay and silt carried through runoff gets deposited on the tank beds. At some regular periodicity, farmers dig out the tank silt and apply to uplands before the rainy season. Application of silt not only improves the physical properties of the soil but also enhances soil feritility and crop productivity. Indigenous nutrient management technology in Andhra Pradesh Application of plant ashes, paddy straw and groundnut haulms The stalks of pigeon pea (red gram) cotton, castor and chillies are usually burnt in the field,and the ashes are mixed in the soil. The stalk of pigeonpea, cotton, chillies etc. are also used as fuel in households. Ash is collected from domestic hearths and stacked separately. The household ash is applied especially to some selected crops like onion, tobacco and chillies. The potassium contained in the ash possibly improve the quality of onion, tobacco leaves and chillies. Similarly, common salt is applied to coconut trees. In coastal districts, where paddy followed by groundnut is the predominant cropping system, farmers are seen adopting a method of storage of the paddy straw' and groundnut haulms. They stack the dry paddy straw upto a height of 1 to 1.5 m and then spread the leguminous fodder (groundnut haulms) as a layer. Later on they cover this with paddy straw to a greater height. This islocally called ‘Vami'. This method of feed storage is done to improve the quality of groundnut haulms so that the cattle relish them much. However, this practice has its other advantage too whenthe material is applied to field as a cattleshed waste. Unlike the paddy straw, this material mixed with groundnut haulms has relatively lower C:N ratio. This favours quick decomposition ofmaterial and release of nutrients would be faster under such conditions. Miscellaneous nutrient and water conservation practices To avoid seepage and curtail nutrient losses, it is a common practice to line the field bunds with clay in paddy. In red soil areas, termite mounds and ant are destroyed and the fine soil is spread in the field. During summer in rainfed areas, the dusty roads are swept and the fine earth is collected and applied to nursery beds especially of fingermillet and chillies. Cattle sheds are also scrapped and the urine soaked and dung plastered earth is carted to fields. Pig manure, a concentrated manure is purchased and applied to high value crops like chillies and cotton. Groundnut cake, though serves as good cattle feed, is applied to highly remunerative vegetable crops. Neem, castor and mahua cakes are also used as organic manures, especially in upland crops. Among the meal group of concentrated manures, bloodmeal and bonemeal are being used more for high value horticultural crops. Use of sewage and sludge, either in treated or untreated formis getting extended with incnjased urbanization, but accumulation of heavy metals like Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn in both soils and plants may pose a serious problem. Therefore, their use at present is largely restricted to the forage crops. Industrial wastes like rice husk, bagasse, pressmud, sawdust, fruit and vegetable waste, cotton waste, etc are useful source of plant nutrients. However, their nutrient potential, actual use and other details are not available. Pressmud is a w'asteproduet from sugar industry. It is initially stored for 2 months near factory and then the farmers in the nearby villages purchase and apply this material in their fields. composts. Mixing of clay and silt Mixing locally available heavy textured soil/tank silt to an extent of increasing the soil clay by5 per cent in light textured red soils was observed to increase soil moisture content by 2 to 4 per centin upper 10 cm soil, significantly increased sorghum grain yields by 20 and 40 per cent compared to 2.26 q grain/ha and that of wheat by 16 and 28 per cent over 1.97 q/ha in the control plots, respectively. Due to economic consideration and feasibility of operations, mixing of tank silt to increase clay by 2 per cent in alternate years was recommended. It can modify the soil physical properties favorably for crop growth leading to higher yield. The term indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)“local knowledge’’ and “Traditional knowledge” have been used in the literature inter–changeably. Traditional knowledge is gathered over a period of time and transferred from generation to generation. It is synonymous to local knowledge and is defined as “ A sum total of knowledge based on acquired knowledge and experience of people in dealing with problems and typical situation in different walks of life”. It is the knowledge, which has been accumulated by the people over generations by observation, by experimentation and by handling on old peoples’ experiences and wisdom in any particular area of human behavior. Indigenous technical knowledge is the local knowledge that people have gained through inheritance from their ancestors. It is a people derived science and represents people’s creativity, innovations and skills. Indigenous technological knowledge pertains to various cultural norms, social roles or physical conditions. Such knowledge is not a static body of wisdom, but instead consists of dynamic insights and techniques, which are changed over time through experimentation and adoption to environmental and socio-economic changes. This knowledge has backgrounds of hundreds and sometimes thousands of years of adoption, while bearing odds and evens of the time. Fortunately, we have many indigenous techniques for conserving natural resources (Agarwal and narain, 1999). These have been in practice for number of years as presented in the write up. Therefore there is a need to enmesh these practices along with conventional soil and water conservation measures for promoting sustainable development of agriculture. It may not be out of place to mention that some of these ITKs may need minor modifications in different watershed situations as well as socio-economic fabrics across the country. Inclusion of these ITKs would ensure sustainability of different eco-systems, befitting the man-animalplant-land-water complex in each watershed. The documentation of ITKs on soil and water conservation will form a basis for formulating coordinated research programme for validation and refinement of the ITKs on soil and water conservation. In recent years the idea of taking ITK into consideration in developing projects and locating research thrust areas has been gaining momentum. This knowledge is not possessed by only one sector of society, for example, in many cultures; women and elders have passive insights into certain aspects of culture. Sometimes researchers have been unaware of such perceptiveness among rural people due to their biased focus on land-owning male farmers, neglecting other members of society. Traditional knowledge and practices have their own importance as they have stood the test of time and have proved to be efficacious to the local people. Some of these traditional practices are in the fields of agriculture such as crop production, mixed farming, water harvesting, conservation of forage, combined production system, biodiversity conservation, forestry and domestic energy etc. India is unique having a rich history of traditional systems of soil conservation and water harvesting in almost all the states. Conservation of both surface and ground water has been an integral part of our country for many centuries. In fact, different types of ponds and tanks represent important community resources for drinking water and allied uses in rural India. Even today, the main attributes to their success are the sound scientific knowledge and methods on which they have been built. Moisture conservation begins right from seedbed preparation. Although farmers practice many indigenous technologies relating to soil and water conservation, there is a lack of documentation for identifying the constraints for possible refinements. There exists a need to evaluate the potential indigenous practices in the regions for their improvement and dissemination to new areas. There is also a need for scientist- farmer interaction for largescale adoption. The promotion of appropriate technology with indigenous knowledge base is gaining importance in the natural resource management programme for increasing their adaptability/acceptability and to bring down the dependence on cost intensive technologies. A detail study of Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) on soil and water conservation was taken up through a National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) entitled “Documentation & Analysis of Indigenous Methods of In-situ Moisture Conservation and Runoff Management” bythe authors at Central Research Institute for Dryland agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad as the lead centre. The associated centres of the dryland project documented the ITKs from the target districts viz: Akola, Agra, Anantapur, Bhilwara, Bangalore, Bijapur, Faizabad, Hisar, Indore, Kovilpatti, Kanke (Ranchi), Phulbani, Targhadia (Rajkot), Rewa, S.K.Nagar, Solapur, Varanasi and Hyderabad situated in different agro-ecological regions. The outcome of the project in the broader perspective of addressing the researchable issues and taking the technologies further has been discussed here. There is a lot more to be done in this direction by the R&D and implementing agencies involved in the community development. Documented ITKs The ITKs were documented under following specific categories. Agronomic Measures Tillage Bunding & Terracing (Mech. & Vegetative barrier) Land Configuration Soil Amendment / Mulching Erosion Control & Runoff Diversion Structures Water Harvesting, Seepage Control & Ground Water Recharge Practical Exercise No. 3 Indigenous technology knowledge (ITK) in insect pest management Use of plant extracts, specialized storage structures, bonfires, locally made attractants, crop habitat management etc. Fermented curd water Fermented curd water (butter milk) is used for the management of white fly, jassids aphids etc in some parts of central India. Cow urine and dung Cow urine found effectual against mealy bugs, thrips and mites and against post flowering insect pests of cowpea. Cow urine diluted with water in ratio of 1: 20 is not only effective in the managing of pathogens and insects, but also acts as a growth promoter of crops. For controlling sucking pests and mealy bugs, crush 5 kg neem leaves in water, add 5lit cow urine and 2 kg cow dung ferment for 24 hrs with intermittent stirring, filter the extract and dilute it in 100 lit of water for spraying over one acre. In brinjal, application of cow urine 10%, starch 1% either alone or Recent Innovation of alternatively with chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC was found to be cost effective. Botanicals fermented in cow urine/cow dung Cow urine decoctions of botanicals are effective against the various insect pests without noticeable detrimental effect on their natural enemies. NSKE 5%, cow urine 5% and cow dung 5% showed anti-feedent and antiovipositional effects against Helicoverpa armigera Cow urine (20%) mixed with crude extract of Datura alba (20%) was found effective against stem borer and leaf folder in Basmati rice. Effectiveness of cow urine along with several botanicals like NSKE, Pongamia, Vitex and Aloe vera against S. litura in groundnut and H. armigera in chickpea, Barapatre and pests of cotton. Garlic extracts in combination with other extracts like neem, chilli, ginger, tobacco and cow urine (with soap solution) against H. armigera and S. litura upto 13 days of spray. NSKE and vitex combination effective against reducing the shoot fly infestation in sorghum. Ash The sprinkling of ash over the vegetables are found effective against several major pests viz, beetles (pumpkin beetle, hadda beetle etc.), leaf defoliating insects, leaf miners, thrips and aphids. Chewing and sucking type of insects facing problems in feeding because ash acts a physical barrier, ash acts as a detergent. Chewing and sucking type of insects, find it difficult to chew plant parts due to deposition of ash. It is the cheapest practice for small farmers. Besides acts as physical barrier it interferes with the chemical signals emitting from host plants thus obstructing initial location of host by the pest. In eastern part of Nigeria, burnt palm ashes are dusted traditionally on okra to manage leaf eating beetle, Podagrica spp. Sakhinetipalli, 2012, reported maximum C: B ratio of 4.8:1 in brinjal with application of ash @50kg/ha kerosene5% and spinosad 45SC. Kerosene Kerosene is effortlessly accessible with famers and can be mixed with soap for suppressing the insect pests. The kerosene, soap and water mixture has been reported as a contact insecticide for insects having piercing and sucking mouth parts. Similarly the effectiveness of SABRUKA (a mixture of soap, water and kerosene) against insect pests of cowpea in the northern Guinea Savanna. mites, aphids and leaf miners It is readily available with the farmers and can be used with soap instantly to suppress the insect pests at the beginning of outbreak situation and subsequently the desired/recommended strategies may be followed. The use of Kerosene-soapwater emulsion has earlier been reported as a contact insecticide for piercing and sucking insects. Similarly, the usefulness of this emulsion against scale insects, bugs, mites, aphids and leaf miners has been documented. effectiveness of SABRUKA (a mixture of soap, water and kerosene) against insect pests of cowpea in the northern Guinea Savanna. Kerosene exhibits phytotoxicity at higher concentrations and therefore, its use as foliar spray should be restricted up to 1 or 2%. Prepare a 4 lit. stock solution of soap kerosene mixture in the below given proportion; 3.5 lit. Water 48 g soap (1.2%) 500 ml kerosene (12.5%). Before spraying dilute 250 ml of this mixture with 4 liters of water. Oils may ignored. Visible leaf damage, or more subtly reduction in yield could be possible. Bi-weekly oil applications reduced whitefly counts on tomato leaves by two thirds, but yield on the oil- treated plants was also reduced compared to untreated plants. Five oil sprays controlled powdery mildew in grapes but reduced sugar levels. Other common indigenous techniques for insect pest management The mixture of aloe barbadensis (Gwarpatha) + Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) + Azadirachta indica (neem) + Sapindus trifoliatus Linn. (Aritha) is effectively used against the insect pests of mustard crops. Leaf extract of Gwarpatha (1 kg) and tobacco powder extract (200 gm) is prepared in 5 liters of water and let it for evaporation for 3-4 hrs to make a 2 liters solution. After evaporation Neem leaf extract (200 ml) is added and decoction of 50 gm aritha powder is added to the above solution and mixed thoroughly. This solution is sprayed on the mustard crop at interval of 2-3 weeks. It is practiced throughout the hilly areas of Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh. Management of insect pests of wheat crop through cow urine + Vitex negundo (Nirgundi) + Ferula asafoetida (Hing) these mixtures are very effective, eco-friendly insecticidal treatment. It repels the insect pests. Leaf decoction of nirgundi (about 30-40 leaves in 10 liters of water) is prepared till it is left 1 liter. This mixture is filtered properly. About 10 gm hing is mixed in 1 litre water and then above ingredients are mixed in about 5 litres of cow urine and sprayed over affected crops. It is effective for all sowing seasons (early; normal or late sowing seasons) of wheat and paddy crops. It is practiced most in hilly mountain villages of Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. Management of pod borers in gram crop through whey (lassi) + Aloe barbadensis (Gwarpatha) + Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) This method is very effective against the pod borers infesting the gram crop. Tobacco powder (200 gm), lassi (2 litres) and Gwarpatha (2 leaves) are dissolved in 15 liter of water. This solution is left undisturbed for 15 days. It is then filtered with a muslin cloth and the filtrate is sprayed over the infested crop at an interval of 2-3 weeks. Management of paddy insect pests through Vitex negundo (Nirgundi) Farmers sweep the paddy field with brooms made up of branches of Vitex negundo, which are known to act as an insecticide and enhance growth of paddy. It is practiced throughout the hilly areas of Himachal Pradesh (Roy et al., 2015). 4 kg tobacco leaves and twigs are boiled in 40 liters of water for 40 min. After cooling, 1 kg soap power is mixed and solution is diluted 7-8 times and sprayed to control aphids and white flies in citrus plants. Rice seedlings raised from seed treated with extract of neem kernel are resistant to leaf hopper. For prevention of infestation of shoot borer in mango tree, common salt is mixed with soil near the collar region of tree. In case of insect holes made by shoot borer and bark eaters in mango, jaggery is placed in the holes to attract other predators to feed on the insect present in the holes. Similarly, the practices of pouring kerosene or petrol in holes and blocking holes with mud or cowdung are also common in citrus plant. 1 liter extract of equal quantity of crushed green chilies and garlic mixed with 200 liters of water is effective to control aphids and jassids. Filtrate prepared from a solution of 1 kg Calotropis leaves and 5 liters of water is effective to control leaf sucking pests. An extract of tobacco waste with 250 g of soap solution in 200 liters of water as spray control stem borer. A solution prepared from neem leaf paste in water (10 kg : 2 liter) is effective to control leaf folder in rice. A solution prepared from 100 g tulsi (Ocimum sp.) leaves in 1 liter of water with 1 ml soap solution can be used for effective control of aphid, army worm, red cotton bug, mosquito, etc. is used to control cotton semilooper, mites, green leaf hopper, aphid etc. Control of stored grain pests in Rajasthan, garlic leaves are used for safe storage of food grains. Leaves of Vitex negundo (Nirgundi) are incorporated in any pulse seeds for long time preservation. There is a common practice of storing food grains like wheat and rice use of neem leaves to prevent storage pest damage. Milled chickpea, green gram and other pulses are stored after thoroughly treated with mustard oil. Green gram can be kept free from any pest infestation by treating with 1% neem leaf powder. Seed mixed with Acorus calamus (baje) powder in the ratio of 10 kg: 1 kg, would help in preserving the seed free from stored pests for long time. Traditional Storage Structures It has been found that 100% women of Rajasthan use traditional storage structures such as mud bins, stone bins and bamboo bins for storage. Before storage, they used to disinfect the grains with smoke of cowgung cake and neem leaves. In Arunachal Pradesh, the majority of farmers store foodgrains and meat near the kitchen where the smoke of burning firewood penetrates. They also use leaves of neem or tulsi on the storage structure to keep free from insect-pest infestation. Practical Exercise No. 4: Indigenous Technologies (ITKs) for Disease Management Introduction Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) is the actual knowledge of a given population that reflects the experiences based on tradition and includes more recent experiences with modern technologies. Indigenous agricultural practices (IAPs) are an unwritten body of knowledge. There is no systematic record to describe what they are, what they do and how they do what they do, how they can be changed, their operations, their boundaries and their applications. It is held in different brains, languages and skills in as many groups, cultures and environments as are available today (Atte, 1989). Hence, there is immense pressure on the people of India to collect, preserve, validate and adopt IAPs to reduce dependence on external inputs, to reduce the cost of cultivation and to propagate eco-friendly agriculture (Sundramari and Ranganathan, 2003). Indigenous Technical Knowledge is the local knowledge – knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by universities, research institutions and private firms. It is the basis for local–level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education natural resource management and a host of other activities in rural communities (Warren 1991). ITK is the information base for a society, which facilitates communication and decision-making. The advent of the concept of sustainable agriculture in late eighties in Indian agricultural scenario has evoked interest on indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) that has the element of use of natural products to solve the problems about agriculture and allied activities. Indian farmers, over centuries, have learnt to grow food and to survive in difficult environments; the rich tradition of ITK has been interwoven with the agricultural practices followed by them. The enhancement of the quality of life of the Indians who in the great majority live in and depend on agricultural production systems would be impossible by keeping this rich tradition of ITK aside. The special features of indigenous technical knowledge are (World Bank, 1998). It is ‘local’, as it is rooted in a particular community and situated within broader cultural traditions; it is a set of experiences generated by people living in those communities. Therefore, separating the technical from the non-technical, the rational from the non-rational could be problematic. Therefore, when transferred to other places, there is a potential risk of dislocating indigenous technical knowledge. Some of the ITKs found in the literature are listed below:  Spraying of ash on leaves to reduce the foliar diseases  To treat fungal disease, such as damping-off and dieback, farmers used to spray fresh cow dung in the chilli plant’s collar region.  Farmers used fresh cow dung slurry (1kilogramme cow dung in 5 litre water) to treat ginger and turmeric seeds for disease management and enhanced germination.  For soil-borne disease management, in betelvine growing areas farmers used sesame, mustard, and neem cake.  For chickpea wilt disease management, in Sagar district farmers blended 30 kg seed of chickpea with 0.5 mg Heeng + 200 gm Salt in one litre of Butter milk. Pulse seeds sprayed with cow urine to protect against soil-borne fungus and improve development.  Root rot and collar rot are controlled with castor cake, Karanja cake, and neem cake in the case of soil-borne disease.  20 kg Casuarina equisetifolia leaves are boiled for 20 minutes in water. The solutions should be filtered when it has cooled. The extract is then diluted with water and used to treat bacterial and fungal infections.  Make a solution with 2 kg fresh papaya leaves in 3-4 litres of water and leave overnight. After filtering, the solution is diluted with 50-60 litres of water and 250ml soap solution is added to control rice brown spot disease.  Controlling bacterial infections with marigold cultivation followed by solanaceous vegetable crops is efficient.  To manage brown spot disease of rice, place khair (Acacia catechu) leaves in water cannel. Practical Exercise No. 5: On-farm inputs preparation methods and protocols - Jivamrita, Amritpani, Beejamruta JIWAMRITA Jivamrita/jeevamrutha: It is a fermented microbial culture which provides nutrients and most importantly, acts as a catalytic agent that promotes the activity of microorganisms in the soil, as well as increases earthworm activity. During the fermentation process, aerobic and anaerobic bacteria present in the cow dung and urine multiply as they eat up organic ingredients (like pulse flour). A handful of undisturbed soil is also added to the preparation, as inoculate of native species of microbes and organisms. Jeevamrutha also helps to prevent fungal and bacterial plant diseases. Ingredints g 200 lit water g 10 lit Cow Urine. g 10 kg Cow dung (the Fresher the better.) g 1 kg Jaggery or 4 lit of Sugarcane juice or 10kg small pieces Sugarcane or 1 kg Sweet Fruit Pulp g 1 kg - Besan (best) or Toor Dal or Horse Gram g 100 gm - farm soil Preparation of Jeevamrutha : g Mix all the ingredients and rotate clockwise for 15 mins and cover it with a rug and keep in shade, not to be exposed to sunlight and rain water. g Leave it for fermentation for 48 hrs. If the climate is colder than 120 C then keep it for minimum of 4 days. g Mix it twice a day during dawn and dusk for a minute. g After 48hrs / 4 days, Jeevamrutham will be ready for use. Usage: After preparation, this Jeevamrutham can be used for next 7 - 14 days stored in 200 lit barrel or cement tank or plastic tank. Dosage: Per acre 200 – 400 lit Jeevamrutham should be applied to the crop once or twice a month along with Irrigation water. Jeevamrita is a rich bio-formulation contains consortia of beneficial microbes. This formulation is used with 3-7days of preparation. Two hundred liters of Jeevamrita is enough for one acre of cropped area. In general 2-3 times application during crop period is recommended. It can be drenched on much either by drip irrigation or through spraying. It is also effective inn quick decomposition of crop residues if applied with irrigation water given for field preparation. With micro irrigation, 3 to 4 times more area can be covered with 200 litre of Jeevamrita. AMRITPANI It is a special bio formulation, rich in nutrients and beneficial microbes. Ingredients for preparation of Amritpani and its intensive use were advocated by different scientist. It is used to improve seed germination, soil germination, soil fertility and plant vigour. It is prepared from cow dung, cow ghee and honey as summarization below. Sl. No Ingredients quality 1 Cow dung 10 kg  2 Cow ghee 250g 3 Honey 500g Preparation Ten Kg of fresh cow dung is mixed for 2 hours with 250 g cow ghee, after proper mixing add 500g honey diluted to the tank of 200 liters and mix through for 4 fours. This preparation is known as Amritpani. Preparation is ready for use one week incubation. This is used for number of operations such as: Bhumi Sanskar (Soil Treatment): After incubation it is spayed on prepared field ready for sowing / transplanting. Five hundred litres of Amrit Paniis sufficient for one hectare area. Beej Sanskar (Seed Treatment): Soak seed in amritpani and dry under shade before sowing. For hard coat, soak the seed in gomutra before treating with Amrit pani for 12 hrs. Vanaspati Sanskar (Spraying on the crop): Vanaspati sankar is done with plnats for maintain crop health and getting high yields, wherein 10 litres cow urine (gomutra) of indigenous cow is mixed with 2 litres of neem oil and 200 litres of water. This mixture is sprayed on one hectare of land. Use of Amrit pani in Agriculture:  Dressing of seeds with hard coat such as rice, wheat, corn and okra take one kilo of Angara. Add sufficient amritpani to make a thick paste or muck. Mix a small quality of paste with seeds in a sifting pan and keep it rotating till seeds are covered with muck. Dry tree seeds in shade, store and use as needed.  For seeds with a soft or thin coat such as hemp, cereals, vegetables crops etc. the muck should be lightly sprinkled and seeds should be used immediately.  Sugarcane cuttings, turmeric rhizome etc., should be transplanted after dipping into Amrit pani.  Seedling before transplanting should be dipped (rice, vegetables) in Amrit pani can be mixed with irrigation water through flow or drip system. Beejamruta  Ingredients  Water 20 l  Desi cow dung 5 kg  Desi cow urine 5 l  Handful of soil from farm/forest  Lime 50 g  Take 5 kg of Desi cow dung in a cloth and bound with thread as a small bundle and hang it for a night (12 hr.) in 10 – 15 l of water  In another container dissolve 50 g of lime in 1 l of water and soak it for a night  Next day morning squeeze the cow dung in water add handful of soil and stir well  To the solutions add 5 l of Desi cow urine and lime water and stir well Panchagavya 7 kg of fresh cow dung with  1 kg of ghee in a clean plastic drum  After two days  10 liters of cow urine  10 liters of water are added  Mixture is kept for 15 days After 15 days  3 liters of cow's milk  3 liters of tender coconut water  3 kg of jaggery and  2 liters of curd  12 well-ripened banana fruits  Added to the mixture and stirred well Practical Exercise No. 6: On Farm Input Preparation Methods & Protocols in Plant Protection On farm production of bio pesticides, microbial consortia, plant extracts, locally available attractants etc. Helicoverpa armigera Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (H-NPV) Helicoverpa armigera is widely distributed in India and attacks a variety of cultivated and wild plants throughout its distribution range. It is a serious pest in the states of Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Punjab, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh. It is a serious pest on commercial crops like cotton; pulses like red gram and Bengal gram; vegetables like tomato okra and dolichos; oilseeds like sunflower and saflower and cereals like sorghum and maize. H- NPV is a highly infective microbial Biopesticides which can be used for management of H. armigera. It is derived from naturally diseased larvae of H.armigera. It exhibits high level of infectivity against H. armigera. H- NPV is produced in vivo on H. armigera; hence the production of the host insect is essential. 2.1 Production procedure for Helicoverpa armigera The culture of H. armigera is initiated by collecting the adults in light traps (inclusion of adults collected in light traps to the laboratory culture also helps to increase the vigor of the culture). H. armigera larvae could also be collected on a large scale from its host crops in endemic areas for initiating the culture. Nucleus culture can also be obtained from the established laboratories. The material thus obtained is reared in laboratory in aseptic conditions and the healthy progeny is selected and established. The production plan starts with the availability of 550 pairs of adults every day which will yield 22,000 eggs daily. The adults are kept @ 100 pairs in each oviposition cage. Each cage consists of a cylindrical iron frame (50 cm height x 30 cm diameter) having two rings and with a white or black cloth enclosing the frame. A circular plastic mesh (on which cotton swabs soaked in water and honey solution are placed in small containers) rests on a support 5 cm above the base of the frame. The cloth cover is open at both ends with a 20 cm vertical slit in the centre which can be closed with a zip or cloth clips. The cloth cover enclosing the frame is tied with rubber bands at both ends. It is placed on an enamel or aluminium tray (40 x 40 x 5 cm) with a 3 cm thick sponge at the bottom soaked in water. Even in summer months, the temperature inside the cage is maintained at 260C and humidity at 60 – 90%. The eggs are laid all over the inner surface of the cloth cover. The egg cloth is removed daily. This cloth is surface sterilized in 10% formalin for 10 minutes, the eggs could also be surface sterilized using 0.2% sodium hypochlorite solution for 5 – 7 minutes and treated with 10% sodium thiosulphate solution to neutralize the effect of sodium hypochlorite, rinsed in distilled water five times for about 10 minutes and eggs colleted using a washing machine. The eggs are later placed on paper towel under laminar flow hood for drying. The dried cloth pieces containing eggs are kept in 2 liter flasks containing moist cotton. Flasks are plugged with cotton wrapped in muslin cloth and the bottom of the flask is wrapped with aluminum foil. Helicoverpa armigera larval rearing on semi-synthetic diet. The larvae of H. armigera can be reared on a chickpea based semi synthetic diet. Composition of the semi- synthetic diet and diet preparation are detailed under:- The composition of diet for rearing larvae is as follows: No Item Quantity A - Chickpea (gram) flour 105.00 gm A - Methyl para - hydroxy benzoate 2.00 gm A - Sorbic acid 1.00 gm A - Streptomycin sulphate 0.25 gm A - 10% Formaldehyde solution 2.00 ml B - Agar-agar 12.75 gm C - Ascorbic acid 3.25 gm C - Yeast tablets 25 tablets C - Multivitaplex 2 capsules C - Vitamin E 2 capsules - Distilled water 780.00 ml - 390 ml of water is mixed with fraction ‘A’ of the diet in the blender which is run for two minutes. Fraction ‘A’ and ‘C’ are mixed and the blender is run again for 1 minute. Fraction ‘B’ is boiled in the remaining 390 ml water, added to the mixture of A and B and the blender is run for a minute. Formaldehyde solution is added in the end and the blender is run again for a minute - The diet is poured as per the requirement either on the nylon mesh for rearing 5-7 days old larvae or in tray cells for rearing the older larvae or poured into sterilized Petri plates and allowed to solidify. The diet can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 2 weeks. For preparing large quantities of diet, the quantity of diet ingredients to be used should be calculated accordingly and industrial type warning blenders could be used. - The positively phototropic larvae are removed from the top of the aluminum foil wrapped flasks with a fine sterilized camel hair brush and then transferred to the diet. 220 larvae are transferred to diet impregnated on nylon mesh and placed in 25 x 14 x 11 cm ventilated plastic containers or sterilized glass vials. 100 such containers are maintained daily for 5 – 7 days. A total of 800 (700 + 100) containers are required. Multi-cellular trays with semi-synthetic diet could also be used for rearing a large number of larvae. - Starting with 22,000 eggs, the total number of larvae available is 20,900 considering an estimated 5% mortality in egg stage. Considering 10% mortality up to first 5 – 7 days, the total number of larvae available for transfer to the trays will be 18,810, out of which 80% will be utilized for virus production i.e. 15,048 and 20% for continuation of host culture i.e. 3762 larvae. - Diet requirements for the young larvae up to 5 – 7 days at 2 gms / larva will be 4.18 kg. - Diet requirement for 15,048, 5 – 7 day old larvae to be utilized for Ha NPV production at 4 gms / larva will be 6.02 kg. - Diet requirement for 3762 five to seven days old larvae for continuation of hot culture at 6 gms / larva will be 2.26 kg. - Daily average diet required for rearing the field collected larvae for augmenting the nucleus stock will be about 1 kg. - Twenty per cent of larvae, which are sent to hot culture units, start pupating when they are 18 – 19 days old and the pupae are completely formed with 2-3 days. The pupae are harvested from the diet and are surface sterilized using 0.2% sodium hypochlorite solution, washed and neutralized with 10% sodium thiosulphate solution, washed thoroughly with distilled, sterilized water and dried by rolling over blotting paper. The male and female pupae are separated out and placed in separate small containers, which are placed over moist sponge in adult emergence cages similar to oviposition cages. - The egg, larval, pupal and adult stages of H. armigera last 3 – 4, 18 – 20, 7 – 8 and 7 – 9 days, respectively. The oviposition period of the females is about 5 days. Production of Helicoverpa armigera Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (H-NPV) For H-NPV production, diet used for rearing H. armigera is poured at 4 gm / cell and the diet surface is uniformly sprayed (just enough to cover the diet surface without drenching it) with virus prepared in sterilized distilled water at 18 x 106 POBs /ml. 80 per cent of the total 5 – 7 day old larvae are utilized for H- NPV production and the remaining 20% are transferred into trays where 6 gm diet / larva is provided (for continuation of the host culture). The trays are incubated at 260C for 7 days. In case of virus infected larval trays, the diseased / dead larvae are harvested after 7 days and subsequently macerated in mixers / blenders in sterilized distilled water. The product is standardized with regard to the number of POBs per ml in terms of LD50 with 95% fiducial limits. The POBs can be stored in distilled water and packed in plastic cans / bottles with proper instructions provided on the containers. The virus produced will be sufficient to apply 3 times in about 70.77 ha. Chickpea crop at 250 larval equivalents / ha/ spray in a season. One larval equivalent is equal to 6 x 10 9 POBs or their equivalent in activity. Field application and impact assessment H-NPV is utilized for the suppression of H. armigera on chickpea, pigeon pea, field bean, cotton, sunflower, and tomato. Three to four sprays of H-NPV 250 LE (larval equivalents) / ha. (1 LE = 6 x 109 POBs) are particularly effective on chickpea. Crude sugar 0.5% + groundnut oil cake 0.5% are found to increase H- NPV – caused insect mortality by 40 to 60% on chickpea. Practical Exercise No. 7: Studies in green manuring in-situ and green leaf manuring and their quantification Green manuring in-situ and quantification Introduction: Green manuring, a practice rooted in sustainable agriculture, involves cultivating specific crops for the purpose of improving soil fertility and structure. When applied in-situ, meaning directly within the same field where cash crops are grown, it becomes a dynamic and environmentally friendly approach. This comprehensive study aims to explore various aspects of green manuring crops in-situ, focusing on the selection of cover crops, their roles, quantification methods, challenges, case studies, and the potential for further advancements. I. Green Manuring Crops: Selection and Roles 1. Legumes as Nitrogen Fixers Leguminous crops such as clover, vetch, and peas are commonly chosen for their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These cover crops contribute to the soil's nitrogen pool, enhancing fertility. Their deep-rooted nature also aids in breaking compacted soil layers, promoting better water infiltration. 2. Grasses for Organic Matter Addition Grasses, including ryegrass and oats, are selected for their rapid growth and the ability to add significant amounts of organic matter to the soil. As these cover crops decompose, they release nutrients, improving soil structure and providing a source of carbon for soil microbes. 3. Brassicas for Biofumigation and Disease Suppression Brassica family members like mustard and rapeseed play a dual role. Apart from adding organic matter to the soil, they release biofumigant compounds that suppress soil-borne diseases. This makes them valuable choices for green manuring in-situ with an added layer of pest management. 4. Deep-Rooted Plants for Soil Structure Improvement Cover crops with deep root systems, such as radishes and daikon, contribute to soil structure improvement by breaking up compacted layers. Their extensive root systems create channels for water infiltration and enhance soil aeration. II. Quantification Methods: Assessing the Impact of Green Manuring Crops 1. Soil Nutrient Analysis Quantifying the impact of green manuring crops on soil fertility involves conducting soil nutrient analyses. Comparing nutrient levels before and after cover crop incorporation provides insights into the changes in essential elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. This data helps farmers make informed decisions about nutrient management for subsequent cash crops. 2. Microbial Activity Assessment Soil health is closely linked to microbial activity. Assessing microbial biomass and activity through methods like the chloroform fumigation extraction technique helps understand the impact of green manuring on the soil microbial community. Increased microbial activity is indicative of improved nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition. 3. Plant Biomass Analysis Quantifying the biomass of green manuring crops provides information about the amount of organic matter added to the soil. Harvesting cover crops at specific growth stages and weighing the plant material offers insights into the potential contribution to soil fertility and structure. 4. Nitrogen Fixation Measurements For leguminous cover crops chosen for their nitrogen-fixing abilities, measuring nitrogen fixation rates provides direct information on the nitrogen contribution to the soil. Techniques such as the acetylene reduction assay or the natural abundance of stable isotopes can be employed for accurate measurements. 5. Root Biomass and Soil Structure Assessment Assessing the root biomass of green manuring crops, especially those with deep root systems, contributes to understanding their impact on soil structure. Methods such as root washing and analysis or soil coring can be used to quantify root biomass and evaluate soil penetration. III. Challenges and Solutions in Implementing Green Manuring Crops 1. Crop Rotation and Timing Integrating green manuring crops into a crop rotation plan requires careful consideration of timing and potential crop competition. Selecting cover crops that align with the off-season of cash crops can mitigate competition for resources. Thoughtful planning ensures that both cover and cash crops thrive without negatively impacting each other. 2. Managing Cover Crop Residues  After green manuring crops are incorporated into the soil, managing the residues effectively is crucial. Rapid decomposition can lead to temporary nitrogen tie-up, affecting nutrient availability for subsequent crops. Implementing techniques such as mowing or incorporating residues at the right time helps balance nutrient release and availability. 3. Pest and Disease Management While green manuring crops like brassicas can contribute to disease suppression, they may also attract specific pests. Integrating pest-resistant varieties or adopting companion planting strategies can help manage potential pest issues associated with certain cover crops. IV. Case Studies: Realizing Success with Green Manuring Crops 1. Diverse Agroecological Contexts Case studies from diverse agroecological contexts demonstrate the versatility and adaptability of green manuring crops. Successful implementation in different climates, soil types, and farming systems provides valuable insights into the feasibility and benefits of incorporating cover crops in- situ. 2. Economic Benefits for Farmers Examining case studies that highlight the economic benefits for farmers, such as reduced input costs and improved yields, emphasizes the practical advantages of green manuring. These success stories showcase the potential for sustainable and economically viable agriculture. V. Future Directions: Advancing Green Manuring Crop Practices 1. Tailoring Practices to Local Conditions Future research should focus on tailoring green manuring practices to local conditions. Understanding how different cover crops perform in specific climates, soils, and cropping systems allows for the development of region-specific recommendations. 2. Integration of Agroecological Principles Advancing green manuring practices involves further integration of agroecological principles. This includes exploring the synergies between green manuring and other sustainable agriculture practices, such as agroforestry or intercropping, to create holistic and resilient farming systems. 3. Digital Agriculture and Precision Green Manuring The integration of digital agriculture and precision farming technologies holds promise for optimizing green manuring practices. Remote sensing, drones, and sensor technologies can provide real-time data on cover crop growth, allowing farmers to make timely decisions for optimal results. 4. Education and Knowledge Transfer Promoting knowledge transfer and education about the benefits and best practices of green manuring is crucial for its widespread adoption. Educational programs, workshops, and extension services play a key role in disseminating information and empowering farmers to implement sustainable practices. Characteristics and Benefits of Green Manuring Crops: a. Nitrogen Fixation: - Leguminous crops play a crucial role in fixing atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use, reducing the need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. b. Organic Matter Addition: - Green manure crops contribute organic matter to the soil, promoting microbial activity, improving soil structure, and enhancing water retention. c. Weed Suppression: - Cover crops create a dense canopy, suppressing weed growth and minimizing the competition for nutrients and sunlight. d. Erosion Control: - The root systems of cover crops, particularly grasses, help bind soil particles together, preventing erosion and promoting soil stability. e. Pest and Disease Management: - Certain cover crops, like mustard, release compounds that have biofumigation properties, helping manage soil-borne pests and diseases. Green Manuring Practices: a. Crop Rotation: - Integrating green manure crops into a crop rotation system enhances soil health over time, breaks pest cycles, and diversifies the nutrient profile of the soil. b. No-Till Farming: - Green manuring is often integrated into no-till or reduced tillage systems to preserve soil structure and reduce disturbance. c. Timing of Incorporation: - Cover crops should be incorporated into the soil at the right growth stage to maximize nutrient release and organic matter incorporation. Challenges and Considerations: a. Species Selection: - Choosing the right cover crop species depends on factors such as climate, soil type, and the specific needs of the main crop. b. Management Practices: - Proper management, including termination methods and timing, is essential to prevent cover crops from competing with the main crop. c. Local Adaptation: - Green manuring practices should be adapted to local conditions, considering factors like rainfall patterns, temperature, and cropping systems. Green leaf manuring and quantification: Introduction: Green leaf manuring is an eco-friendly agricultural practice that involves incorporating fresh green plant material, primarily leaves, into the soil to enhance soil fertility. This article explores the significance of green leaf manuring, the benefits it provides to soil health, and various methods for quantifying its impact. 1. Green Leaf Manuring: a. Source of Biomass: - Green leaf manuring involves collecting fresh leaves from various plant sources, such as leguminous trees, shrubs, and cover crops. b. Nitrogen Contribution: - The incorporation of green leaves adds nitrogen to the soil as they decompose, serving as a natural and organic source of this essential nutrient. c. Organic Matter Enrichment: - Green leaves contribute to the organic matter content of the soil, improving soil structure, water retention, and microbial activity. 2. Benefits of Green Leaf Manuring: a. Nutrient Recycling: - Green leaf manuring helps recycle nutrients, especially nitrogen, back into the soil, reducing the dependence on synthetic fertilizers. b. Microbial Activity: - Decomposition of green leaves by soil microorganisms enhances microbial activity, contributing to nutrient mineralization. c. Improved Soil Structure: - The organic matter from green leaves enhances soil structure, promoting better water infiltration, root development, and overall soil fertility. d. Weed Suppression: - As green leaf material decomposes, it forms a mulch layer, suppressing weed growth and reducing competition for resources. 3. Quantification Methods for Green Leaf Manuring Impact: a. Nutrient Analysis: - Conduct soil nutrient analyses before and after green leaf manuring to quantify changes in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other essential elements. b. Microbial Biomass and Activity: - Assessing microbial biomass and activity using methods like phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis provides insights into the impact of green leaf manuring on soil microbial communities. c. Soil Respiration: - Measure soil respiration rates to gauge microbial activity and the rate of organic matter decomposition, reflecting the impact of green leaf manuring. d. Organic Carbon Content: - Quantify changes in soil organic carbon content through soil testing or advanced techniques like infrared spectroscopy to assess the long-term impact on soil fertility. e. Crop Yield and Quality: - Monitor the yield and quality of crops grown in soils treated with green leaf manure compared to control plots to evaluate the practical impact on agricultural productivity. 4. Challenges and Considerations: a. Decomposition Rates: - Different plant species exhibit varying decomposition rates. Understanding these rates is crucial for optimizing the timing of subsequent plantings. b. Nutrient Release Dynamics: - The timing and availability of nutrients released during decomposition can influence crop growth. Balancing nutrient release with crop requirements is essential. c. Selection of Green Leaf Sources: - Choosing appropriate plant species for green leaf manuring depends on local conditions, nutrient requirements, and availability. 5. Case Studies and Success Stories: a. Teak Leaf Manuring in Agroforestry Systems: - Research in agroforestry systems has shown the positive impact of teak leaf manuring on soil fertility and crop yields, especially in tropical regions. Practical Exercise No. 8: Studies on different types of botanicals and animal urine and dung based non-aerated and aerated inputs for plant growth and nutrient management NADEP composting: g The NADEP method of organic composting was developed by a Gandhian worker called Narayan Deorao Pandharipande of Maharastra (Pusad). Compost can be prepared from a wide range of organic materials including dead plant material such as crop residues, weeds, forest litter and kitchen waste. g Compost making is an efficient way of converting all kinds of biomass into high value manures that serves as a good alternative to farmyard manure, especially for crop-growing households without livestock. Description g This method of making compost involves the construction of a simple, rectangular brick tank with enough spaces maintained between the bricks for necessary aeration. g The recommended size of the tank is 10 ft (length) x 5 ft (breadth) x 3 ft (height). g All the four walls of NADEP tank are provided with 6// vents by removing every alternate brick after the height of 1 ft. from bottom for aeration. g Tank can be constructed in mud mortar or cement mortar. Raw materials required for filling NADEP tank g Agricultural waste (Dry & green) – 1350-1400 kgs. g Cattle dung or biogas slurry – 98 – 100 kgs. g Fine sieved soil – 1675 kgs. g Water – 1350-1400 litres. The important technique in the manufacture of NADEP compost is that, the entire tank should be filled in one go, within 24 hours and should not go beyond 48 hours, as this would affect the quality of the compost. Thatched roof, brick wall flooring, air vents, green-farm technologies for small and marginal farms resources center for sustainable development g Before filling: the tank is plastered with dilute cattle dung slurry to facilitate bacterial activity from all four sides. It is also filled in definite layers, each layer consisting of the following sub layers. Sub-layer-1 g 4 to 6// thick layer of fine sticks, stems, (To facilitate aeration) followed by 4 to 6// layer of dry and green biomass. Sub-layer-2 g 4 kgs, cow dung is mixed with 100 litres of water and sprinkled thoroughly on the agricultural waste to facilitate microbial activity.’ Sub-layer-3 g 60 kgs. of fine dry soil is spread uniformly over the soaked biomass for moisture retention and acts as a buffer during biodegradation. Thus the proportion of organic materials for each layer is 100 kgs. Organic biomass: 4kgs cow dung + 100 litres water+60 kgs soil. In this way, approximately 10 -12 layers are filled in each tank. After filling the tank, biomass is covered with 3// thick layer of soil and sealed with cow dung +mud plaster. Maintainance g After 15-30 days of filling the organic biomass in the tank gets automatically pressed down to 2 ft. g The tank is refilled by giving 2-3 layers over it and is resealed. g After filling, the tank is left undisturbed for 3 months, but should be moistened at intervals of every 6-15 days. g The entire tank is covered with a thatched roof to prevent excessive evaporation of moisture. g Under any circumstances, no cracks should be allowed to develop. If they do, they should be promptly filled up with slurry. Benefits g Reduced cash expenses on chemical fertilizer, improved soil fertility, increased crop yield. g Supports organic crop production, reduced dependence on outside inputs. g From each NADEP tank approximately 2.5 tons of compost is prepared with in 90-120 days. g The use of compost reduced the need for mineral fertilizer thus reducing production costs and outside dependence Practical Exercises No. 9: Study of different type of botanicals and animal urine and dung for pest and disease management Due to increased demand for food to feed the ever-growing population leads to the development and adoption of synthetic chemicals as an effective strategy for controlling crop pests and diseases. However, overreliance on synthetic pesticide chemicals is discouraged due to their detrimental effects on humans and environment. Pesticides are chemical substances, even defined as poisons targeted to kill harmful insect pests. Developing countries consider them as powerful weapons in order to enhance crop yields and to reduce the vector-borne disease burden. It has been estimated that about 2.5 million tonnes of pesticides are used on crops each year and the worldwide damage caused by pesticides reaches $100 billion annually. Identification of novel effective insecticidal compounds is essential to combat increasing resistance rates of pests. Botanicals are effective alternatives for synthetic pesticide chemicals, because they are efficacious in managing different crop pests, inexpensive, easily biodegraded, have varied modes of action, their sources are easily available and have low toxicity to non-target organisms. Botanicals have been in use for a long time for pest control. However, their uses during the 20th century are marginal when compared with other bio-control methods for controlling pests and diseases. Methods of Plant Extract Preparation Extraction methods involve separation of medicinally active fractions of plant tissue from inactive/inert components by using selective solvents like chloroform, ethanol, methanol, hexane and acetone and extraction technology - plant tissue homogenization in solvent in rotary evaporator. Solvents diffuse into the solid plant tissues and solubilize compounds of similar polarity. Quality of plant extract depends on plant material, choice of solvents and the extraction methods. Collecting Plant Material: Both fresh and dried plant materials can be used for extracting secondary plant components. To ensure consistency and remove variances in water content, plants are typically air-dried until they reach a constant weight before extraction. Alternatively, some researchers opt to dry plants in ovens at around 40°C for 72 hours. In numerous studies, underground parts like roots, tubers, rhizomes, and bulbs are extensively utilized compared to above-ground parts when searching for bioactive compounds with antimicrobial properties. Methods for Evaluation of Efficacy of Plant Extract In vitro antimicrobial susceptibility testing Diffusion test a) agar well diffusion b) agar disk diffusion c) poison food technique Diffusion Test: This test assesses the antimicrobial activity of plant extracts by measuring their ability to inhibit the growth of microorganisms when diffused into a solid growth medium. a) Agar Well Diffusion: i. Prepare a solid agar medium appropriate for the microorganism being tested. ii. Inoculate the agar medium with a standardized suspension of the test microorganism. iii. Using a sterile cork borer, create wells of uniform size in the agar plates. iv. Add varying concentrations of the plant extract or compound of interest into the wells. v. Incubate the plates at the optimal temperature for the growth of the test microorganism. vi. After incubation, measure the diameter of the zones of inhibition around the wells, indicating the effectiveness of the plant extract against the microorganism. b) Agar Disk Diffusion: i. Prepare the agar plates and inoculate them with the test microorganism as described above. ii. Apply sterile filter paper disks containing different concentrations of the plant extract onto the agar surface. iii. Incubate the plates under appropriate conditions. iv. Measure the zones of inhibition formed around the disks after incubation to determine the antimicrobial activity of the plant extract. c) Poison Food Technique: i. Prepare a suitable growth medium for the microorganism to be tested. ii. Mix the plant extract or compound with the medium at varying concentrations. iii. Pour the agar medium containing the plant extract into Petri dishes and allow it to solidify. iv. Inoculate the surface of the agar with the test microorganism. v. Incubate the plates under optimal conditions for microbial growth. vi. Assess the growth inhibition of the microorganism by comparing its growth on plates containing different concentrations of the plant extract. Methodology for preparation of some animal urine and dung ITKs 1. BIJAMRUT Ingredients Cow Dung : 5kg  Cow Urine : 5L Cow Milk : 1L Lime : 250g Water : 100L Preparation:  Take 100 litre water in barrel and add 5 kg cow dung plus 5 lit in cow urine.  Mix well with the help of wooden stick add 250g of lime and 1L of cow milk mix this solution well with wooden stick.  Keep this solution for fermentation for 5 to 7 days. Shake the solution regularly three times a day. Method of Use: Sprinkled over the seeds before they are sown as seed treatment. Used as soil application either by sprinkling or by applying through irrigation water. Three applications are needed one before sowing, second after twenty days of sowing and third after 45 days of sowing. 2. PANCHAGAVYA Ingredients Cow Dung Slurry : 4kg Fresh Cow Dung : 1kg Cow Urine : 3L Cow Milk : 2L Curd : 2L Cow Butter oil : 1kg Preparation:  Put all the ingredients in drum  Stir in thirty times clock-wise and thirty times anti clock wise (twice daily)  Keep the drum closed  Panchagavya would become ready on 7th day  Mix 100 liters of water and stir it properly  Mix the mixture with vermin-compost or ash or fertile soil and spread it in the field before sowing. Method of Use: During irrigation, make a hole in the drum (4” above the base) and set it so that dripping from drum starts and whole field will be nourished. By its application at the time of sowing and during irrigations, soil can maintain remain fertile.  3. JIVAMRUT Ingredients Cow Dung : 10kg Cow urine : 10L Jaggery : 2kg Flour of gram (Tur, Moong, : 2kg Cowpea, Urad) Live Soil : 1kg Water : 200L Preparation:  Take 100 liter water in barrel and add 10 kg cow dung plus 10 lit in cow urine.  Mix well with the help of wooden stick add two kg jaggery and two kf of gram or any pulse flour mix this solution well with wooden stick.  Keep this solution for fermentation for 5 to 7 days. Shake the solution regularly three times a day. Method of Use: Used as soil application either by sprinkling or by applying through irrigation water. Three applications are needed one before sowing, second after twenty days of sowing and third after 45 days of sowing. Table 1: List of plants and their parts having antimicrobial activity against diseases/pathogens Plant Part Used Diseases/Pathogen Datura, Calotropis procera Root, Stem, Leaf, Flowers Curvularia lunata Turmeric, Ginger Rhizome Phytopthora infestans, Fusarium solani, Pyricularia oryzae Neem Leaf, Stem, Bark, Root, Anthracnose of pepper, Alternaria Seed kernel alternate, Early blight of tomato, Powdery mildew of pea, Sheath blight, bacterial blight and tungro virus of rice Holy basil Leaf Grey mould of grapes Oregano (Origanum hereleoticum) Leaf Fusarium oxysporum, Phoma tracheiphila Indian Aloe, Tobacco Leaf Dry rot of yam- F. oxysporum, A.nizer Black pepper Leaf Antibacterial Clove Leaf, Seed, Fruit Aspergillus flavus Aspilia africana Leaf Cercospora leaf spot of seasame Lemon grass Leaf, root Black mould disease on onion bulbs Brassica napus and Tomato Leaf, stem Bacterial disease on onion Ginger Leaf, Seed, Rhizome Root rot diseases Table 2: List of plants and their parts having antimicrobial activity against pests Botanical pesticides Insect pests Nicotine Aphids, thrips, caterpillars Rotenone Bugs, Mites, aphids, Potato beetles, carpenter ants Ryania Codling moths, potato aphids, onion thrips, corn earworms, silkworms Sabadilla Grasshoppers, codling moths, armyworms, aphids, cabbage loopers, beetles Pyrethrum Caterpillars, aphids, leafhoppers, spider mites, bugs, cabbage worms Essential oils Caterpillars, cabbage worms, aphids, white flies Neem Products Army worms, cut worms, stemborers, bollworms, leaf miners, caterpillars, aphids, whiteflies, leaf hoppers, psyllids, scales, mites and thrips Synthetic pyrethroids Caterpillars, aphids, thrips Practical Exercise No. 10: Weed management practices in natural farming Introduction: Natural farming, also known as organic or sustainable farming, places a strong emphasis on working in harmony with nature to cultivate crops while minimizing environmental impact. Weed management is a crucial aspect of natural farming, as weeds can compete with crops for resources and harbor pests. This article explores various weed management practices in natural farming, emphasizing the principles of ecological balance, biodiversity, and soil health. 1. Cultural Practices: a. Crop Rotation: - Crop rotation disrupts the life cycles of weeds and pests while enhancing soil fertility. Different crops have varied nutrient requirements, preventing the depletion of specific elements in the soil. b. Polyculture and Companion Planting: - Growing diverse crops together or planting companion plants with known allelopathic properties can suppress weed growth and enhance biodiversity. c. Cover Cropping: - Cover crops, strategically planted between main crops or during fallow periods, suppress weeds, improve soil structure, and contribute organic matter to the soil. 2. Mulching: a. Organic Mulches: - Applying organic materials such as straw, hay, or leaves as mulch helps smother weeds, retain soil moisture, and regulate soil temperature. b. Living Mulches: - Planting low-growing cover crops as living mulches provides continuous ground cover, suppressing weed growth while contributing to nitrogen fixation and soil health. 3. Mechanical Weed Control: a. Hand Weeding: - Hand weeding remains an effective method in natural farming, ensuring precision and minimal soil disturbance. It is labor-intensive but aligns with the principles of sustainable agriculture. b. Mechanical Cultivation: - Shallow cultivation using tools like hoes or wheel hoes disrupts weed growth while minimizing soil disturbance. Care must be taken to avoid damaging crop roots. c. Flame Weeding: - Controlled burning of weed foliage using propane torches or specialized equipment is a targeted approach that eliminates weeds without using chemicals. 4. Biological Weed Control: a. Use of Livestock: - Integrating livestock into the farming system, such as using chickens or geese, can help control weed growth by foraging on weeds while providing additional benefits like pest control and nutrient cycling. b. Allelopathic Plants: - Incorporating allelopathic plants that release chemicals inhibiting weed growth can be an effective strategy. For example, planting sunflowers or marigolds can suppress certain weeds. c. Biological Control Agents: - Introduction of natural enemies, such as insects or fungi, that target specific weed species without harming crops can be explored in a balanced and ecologically mindful manner. 5. Soil Health Management: a. Fertile Soil Creation: - Maintaining fertile soil through practices like composting, vermicomposting, and incorporating organic matter supports crop vigor and competitiveness against weeds. b. Balancing Soil pH: - Adjusting soil pH to levels suitable for crops but less favorable for weed growth can be achieved through the addition of organic amendments like lime. 6. Minimal Tillage Practices: a. No-Till Farming: - No-till farming reduces soil disturbance, preserves beneficial soil organisms, and minimizes the exposure of weed seeds to sunlight, preventing germination. b. Reduced Tillage: - Implementing reduced tillage practices, where soil is disturbed minimally, maintains soil structure while controlling weed growth. 7. Weed Identification and Monitoring: a. Early Detection: - Regular monitoring of fields allows for the early identification of weed species. Prompt action can then be taken to prevent their proliferation. b. Adaptive Management: - Adopting adaptive management practices based on the specific weed species encountered allows for targeted and efficient control strategies. 8. Community and Farmer Involvement: a. Knowledge Sharing: - Promoting knowledge sharing within farming communities about effective weed management practices encourages the adoption of sustainable methods. b. Participatory Approaches: - Involving farmers in decision-making processes regarding weed management fosters a sense of ownership and encourages the adoption of practices that align with natural farming principles. 9. Challenges and Considerations: a. Labor Intensity: - Many natural farming practices, such as hand weeding or no-till farming, can be labor-intensive. Ensuring access to a skilled and motivated workforce is crucial. b. Transition Period: - Transitioning from conventional to natural farming practices may initially result in increased weed pressure. Patience and persistence are vital during this period. c. Integrated Approach: - Successful weed management in natural farming often requires an integrated approach, combining various methods to address the complexity of weed interactions. 10. Case Studies and Success Stories: a. Masanobu Fukuoka's Natural Farming Techniques: - The late Japanese farmer Masanobu Fukuoka developed natural farming methods that emphasized minimal intervention, cover cropping, and respect for natural processes, which effectively managed weeds while promoting sustainable agriculture. b. Rodale Institute's Organic No-Till Research: - The Rodale Institute has been at the forefront of research on organic no-till practices, demonstrating the efficacy of combining cover crops and minimal tillage for effective weed control and soil health improvement. Practical Exercise No. 11: Certification and Standards in Natural Farming (Organic Farming) Organic seed In the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990, the definition of an organic agricultural product is given as, "produced and handled without the use of synthetic chemicals." Also, "not produced on land on which any prohibited substances, including synthetic chemicals, have been applied during the three years immediately preceding harvest of the agricultural products." Organic seeds, therefore, are seeds which have been produced entirely through organic practices by a certified organic operation. In order to be sold as such, they must be produced by such a facility which has been certified by an accredited government agency. Organic seed is seed (planting material) produced by a crop that is planted and raised organically for at least one generation in the case of annual crops, and two generation in the case of biennial and perennial crops (Lammerts van Bueren, 2002). It is naturally that organic seeds are obtained by purchasing conventional non- treated seeds (C1), which are grown organically for one season and then sold on to organic farmers as organic seeds (C2). Lammerts van Bueren (2002) nominated the main problems in organic seed production.  Market problems are related to the limited area of organic agriculture and thus of the area of seed production per variety resulting in higher cost compared to conventional seed production. This will imply that the organicassortment of varieties per crop will be limited.  Technical problems have to do with the lack of experience of the formal sector with organic seed production without chemical inputs.  Problems with quality standards.  The main problems are: disease and pest management, and weed control. Among the diseases, the seed-borne diseases require special attention. Organic seed production and distribution in European countries is presently a multibillion dollar business and at a great momentum with creation of organic seed producers and distributors database for European Union (EU). Presently organic seed production in India is mainly done by private company, which is highly valuable in global market. Organic Seed Certification in India In India, two types of organic certification systems exist: 1. Third party certification system: National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP): Governed by Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), the Ministry of Commerce and mainly works for export purpose. 2. PGS-INDIA certification system: Governed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare and mainly focuses on local or domestic market. 1. National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) The implementing body of NPOP is APEDA, Ministry of Commerce & Industries, Government of India. The programme involves accreditation of certification bodies, providing standards for organic production, promotion of organic farming, marketing etc. The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system are recognized by European Commission and Switzerland for unprocessed plant products as equivalent to their country standards. Hence, Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted for import. Individual growers can register with certification body (CB) duly paying the requisite fee and submitting the relevant documents. However, growers can also form into groups and offer for certification based on Internal Control System (ICS). The producer groups, farmer’s cooperatives, contract production and small scale processing units