NatSci Reviewer Chapter 6 - Running Water & Ground Water PDF

**NATSCI REVIEWER** **CHAPTER 6 - RUNNING WATER AND GROUND WATER** **WATER CYCLE -** Water constantly moves among the oceans, the atmosphere, the solid Earth, and the biosphere. **PROCESSES** - Precipitation - Evaporation - Infiltration - the movement of surface water into rock or soil...

**NATSCI REVIEWER** **CHAPTER 6 - RUNNING WATER AND GROUND WATER** **WATER CYCLE -** Water constantly moves among the oceans, the atmosphere, the solid Earth, and the biosphere. **PROCESSES** - Precipitation - Evaporation - Infiltration - the movement of surface water into rock or soil through cracks and pore spaces. - Runoff - Transpiration - the release of water into the Atmosphere from plants through the ground. and transport materials depends largely on its velocity. **GRADIENT** - is the slope or steepness of a stream channel. **STREAM CHANNEL** - is the course the water in a stream follows. **DISCHARGE** - the volume of water flowing past a certain point in a given unit of Time. **TRIBUTARY** -- is a stream that empties into another Stream. **MEANDERS** -- a stream in a broad, flat-bottomed valley that is near its base level often develops a course with many bends. **BEDLOAD** - is solid material too large to carry in suspension. **CAPACITY -** the maximum load it can carry. **DEPOSITION** - occurs as stream flow drops below the critical settling velocity of a certain particle size. - Deposits are called **ALLUVIUM**. **DELTAS -** are an accumulation of sediment formed where a stream enters a lake or ocean. **NATURAL LEVEE** - parallels a stream and helps to contain its waters, except during flood stage. **NARROW V-SHAPED VALLEY -** shows that the stream's primary work has been down cutting toward base level. - Features include **RAPIDS AND WATERFALLS**. **FLOODPLAIN ­**- A narrow V-shaped valley shows that the stream's primary work has been downcutting toward base level. - Features often include **MEANDERS, CUTOFF, and OXBOW LAKES**. **FLOOD -** occurs when the discharge of a stream becomes so great that it exceeds the capacity of its channel and overflows its banks. **DRAINAGE BASIN** - is the land area that contributes water to a stream. **DIVIDE -** is an imaginary line that separates the drainage basins of one stream from another. **ZONE OF SATURATION** - is the area where water fills all of the open spaces in sediment and rock. **GROUNDWATER** - is the water within this zone. **WATER TABLE** - is the upper level of the saturation zone of groundwater. **POROSITY** - The percentage of pore spaces \- Determines how much groundwater can be Stored. **PERMEABILITY** - Ability to transmit water through connected pore spaces. \- Aquifers are permeable rock layers or sediments that transmit groundwater freely. **SPRING** - forms whenever the water table intersects the ground surface. **HOT SPRINGS** - Water is 6--9oC warmer than the mean air temperature of the locality. Water is heated by cooling of igneous rock. **GEYSER** -- intermittent hot springs. Water turns to steam and erupts. **WELL** - is a hole bored into the zone of saturation. **ARTESIAN WELL** **-** is any formation in which groundwater rises on its own under pressure. **CAVERN** - is a naturally formed underground chamber. **TRAVERTINE -** is a form of limestone that is deposited by hot springs or as a cave deposit. **KARST TOPOGRAPHY** - formed by dissolving rock at, or near, Earth\'s surface. **SINKHOLES** - surface depressions. Form when bedrock dissolves and caverns collapse. **CHAPTER 7 -- GLACIERS, DESERT, AND WIND** **GLACIER -** is a thick ice mass that forms above the snowline over hundreds or thousands of years. **ICE AGE** - was a period of time when much of the Earth was covered in glaciers. **VALLEY GLACIERS** - Ice masses that slowly advance down mountain valleys originally occupied by streams. A stream of ice that flows between steep rock walls from near the top of the mountain valley. **ICE SHEETS** - are enormous ice masses that flow in all directions from one or more centers and cover everything but the highest land. Ice sheets are sometimes called **CONTINENTAL ICE SHEETS** because they cover large regions where the climate is extremely cold. The movement of glaciers is referred to as **FLOW**, and it happens in two ways. 1\. **PLASTIC FLOW**---involves movement within the ice 2\. **BASAL SLIP**---slipping and sliding downward due to gravity. **HOW GLACIERS ERODE;** **PLUCKING -** lifting of rock blocks **ABRASION** - Rock flour (pulverized rock) \- Striations (grooves in the bedrock) **GLACIAL TROUGH** - is a U-shaped valley that was once V-shaped but was deepen by a glacier. **CIRQUE** - is a bowl-shaped depression at the head of a glacial valley. **ARÊTES** and **HORNS** - Snaking, sharp-edged ridges called arêtes and sharp pyramid-like peaks called horns project above mountain landscapes. **2 TYPES OF GLACIAL DRIFT** - **TILL** is material deposited directly by the glacier. - **STRATIFIED DRIFT** is sediment laid down by glacial melt water. **MORAINES** - layers or ridges of till. **OUTWASH PLAINS** - sloping plains consisting of deposits from melt water streams in front of the margin of an ice sheet. **KETTLES** - depressions created when a block of ice becomes lodged in glacial deposits and subsequently melts. **DRUMLINS** - streamlined, asymmetrical hills composed of glacial dirt. **ESKERS** - ridges composed largely of sand and gravel deposited by a stream flowing beneath a glacier near its terminus. **ICE AGE** - Began 2 to 3 million years ago. - Division of geological time is called the **PLEISTOCENE EPOCH.** - Ice covered 30% of Earth\'s land area. - Greatly affected drainage. **ALLUVIAL FAN** - a fan-shaped deposit of sediment formed when a stream's slope is abruptly reduced. - **PLAYA LAKE** - a flat area on the floor of an undrained desert basin (playa) that fills and becomes a lake after heavy rain. **DEFLATION** - is the lifting and removal of loose particles such as clay and silt. - **DESERT PAVEMENT** - a layer of coarse pebbles and gravel created when wind removed the finer material. **ABRASION (WALAY DEFINITION GIKUHA RA NAKO NI SA GOOGLE)** - occurs when windborne particles wear away solid rock or sediment. **LOESS** - Deposits of windblown silt**,** extensive blanket deposits**,** and primary sources are deserts and glacial stratified drift. **DUNES -** unlike deposits of loess, which form blanket-like layers over broad areas, winds commonly deposit sand in mounds or ridges. **TYPES OF SAND DUNES** - Barchan dunes - Transverse dunes - Longitudinal dunes - Star dunes - Parabolic dunes - Barchanoid dunes **CHAPTER 8 -- EARTHQUAKE AND EARTH'S INTERIOR** **EARTHQUAKE -** the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy. **FOCUS** - is the point within Earth where the earthquake starts. **EPICENTER** - is the location on the surface directly above the focus. **FAULTS** - are fractures in Earth where movement has occurred. **AFTERSHOCK** - is a small earthquake that follows the main earthquake. **FORESHOCK** - is a small earthquake that often precedes a major earthquake. **SEISMOGRAPHS** are instruments that record earthquake waves. **SURFACE WAVES** - are seismic waves that travel along Earth's outer layer. **SEISMOGRAMS** - are traces of amplified, electronically recorded ground motion made by seismographs. **BODY WAVES** **P WAVES** - Are push-pull waves that push (compress) and pull (expand) in the direction that the waves travel. **S WAVES** - Seismic waves that travel along Earth's outer layer. Earthquake Direction - Travel-time graphs from three or more seismographs can be used to find the exact location of an earthquake epicenter. **EARTHQUAKE DISTANCE** - The epicenter is located using the difference in the arrival times between P and S wave recordings, which are related to distance. **EARTHQUAKE ZONES** - About 95 percent of the major earthquakes occur in a few narrow zones. **MEASURING EARTHQUAKES** **RICHTER SCALE** - Based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave. **MOMENTUM MAGNITUDE** - is the most widely used measurement for earthquakes because it is the only magnitude scale that estimates the energy released by earthquakes. **TSUNAMI** - triggered by an earthquake occurs where a slab of the ocean floor is displaced vertically along a fault. - Japanese word for "seismic sea wave" **SEISMIC GAP** - is an area along a fault where there has not been any earthquake activity for a long period of time. **EARTH'S LAYERED STRUCTURE** **CRUST -** Thin, rocky outer layer - Early seismic data and drilling technology indicate that the continental crust is mostly made of lighter, granitic rocks. - **CONTINENTAL CRUST** - Upper crust composed of granitic rocks. - **OCEANIC CRUST** - Basaltic composition **LITHOSPHERE** - Crust and uppermost mantle (about 100 km thick) - Cool, rigid, solid **ASTHENOSPHERE** - Beneath the lithosphere - Upper mantle - To a depth of about 660 kilometers - Soft, weak layer that is easily deformed **MANTLE -** Below crust to a depth of 2900 kilometers - Composition is more speculative. - Some of the lava that reaches Earth's surface comes from asthenosphere within. **LOWER MANTLE** - More rigid layer, rocks are very hot and capable of gradual flow. **CORE --** below mantle, composed of iron-nickle alloy - Earth's core is thought to be mainly dense iron and nickel, similar to metallic meteorites. The surrounding mantle is believed to be composed of rocks similar to stony meteorites. **INNER CORE** - Sphere with a radius of 1216 km - Behaves like a solid **OUTER CORE** - Liquid layer - 2270 km thick - Convective flow of metallic iron within generates - Earth's magnetic field **MOHO** - Velocity of seismic waves increases abruptly below 50 km of depth, Separates crust from underlying mantle. **SHADOW ZONE** - Absence of P waves from about 105 degrees to 140 degrees around the globe from an earthquake. - Can be explained if Earth contains a core composed of materials unlike the overlying mantle.