MT Health Education Topic 1-4 PDF

**Topic 1** **Roles and Functions of a Health Professional in Education** **Learning Outcome:** At the end of this module, the students shall be able to recognize and discuss the roles & functions of a medical laboratory scientist in Health Promotion, Education, Research A. **The Medical Technol...

**Topic 1** **Roles and Functions of a Health Professional in Education** **Learning Outcome:** At the end of this module, the students shall be able to recognize and discuss the roles & functions of a medical laboratory scientist in Health Promotion, Education, Research A. **The Medical Technologist** A **Medical Technologist**, also known as a **Clinical Laboratory Scientist**, is a healthcare professional who plays a critical role in the medical field by performing complex laboratory tests that are vital for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases. These skilled individuals utilize sophisticated biomedical instrumentation and technology to analyze blood, tissue, and other bodily fluids, providing essential data that informs clinicians\' medical decisions. With a strong foundation in the sciences, Medical Technologists must be meticulous and detail-oriented, as their work directly impacts patient care outcomes. As unsung heroes of the healthcare system, they ensure the accuracy and reliability of laboratory results, which are integral to the healthcare diagnosis and therapeutic processes. **What Do Medical Technologists Do** Medical technologists are healthcare professionals who hold at minimum a bachelor's degree in medical laboratory technology or a similar field. The main purpose of their work is to help healthcare providers make diagnoses. Medical technologists work in a pathology lab. They prepare samples, slides, and cultures for the medical pathologist to review. They typically work under a pathologist. Although lab directors are ultimately in charge of the lab and its staff, the medical technologist will generally be the one who ensures that the lab runs smoothly and safely on a day-to-day basis. This includes setting up, calibrating, and sterilizing lab equipment, as well as analyzing and checking the accuracy of lab reports. Most medical technologists work behind the scenes and do not interact with patients. **Source:** B. **Health, Behavior, and Health Behavior** **Health** is an age-old concept. In Old English the idea appeared as *haelen* ("to heal"), and in Middle English as *helthe*, meaning to be sound in body, mind, and spirit. The classic Greek definition of medicine was to "prolong life and prevent disease," or in other words to keep people healthy. -World Health Organization (1971, p.29) A more contemporary and inclusive definition describes health as "a means to achieve desirable goals in life while maintaining a multidimensional (physical, mental, social, political, economic, and spiritual) equilibrium that is operationalized for individuals, as well as for communities. Another important basic concept is **behavior**. Merriam-Webster's Dictionary defines behavior as "anything that an organism does involving action and response stimulation." The keyword is "action." A behavior is any overt action, conscious or unconscious, with a measurable frequency, intensity and duration. Frequency refers to how many time the behavior occurs in a given time period. Intensity on the other hand refers to how intensely or how hard the behavior is performed and is measured on the effect it has on something. Duration refers to the amount of time spent on each session. Having been familiar with the definitions of health and behavior, it is necessary to focus your attention on defining **health behavior**. The World Health Organization (1998, p.8) defines health behavior as "any activity undertaken by an individual regardless of actual or perceived health status, for the purpose of promoting, protecting or maintaining health, whether or not such behavior is objectively effective toward that end." David Gochman (1982, p. 167; 1997, p. 3) defines health behavior as "those personal attributes such as beliefs, expectations, motives, values, perceptions, and other cognitive elements; personality characteristics, including effective and emotional states and traits; and behavioral patterns, actions, and habits that relate to health maintenance, to health restoration, and health improvement." Three key foci of health behavior are clear in these definitions: **maintenance of health**, **restoration of health,** and **improvement of health**. C. **Health Education and Health Promotion** Health education professionals facilitate **modification of health behaviors**. Health education has been defined in several ways: It is a communication activity aimed at enhancing positive health and preventing or diminishing ill-health in individuals and groups through influencing the beliefs, attitudes and behavior of those with power and of the community at large." -- Downie, et al., (1990) Health education is any combination of planned learning experiences based on sound theories that provide individuals, groups, and communities the opportunity to acquire information and the skills needed to make quality health decisions." -- 2000 Joint Committee on Health Education and promotion Terminology It comprises consciously constructed opportunities for learning involving some form of communication designed to improve health literacy, including improving knowledge, and developing life skills which are conducive to individual and community health." -- World Health Organization Source: Sharma, M. (2017). Theoretical Foundations of Health Education and Health Promotion D. **Basic Concepts** **Learning.** Defined as the activity or process of acquiring knowledge or skill by studying, practicing, being taught or experiencing something. - Active - Builds on prior knowledge - Occurs in a complex social environment - Situated in an authentic context - Requires learner's motivation and engagement **Teaching.** Process of knowledge transfer and also is an activity meant for student in order to change student's behavior. **Metacognition.** It means "Thinking about one's thinking." Metacognition includes a critical awareness of one's thinking and learning and of oneself as a thinker and learner. **Intelligence.** It is an innate ability that predicts success in learning. IQ tests were built on measures of memory, vocabulary, reasoning, and mathematics. Gardner (1992) introduced multiple intelligences and identified seven types of intelligence: A colorful circles with white text Description automatically generated **Memory.** Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information. However, this is not a flawless process. Sometimes people forget or misremember things. Other times, information is not properly encoded in memory in the first place. The stages of memory are (1) Encoding, (2) Storage, (3) Retrieval The three types of memory include: - [Sensory memory] is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and three or four seconds for auditory information. - [Short-term memory], also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates information in short-term memory. - [Long-term memory] refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious. **Transfer.** It is the ability to take information learned in one situation and apply it to another. Successful transfer depends on several factors: - The extent to which material was originally learned. - The ability to retrieve information from memory. - The way in which the material was taught and learned. - The setting in which the material was taught and learned. - The similarity of the new information to the original **Topic 2** **Learning Theories** **Learning Outcome:** At the end of this module, the students shall be able to discuss the various laws, theories, principles, conditions and domains that govern learning. A. ***Behaviorist Perspective*** Behaviorist learning theory is a psychology-grounded pedagogical line of thought, based on the idea that behavior can be researched scientifically without consideration of cognitive states. The primary hypothesis is that learning is influenced solely by physical variables such as environmental or material reinforcement. Behaviorism is focused on an observable change in the learner's behavior. Learner's behavior is shaped by elements in the environment that either precede the behavior or the consequences that follow it. Both events should occur closely in time. Behaviorists assumptions include: - Humans and animals learn in similar ways. - Studying stimuli and response objectifies the learning processes. - Internal processes, such as thoughts, motives, and emotions, are unimportant in understanding learning because they are not observable. Source: 1. **STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORIES** **Principles of Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)** Ivan Pavlov was a Russian psychologist who discovered the classical conditioning theory which means learning through association. The process involves two stimuli which are linked to arouse a response from a person or an animal which is learned. *Three Stages of Classical Conditioning Theory* This stage involves a natural response, or an unconditioned response of an organism produced by an unconditioned stimulus. The organism produces an unlearned response. [Before conditioning (Stage 1).] This stage involves a natural response, or an unconditioned response of an organism produced by an unconditioned stimulus. The organism produces an unlearned response. [During conditioning (Stage 2)]. This stage involves a stimulus that produces neutral or no response and is associated with an unconditioned stimulus which then becomes conditioned stimulus. [After Conditioning (Stage 3)]. In this stage, the conditioned stimulus associates with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a new conditioned response. !(media/image2.jpeg) The first psychologists who applied classical conditioning's principles to human behavior were Watson and Rayner to learn more about the development of different phobias. ***Educational Implications of Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning*** There are three stages of classical conditioning which are Before Conditioning (Stage 1) which involves a natural response, or an unconditioned response of an organism produced by an unconditioned stimulus. The organism produces an unlearned response. The second stage During Conditioning (Stage 2) which involves a stimulus that produces neutral or no response and is associated with an unconditioned stimulus which then becomes conditioned stimulus. The final stage is After Conditioning (Stage 3) in which the conditioned stimulus associates with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a new conditioned response. The educational implications of Pavlov's classical conditioning theory are as follows: - Reward and punishment. When children receive a reward for an accomplishment, they feel motivated to become better. - Removes superstitions. The teacher can use the classical conditioning methods to eliminate superstitious beliefs children may hold. - Facilitates Language Learning. The classroom conditioning method helps children to adjust in a new environment comfortably. - Helps to Adjust. The classical conditioning method helps children to adjust in a new environment comfortably. - Attitude Development. The classical conditioning theory also facilitates the development of positive attitudes among learners and the elimination of negative attitudes. - Arouses Emotions. The classical conditioning theory is also useful for emotional development as it arouses feelings of happiness, joy, fear, and more in the classroom. - Facilitates Creativity. The classical conditioning theory facilitates the use of creative instructional methods like the use of audio-visual aids which can make the classroom environment more encouraging. For the teaching and learning process to be successful, motivation is necessary. Therefore, it is important to take the above points into consideration when using the classical conditioning method in the classroom. Source: **Edward Lee Thorndike's Trial and Error or Connectionism** Thorndike\'s theory of learning emphasized the significance of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior, which has since been widely applied in various fields of psychology. According to Thorndike, learning is the result of the strengthening of the connections between a stimulus and a response. The more a response is reinforced, the stronger the connection between the response and the stimulus becomes. This reinforcement can be positive or negative, and it can increase or decrease the likelihood of a particular response in the future. Some of the key principles of Thorndike\'s theory include: - [Law of effect]: Responses that are followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while responses that are followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated. - [Law of readiness]: Learning is most effective when the learner is ready to learn and is motivated to do so. - [Law of exercise]: Learning occurs through repetition and practice. - [Law of multiple responses]: There are often multiple responses to a given stimulus, and learning occurs through the strengthening of the connections between the appropriate response and the stimulus. Watch to learn more! **Edward Guthrie's Theory of Contiguity** Guthrie attempted to explain learning through association of stimuli with responses.1) Learning, in terms of behavior is a function of the environment. According to Guthrie, learning is associating a particular stimulus with a particular response. This association, however, will only occur if stimuli and responses occur soon enough one after another (the contiguity law). The association is established on the first experienced instance of the stimulus (one trial learning). Repetitions or reinforcements in terms of reward or punishment do not influence the strength of this connection. Still, every stimulus is a bit different, which results in many trials to form a general response. This was according to Guthrie the only type of learning identifying him not as reinforcement theorist, but contiguity theorist. More complex behaviors are composed of a series of movements (habits), where each movement is a small stimulus-response combination. This movements or are what is being learned in each one trial learning rather than behaviors. Learning a few moves forms an act (incremental learning). Unsuccessful acts remain not learned because they are replaced by later successfully learned acts. Other researchers like John Watson studied whole acts just because it was easier, but movements are, according to Guthrie what should be studied. Forgetting occurs not due to time passage, but due to interference. As time passes, stimulus can become associated with new responses. Three different methods can help in forgetting an undesirable old habit and help replacing it: - [Fatigue method] - using numerous repetitions, an animal becomes so fatigued that it is unable to reproduce the old response and introduces a new response (or simply doesn\'t react). - [Threshold method] - first, a very mild version of the stimulus below the threshold level is introduced. Its intensity is then slowly increased until the full stimulus can be tolerated without causing the undesirable response - [Incompatible stimuli method] - the response is "unlearned" by placing the animal in a situation where it cannot exhibit the undesirable response. Although it was intended to be a general theory of learning, Guthrie\'s theory was tested mostly on animals. In Guthrie\'s own words, "**we learn only what we ourselves do.**" Learning must be active, but as such must involve both teacher\'s and students\' activity to relate stimulus with a response within a time limit. 2. **OPERANT CONDITIONING** **Burrhus Frederic Skinner** Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike's (1898) Law of Effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect -- Reinforcement. Behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior that is not reinforced tends to die out or be extinguished (i.e., weakened). Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals, which he placed in a "Skinner Box," which was similar to Thorndike's puzzle box. A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device used to objectively record an animal's behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons). Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior. - Neutral operants: Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. - Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. - Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior. We can all think of examples of how reinforcers and punishers have affected our behavior. As a child, you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their consequences. For example, when you were younger, if you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior. If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school, and your parents became involved, you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.  3. ***COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING*** *Cognitive psychology* is defined as the study of individual-level mental processes such as information processing, attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, decision-making, and thinking. A core assumption of analyzing corrupt behavior through a cognitive psychology lens is that individuals make conscious decisions to engage in corrupt behavior. The cognitivist assumptions: - Some human learning is unique and differs from how animals learn. - Learning is a mental activity and may not result in overt behavioral changes. - People exert some control over their learning and actively participate in learning. - Knowledge is organized and connected to the person's knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and emotions. - Unobservable mental processes can often be reasonably inferred by observable behavior. **Gestalt Psychology: Seeing the Mind and Behavior as a Whole** Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole. Gestalt psychology suggests that humans don\'t focus on separate components but instead tend to perceive objects as elements of more complex systems. A core belief in Gestalt psychology is holism---that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The approach has played a major role in the study of human sensation and perception. **Influential Gestalt Psychologists** Wertheimer\'s observations of the phi phenomenon are widely credited as the beginning of Gestalt psychology, and he went on to publicize the core principles of the field. Other psychologists also had an influence on this school of psychology. - **Wolfgang Köhler:** Köhler connected Gestalt psychology to the natural sciences, arguing that organic phenomena are examples of holism at work. He also studied hearing and looked at problem-solving abilities in chimpanzees. - **Kurt Koffka:** Together with Wertheimer and Köhler, Koffka is considered a founder of the field. He applied the concept of Gestalt to child psychology, arguing that infants first understand things holistically before learning to differentiate them into parts. Koffka played a key role in bringing Gestalt principles to the United States. **Principles of Gestalt Psychology** Gestalt psychology helped introduce the idea that human perception is not just about seeing what is actually present in the world around us. It is also heavily influenced by our motivations and expectations. Wertheimer created principles to explain how Gestalt perception functions. Some of the most important principles of Gestalt theory are: - **Prägnanz**: This foundational principle states that we naturally perceive things in their simplest form or organization. - **Similarity:** This Gestalt principle suggests that we naturally group similar items together based on elements like color, size, and orientation. An example would be grouping dogs based on whether they are small or large, or if they are big or small. - **Proximity:** The principle of proximity states that objects near each other tend to be viewed as a group. - **Continuity:** According to this Gestalt principle, we perceive elements arranged on a line or curve as related to each other, while elements that are not on the line or curve are seen as separate. - **Closure:** This suggests that elements that form a closed object will be perceived as a group. We will even fill in missing information to create closure and make sense of an object. An example of this Gestalt psychology principle is using negative space to give the illusion that a particular shape exists when it doesn\'t. - **Common region:** This Gestalt psychology principle states that we tend to group objects together if they\'re located in the same bounded area. (For example, objects inside a box tend to be considered a group.) **Constructivism** Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active role of learners in building their own understanding. Rather than passively receiving information, learners reflect on their experiences, create mental representations, and incorporate new knowledge into their schemas. This promotes deeper learning and understanding. Constructivism is "an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner."  Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual will construct from new learning experiences. **Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development** Piaget\'s theory had a tremendous influence on the emergence of developmental psychology as a distinctive subfield within psychology and contributed greatly to the field of education. He is also credited as a pioneer of the constructivist theory, which suggests that people actively construct their knowledge of the world based on the interaction between their ideas and experiences. Jean Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget\'s stages are: - Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years - Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7 - Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11 - Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information. *Understanding Accommodation and Assimilation in Psychology* Both assimilation and accommodation are essential to how organisms build schemas about the world. While assimilation deals with keeping existing knowledge and schemas intact and finding a new place to store information, accommodation involves actually changing one's existing knowledge of a topic. A diagram of a cycle Description automatically generated Biological assimilation, according to Piaget, cannot exist without accommodation. If assimilation alone were involved in child development, there would be no variations in the child's mental structures. This would mean that the child would not be able to acquire new content and thus would not be able to develop further. Assimilation is necessary as it assures that structures are continuous and that new elements can be integrated into these structures. Accommodation allows these structures to adapt to individual circumstances.  4. **SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEWS LEARNING** **Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory** SLT is often described as the 'bridge' between traditional learning theory (behaviorism) and the cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning. A diagram of a social learning theory Description automatically generated Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences. Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating others. The theory emphasizes the importance of observational learning, where individuals acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs by watching the actions of others and the consequences that follow, leading to the modeling and adoption of observed behaviors. **Assumptions:** Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.  In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas: 1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses. 2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. **Mediational Processes:** Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental factors mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired. Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and imitate it. There is some thought prior to imitation, and this consideration is called the mediational process. This occurs between observing the behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response). A diagram of a model Description automatically generated There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura (1969, 1971, 1977). Each of these components is crucial in determining whether or not imitation occurs upon exposure to a model: 1. **Attention**. Attentional processes are crucial because mere exposure to a model doesn't ensure that observers will pay attention (Bandura, 1972). The model must capture the observer's interest, and the observer must deem the model's behavior worth imitating. This decides if the behavior will be modeled. The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental representation of the behavior. For a behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily basis, and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is, therefore, extremely important in whether a behavior influences others to imitate it. 2. **Retention.** Bandura highlighted the retention process in imitation, where individuals symbolically store a model's behavior in their minds. For successful imitation, observers must save these behaviors in symbolic forms, actively organizing them into easily recalled templates (Bandura, 1972). How well the behavior is remembered? The behavior may be noticed, but it is not always remembered, which obviously prevents imitation. It is important, therefore, that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by the observer. Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to. 3. **Motor Reproduction.** This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. We see much behavior daily that we would like to be able to imitate, but this is not always possible. Our physical ability limits us, so even if we wish to reproduce the behavior, we sometimes cannot. This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old lady who struggles to walk while watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is desirable, but she will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do it. Motor reproduction processes use internal symbolic images of observed behaviors to guide actions (Bandura, 1972). An observer internally replicates a behavior using these symbols as a reference, even if it's not externally shown (Manz & Sims, 1981). 4. **Motivation.** Lastly, motivational and reinforcement processes refer to the perceived favorable or unfavorable consequences of mimicking the model's actions that are likely to increase or decrease the likelihood of imitation. The will to perform the behavior. The observer will consider the rewards and punishments that follow a behavior. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if any), the observer will more likely imitate the behavior. If the vicarious reinforcement is unimportant to the observer, they will not imitate the behavior. **SUMMARY** -------------------------- ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------- ----------------- **Views of:** **Thinking** **Learning** **Teacher** **Learner** ***Behaviorist*** Covert trial and error Change in behavior Direct Complies ***Gestasltist*** Knows, perceives Understand, gain insights Designs Participates ***Processor*** Processes information Register, retain, and recall Programs Inputs, outputs ***Social Cognitivist*** Observes, mentally processes Attends, retains, performs Models Imitates -------------------------- ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------- ----------------- **\ ** **Topic 3** **Principles and Conditions of Learning** **Learning Outcome:** At the end of this module, the students shall be able to discuss the various laws, theories, principles, conditions and domains that govern learning.  **Four Different Learning Styles: The VARK Theory** Over the past century, much interest in the subject of Psychology has been around education. One of the most prominent was developed by Neil Fleming in 1987. Named the VARK model of learning, Fleming theorized that we are all one of four main types of learners: **visual**, **auditory**, **reading/writing**, and **kinesthetic**. Understanding our brain's psychology and how we best process information is one of the most crucial building blocks for educational success. Not only does it make day-to-day learning easier, but you'll also find the time you spend revising is far more effective and rewarding. A colorful squares with white text Description automatically generated According to the VARK model, learners are identified by whether they have a preference for: - Visual learning (pictures, movies, diagrams) - Auditory learning (music, discussion, lectures) - Reading and writing (making lists, reading textbooks, taking notes) - Kinesthetic learning (movement, experiments, hands-on activities)  **What about Mixtures?** **Multimodality (MM)**: Life is multimodal. There are seldom instances where one mode is used or is sufficient, so that is why there is a four-part VARK profile. That is why the VARK questionnaire provides four scores and also why there are mixtures of those four modes. Those who do not have a standout mode with one preference score well above other scores are defined as multimodal. *The two types of Multimodality*: **VARK Type One:** There are those who are flexible in their communication preferences and who switch from mode to mode depending on what they are working with. They are context specific. They choose a single mode to suit the occasion or situation. If they must deal with legalities, they will apply their Read/write preference. If they are to watch the demonstration of a technique, they will be expressing their Kinesthetic preference. They are described as VARK Type One and they may have two, three, or four almost-equal preferences in their VARK scores. **VARK Type Two:** There are others who are not satisfied until they have had input (or output) in all their preferred modes. They take longer to gather information from each mode and, as a result, they often have a deeper and broader understanding. These people may be seen as procrastinators or slow deliverers, but some may be merely gathering all the information before acting -- and their decision-making and learning may be better because of that breadth of understanding. They are described as VARK Type Two. *VARK Transition* VARK Transition is the term we use to describe those who fall somewhere between these two categories. Remember life (and work) are multimodal so there are no hard and fast boundaries. **Theory of Multiple Intelligence by Howard Gardner** According to Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple intelligences, every person has a different type of \"intelligence.\" In 1983, the developmental psychologist Howard Gardner proposed the concept of multiple intelligences in his famous book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Howard Gardner suggested that there are eight intelligences with the possibility of adding more categories of intelligence, for example, \"existentialist intelligence.\" He introduced his theory of multiple intelligences in the early 80\'s, proposing that traditional psychometric findings of intelligence are too restricted. He suggested that there are eight intelligences instead; linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial-visual, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalist---and argued that existentialist intelligence is a possible ninth form. Other intelligences can be identified through the measurement of cognitive tasks like strategic planning or decision-making. For example, interpersonal intelligence involves the use of cognitive skills to understand others' thoughts and feelings, while intrapersonal intelligence means being able to externally understand one\'s own thoughts and feelings. Hence, many cognitive abilities may form part of a person\'s multiple intelligences and can aid in understanding how people are different from one another. A colorful circle with text and icons Description automatically generated with medium confidence Watch to learn more! **David Kolb's Theory of Experiential Learning** The model was published in 1984 by David Kolb, an American psychologist, professor and education theorist. Kolb was born in 1939 and earned his undergraduate degree from Knox College in 1961. He then earned a PhD in social psychology from Harvard University. Kolb's experiential learning theory was influenced by the work of other education theorists, including Jean Piaget, John Dewey, and Kurt Lewin. Kolb has written numerous books, book chapters, and journal articles. He has been bestowed four honorary degrees and won several awards. *What Is the Experiential Learning Theory Kolb Developed?* As the name says, experiential learning involves the transformation of experience into effective learning. Kolb's experiential learning theory stresses how our experiences, including our thoughts, emotions and environment, impact the learning process. Kolb's theory defines experiential learning as a four-stage process: - **Concrete learning** occurs when a learner has a new experience or interprets a previous experience in a new way. For example, a nursing student has to learn a new procedure as part of their clinical education. - **Reflective observation** -- the learner reflects on the new experience to understand what it means. In our example, the nursing student might think about how they could have done the procedure better. - **Abstract conceptualization** -- the learner adapts their thinking or constructs new ideas based on experience and reflection. For example, the nursing student realizes they need to have all their materials ready before starting the procedure. - **Active experimentation** -- the learner applies their new ideas to real-world situations to test whether they work and see if any changes need to be made. This process can happen quickly or over an extended time. Our nursing student might note how smoothly things go consistently when they have everything ready for a procedure in advance. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------  A diagram of different types of problems Description automatically generated ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1. Concrete Sequential (CS): CS learners prefer structured, step-by-step processes and tend to be detail-oriented, organized, and practical. 2. Abstract Sequential (AS): AS learners prefer analytical, logical approaches, and tend to excel in problem-solving and critical thinking tasks. 3. Abstract Random (AR): AR learners prefer a holistic approach, focusing on relationships, emotions, and personal experiences. 4. Concrete Random (CR): CR learners thrive in situations, especially when they use-trial-and-error approaches.  A comparison of a random and abstract text Description automatically generated **Field Independent/ Dependent Model by Herman Witkin and Donald Goodenough (1981)** Another area where individuals show differences in their abilities to discriminate events or visual, auditory, or tactile cues from their surrounding environments is known as field-dependence/field-independence. Herman Witkin conducted much of the original research in this area in the 1950s. A field-dependent person has difficulty finding a geometric shape that is embedded or \"hidden\" in a background with similar (but not identical) lines and shapes. The conflicting patterns distract the person from identifying the given figure. A person who is field-independent can readily identify the geometric shape, regardless of the background in which it is set. This manner of interpretation, however, is not limited to visual cues. Many researchers are studying auditory and other sensory perception abilities that may vary from person to person. There is also a strong connection between this cognitive style and social interactions. People who are field dependent are frequently described as being very interpersonal and having a well-developed ability to read social cues and to openly convey their own feelings. Others describe them as being very warm, friendly, and personable. Interestingly, Witkin and Donald Goodenough, in their 1981 book Cognitive Styles, explained that this may be due to a lack of separation between the self and the environment (or \"field\") on some level. Field-dependent people notice a lack of structure in the environment (if it exists) and are more affected by it than other people. By contrast, individuals who are field-independent use an \"internal\" frame of reference and can easily impose their own sense of order in a situation that is lacking structure. They are also observed to function autonomously in social settings. They are sometimes described as impersonal and task oriented. These people, however, do have the ability to discern their own identity of self from the field. In addition, a strong correlation has been discovered between gender and field orientation. Women are more likely to be field-dependent, whereas men are frequently field-independent. Career tasks and job descriptions are also closely aligned with field-dependence/field-independence. Specifically of concern to educators is the discovery that field-dependent children do not do as well in large group settings or class activities where the lessons are not highly structured. There are also indications that these same individuals do not perform as well on open-ended questions as compared to students who are field-independent.  **Teaching strategies guided by the Thinking/Learning Styles (Cornett, 1983)** - Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking. - Provide a general overview of the material to be learned. - Allow sufficient time for information processing. - Set clear purposes before any learning activity or experience. - Warm up before the lesson development. - Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information. - Use a variety of review and reflection strategies. **Topic 4** **Domains of Learning** **Learning Outcome:** At the end of this module, the students shall be able to discuss the various laws, theories, principles, conditions and domains that govern learning. **What are the domains of learning?** The domains of learning are a series of learning objectives created in 1956 by educational psychologist Dr. Benjamin Bloom. They involve three categories of education, and each one requires a different instruction style to achieve its intended outcomes. Each domain has specific features and objectives designed to engage students who learn to solve problems, process information and build their skills using different perspectives. This helps make learning easier and more enjoyable. Here are the three domains of learning and the areas of student development they influence: **The Cognitive Domain** The cognitive domain focuses on six intellectual skills that educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom organized based on the sequence in which students develop them. This concept is known as Bloom\'s Taxonomy. For each skill, Bloom refers to active verbs that describe how students apply what they\'ve learned. The original Bloom\'s Taxonomy includes the following skills that build from the most basic to the most complex: - Knowledge: Recalling or recognizing information previously learned. Instructional verbs that represent this foundational level of the cognitive domain include write, list, label, name and state. - Comprehension: Comprehending or interpreting information based on material previously learned. Instructional verbs include explain, summarize, describe and illustrate. - Application: Selecting and using data principles to fix a problem independently. Instructional verbs include use, solve, demonstrate and apply. - Analysis: Understanding or breaking down assumptions made by a statement or question to make conclusions. Instructional verbs include compare, contrast and analyze. - Synthesis: Combining ideas to build a new concept or plan. Instructional verbs include create, design, invent and develop. - Evaluation: Making assessments based on established criteria. Instructional verbs include judge, critique and justify. A white sheet of paper with words and a black text Description automatically generated In 2001, one of Bloom's former students and colleagues revised the taxonomy to reflect its use in modern school settings. Most elements remained the same but received new names. They also swapped the position of the last two components. This is the newest version of the cognitive domain: - Remembering (formerly knowledge) - Understanding (formerly comprehension) - Applying (formerly application) - Analyzing (formerly analysis) - Evaluating (formerly evaluation) - Creating (formerly synthesis)  **The Affective Domain (1964)** This domain focuses on the ways in which we handle all things related to emotions, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations, and attitudes (Clark, 2015). From lowest to highest, with examples included, the five levels are: 1. **Receiving** is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. 2. **Responding** is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena involved by actively responding to them. 3. **Valuing** is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or phenomena. 4. **Organization** is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. 5. **Characterization** by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she has internalized. A diagram of a pyramid Description automatically generated  **The Psychomotor Domain (1972)** The psychomotor domain of Bloom's Taxonomy refers to the ability to physically manipulate a tool or instrument. It includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. It focuses on the development of skills and the mastery of physical and manual tasks. Mastery of these specific skills is marked by speed, precision, and distance. These psychomotor skills range from simple tasks, such as washing a car, to more complex tasks, such as operating intricate technological equipment. As with the cognitive domain, the psychomotor model does not come without modifications. This model was first published by Robert Armstrong and colleagues in 1970 and included five levels: 1\) imitation; 2) manipulation; 3) precision; 4) articulation; 5) naturalization. These tiers represent different degrees of performing a skill from exposure to mastery. A diagram of a pyramid Description automatically generated  **Domains of Learning Summarized** A close-up of a list Description automatically generated *Guide on how to create effective learning objectives:*