Module 4 Pro-Environmental Behaviour Notes PDF

Module 4: Pro-Environmental Behaviour 1.1 Changing the environmentally destructive mindset. What is Pro-Environmental Behaviour? (Same as 1.6 Recent trends and future directions in environmental psychology) Pro-environmental behavior, also known as green-, sustainable-, or environmentally-friendl...

Module 4: Pro-Environmental Behaviour 1.1 Changing the environmentally destructive mindset. What is Pro-Environmental Behaviour? (Same as 1.6 Recent trends and future directions in environmental psychology) Pro-environmental behavior, also known as green-, sustainable-, or environmentally-friendly (eco-friendly) behavior, is defined as behaviors in which individuals take protective actions toward the environment. To date, scholars have labelled PEB by using different terms, such as Environmentally responsible behavior, environmentally sustainable behavior, Environmental significant behavior, Green behavior, Ecological behavior. Environmentally friendly behavior, etc. Despite the different labels, these terms commonly refer to the meanings expressed by these terms are roughly similar, that is, human behaviors that are beneficial to the healthy development of the ecological environment. Pro-environmental behavior can be defined as all possible actions aimed at avoiding harm to and/or safeguarding the environment, either performed in public (e.g., participation in environmental movements) or private domains (recycling done at home). The concept of PEB originated from the reflection by scholars on ecological problems in the 1960s. For instance, Maloney and Ward (1973) maintain that ‘the ecological crisis is a crisis of maladaptive behavior’. They emphasized that human behaviors play an important role in the ecosystem and called on researchers to pay attention to human environmental behavior and changes of such behaviors. Three types of values have been shown to be particularly important in explaining pro-environmental behavior, namely All people hold egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric values to some extent and all three types of values may provide a distinct basis for pro-environmental behavior. According to Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002), pro-environmental behaviour can be classified as direct pro-environmental behaviour and indirect pro-environmental behaviour. Examples: Direct behaviour includes recycling, driving less or buying organic food. Donating money to an environment protection organization, community activities and educational outreach to increase awareness about PEB, could be considered as indirect behaviour. Although indirect pro-environmental behaviour does not have direct impact on the environment, it is as equally important as direct behaviour. Recycling, and switching to a bicycle — changes we should make to protect the environment. And yet, it all seems so difficult. What's holding us back? And how can we make significant changes? A few acknowledged environmental issues: Plastic has become one of the environment's biggest adversaries. In little more than half a century, we have produced 9 billion tons of it globally. And though we have a growing awareness of how it is choking our streets and rivers, smothering and strangling marine life, and even ending up in our food, it is more universal than ever. Then there's carbon dioxide. It's polluting our air, warming the planet, causing sea levels to rise, and extreme weather like droughts, flooding, and destructive mega-storms. Yet for all that, we continue to drive gas vehicles, manufacture using fossil fuels. If breaking with old habits could stop all the environmental issues discussed, the big question is why don't we? Conservationists and climate change activists are working with behavioral scientists to try and come up with an answer. There are numerous factors that hinder individuals when they try to adjust their behaviours toward living more sustainable lifestyles. Human aversion to loss One reason could be a human aversion to loss. This theory suggests we are more heavily affected when we lose or have to part with something than when we gain something. Loss aversion describes why, for individuals, the pain of losing is psychologically twice as powerful as the pleasure of gaining. The loss felt from money, or any other valuable object, can feel worse than gaining that same thing. Loss aversion refers to an individual’s tendency to prefer avoiding losses to acquiring equivalent gains. Loss aversion can significantly impact our decisions and lead to bad decision-making. As individuals, it’s evident that we don’t want to suffer losses. But the fear of incurring losses can prevent us from taking even well-calculated risks, with potential for worthwhile returns. In environmental terms, that means the positive impacts of changing the way we live, in order to benefit the planet, are not as motivating as the perceived sense of loss that would go hand- in-hand with certain eco-friendly actions, such as no longer using cars. Research shows that we hate losing something around twice as much as we look forward to getting it in the first place. People hold back because there is no visible immediate effect from their positive action, and that the greater benefit will be felt by subsequent generations. Loss aversion is caused by a mixture of our neurological makeup, socioeconomic factors, and cultural background. Our brains The amygdala is the part of our brain which processes fear. For example, the amygdala creates an automated, pre-conscious sense of anxiety when we see a snake. The reaction we experience with loss in this part of our brain is similar to our brain’s response to when we react to airplane turbulence or a spider, meaning fear and loss are closely related. Socio-economic factors Socio-economic factors also play an essential role in one’s disposition to loss aversion, with social hierarchy proving to be a good indicator of an individual’s level of loss aversion. Research has found that people in power are less loss averse. This is because powerful individuals are typically in a better position to accept a loss if it should incur, due to their wealth and network. As a result, these individuals give less weight to losses than the average person. It has also been proven that powerful and wealthy individuals give more value to gains than non-powerful people. Wealth, similar to power, also plays a role in an individual’s loss aversion. Like powerful people, wealthy people typically have an easier time accepting losses they incur. Thus, an individual’s socioeconomic status and environment prove to be very influential in regards to their level of loss aversion. Individuals with a higher mean income, situated in wealthier villages, were found to be less loss-averse. Additionally, wealthy individuals or powerful individuals were more willing to take on risk. These socioeconomic combinations of traits all influence an individual’s loss aversion, and willingness to take on risk when decision-making. Thus, the Human aversion to loss theory suggests somebody with a high socio-economic status might not be very bothered by extreme environmental concerns as they have the resources to cope with it. But at the same, if someone has a good standing in society, they can also be more responsible citizens and make use of their power to bring about awareness about env problems. Culture Cultural background has been linked to how loss-averse an individual may be. A study conducted by Dr. Mei Wang surveyed groups from 53 different countries to understand how different cultural values affect an individual’s perception of losses compared to gains. The group discovered that people from Eastern European countries tended to be the most loss averse, with individuals from African countries being the least loss averse. One explanation for this variation among cultures and loss aversion can be linked to collectivist vs. individualist cultures. Those from collectivist cultures were more likely to have more and closer social connections, meaning that if they made a poor decision and incurred loss, these individuals would have support from their friends, family, and community. This support system helped individuals take risks without feeling losses as intensely. Inversely, those from individualistic cultures didn’t have the same social safety net as their collectivist counterparts. Human emotions In the past, conservation and environmental organizations have focused on rational arguments to try and convince people to make positive changes. But since success with this strategy has been limited, some groups are now trying a different approach. We are a highly emotional species, so emotions are often more powerful than reason in terms of their influence on our decision-making. There are two different types of emotions, the basic emotions (i.e., joy, sadness; surprise; disgust; anger; fear) and self-conscious emotions (i.e., pride, shame; embarrassment; gratitude; hubris; guilt). Unlike basic emotions that are biologically generated from one’s internal state, people experience self-conscious emotions only when they are able to evaluate their behaviour from an external perspective, or knowing their behaviour is being evaluated by others. Because people intend to behave in socially appropriate ways in order to be highly valued by others, it is therefore proposed that self-conscious emotions play a more important role in motivating one’s pro-environmental behaviour compared with basic emotions. When it comes to motivating complex human behaviour like PEB, self-conscious emotions are perhaps the most important. The relevance of self-conscious emotions in the context of pro-environmental decision making is demonstrated by a range of studies. Self-conscious emotions are shown to have a self-regulatory function, they provide immediate and important feedback on one’s social as well as moral acceptability, and guide behaviour according to social standards. For example, pride can effectively drive people to behave in (pro- environmental) ways in accordance with existing social morals that make them proud of themselves. By contrast, shame and guilt help people move away from immoral or unethical behaviour because people intend to avoid the negative subjective feeling of being ashamed or guilty. Thus, it is proposed that self-conscious emotions are able to guide pro-environmental behaviour because it requires one’s self-evaluation towards their own behaviour from an external perspective. Taking on the system Changing individual behavior is also being seen as an important part of the fight against environmental problems. But some critics say the individual change has little impact and that it is up to policy-makers to introduce more rigorous regulations, and businesses to be more proactive. Some governments have taken tentative steps. The UK, for example, introduced a fee for plastic bags in large stores — a move that has led to a 90 percent drop in their usage — while the European Union recently unveiled a new strategy to deal with plastic waste. Government planning climate protection and showing a commitment to action can make a huge difference. It gains media attention and really creates a sense that our leadership is concerned about this, and talking about it as a priority we need to pay attention to. But some environmentalists question whether that goes far enough. Some argue that it is also our responsibility to drive governments to take further action that will lead to significant impacts. It's not just your capacity to sort trash or ride a bicycle, but your capacity to actually get bicycle lanes made, the recycling systems in place. It has to come as much from the bottom up as from the top down, and you have to influence that. By becoming politically active, people have more of an impact than they might think — not only on politicians but also on their own communities and beyond. The key to encouraging and speeding up behavioral shifts is getting people to be more positive about our battle with climate change, to show people that it is not an unbeatable problem. 1.2 Environmental education, environmental prompts and cues. In general, it is acknowledged that human behaviour is influenced by internal and external factors. Internal factors comprise people’s beliefs, values, attitudes, and emotions. Environmental knowledge is also an important internal driver of pro-environmental behaviours. External factors are related to the context in which individuals behave and make choices, i.e. formal regulation, social norms, cultural taboos. Therefore, interventions aiming to change human behaviour should consider both internal and external factors and provide effective prompts for behavioural change. Since the 1970s, social and environmental psychologists have examined different ways to encourage people to adopt pro-environmental behaviours in order to reduce the effects of human behaviour on the environment, such as the depletion of fossil fuels and climate change. Current global trends however, indicate that our impact on the environment is still considerable: carbon dioxide emissions through the combustion of fossil fuels have steadily increased over the past decade. Now we will focus on strategies for behaviour change, as they have been studied in the past three decades. The question is: What has research taught us, and, perhaps more importantly, how can we foster pro-environmental behaviour change? Interventions need to be carefully planned before they are implemented. A few points are noteworthy in this respect to increase the effectiveness of interventions. Firstly, it is important to target behaviours that can significantly improve environmental conditions. To illustrate, although refusing plastic bags in shops is well intentioned, its impact is relatively small compared with, for instance, the impact of buying food that has been produced locally instead of flown in from abroad. Ideally then, interventions should focus on behaviours with relatively high environmental impacts. Secondly, interventions should be rooted in theory. Using a theory-driven approach is important as it will provide a good basis not only for understanding and changing environmentally significant behaviours but also for developing sound evaluations. Thirdly, it is essential that the effect of the intervention is assessed properly. Ideally, intervention studies include measurements of the target behaviour before and after implementation of the intervention, a so-called pre-test/post-test design, and include a control group that has not been exposed to the intervention. This way, changes in the outcome measure can be monitored and compared. Also, including measurements of factors related to behavioural decisions (e.g. knowledge, attitudes) is important, as this will provide insight into the reasons why an intervention was effective (or not). Education and awareness Communication and dissemination (the action or fact of spreading something, especially information, widely) of information in mass media campaigns, and targeting participants of interventions have been common policy approaches for a long time. Education and awareness (EAA) methods consist of providing information materials such as handouts, newsletters, advertising campaigns, posters and magazines. It is one of the most common methods, often the default approach, to foster behavior change. The model relies on the knowledge-deficit assumption, which suggests that in the absence of relevant information, behaviour change will not occur. Changing attitudes or knowledge may trigger new behaviours. However, they are usually ineffective. Research on information and education effects environmental problems has generally found that information can increase knowledge but has minimal effects on behavior. Specific and correct knowledge about environmental problems may predict pro-environmental behavior to some extent, as well as tailored information, which is designed to reach a specific person or group on the basis of characteristics unique to those individuals. Eg the population of owners of companies and factories should be provided educational awareness about how their organizations can pollute the environment, school and college students could be provided educational awareness about how to not litter around their schools and colleges. Street vendors could be briefed about how their littering can impact the environment and how they can prevent it. Scientific evidence suggests that EAA is particularly effective when individuals are motivated by a pre-existing interest in environmental issues and willingness to engage in pro- environmental behaviours, however, pro-environmental attitudes do not always foster pro- environmental behaviour. However, information and knowledge may also constitute a psychological barrier. Gifford (2011) refers to “limited cognition” about the problem due to our ancient brain that is not developed to deal with diffuse threats (threats that are spread over a wide area or between a large number of people.) whose consequences lie far in the future. Because we are bad at sacrificing short-term enjoyment for long-term benefits, we deny responsibility for what is happening. Greenhouse gases are not visible to the naked eye, since they are colorless and odorless, which makes it difficult to take the information about them seriously and know how to act. This lack of knowledge about the cause and extent of climate change becomes a source of uncertainty (because of lack of education about the problems, people do not know what to rely on, believe and they may not be sure about how much are their behaviours impacting the env. , something which, as experimental research resource dilemmas have demonstrated, may lead to a reduction of pro environmental behavior. Even if knowledge and education alone often do not lead to more pro environmental behavior, these factors can serve as priming agents. Priming occurs whenever exposure to one thing can later alter behavior or thoughts. Prompts and Cues The technique of prompting has been used to encourage pro-environmental behaviour since the early years of intervention research. It entails a short-written message or sign which draws attention to a specific behaviour in a given situation. Prompts are simple reminders to behave in an appropriate way, e.g., to avoid littering or to switch off the lights when leaving a room. By using prompts, one assumes that the target group already has a positive attitude or has the intention to carry out the behaviour in question, but lacks a cue in the situation where the behaviour is required. Thus, prompts can be assumed to overrule the automatic elicitation of problematic behaviour. Depending on the content of a prompt, they can be assumed to directly convey sanctions or incentives (e.g., ‘Thank you for not littering ‘), which can be linked to behaviorist approaches. Austin, Hatfield, Grindle, and Bailey (1993) used prompts (pictograms) to encourage recycling and proper disposal of trash. They investigated the effects of prompts on the recycling behavior and correct disposal of trash. One sign prompted recycling (posted above the recycling receptacle), and the other sign prompted proper disposal of trash (posted above the trash receptacle). Results indicated that the sign prompt increased the desired behavior, wherein installation of the sign prompts in close proximity to receptacles resulted in a 54% improvement, whereas posting of sign prompts over containers 4 m apart resulted in a 17% improvement. Suggesting that prompts can be especially effective if placed directly where the requested behaviour is going to be carried out. Prompting techniques have been criticized for having only weak, short-term effects (Bell et al., 2001). Prompting is mainly effective with less complex and easy behaviours, if formulated politely and if well placed and timed (see Geller, Winett, & Everett, 1982). 1.3 Reinforcement strategies Consider your current behaviour. What motivated you to attend this lecture? Probably your behaviour was motivated to some extent by one or more consequences. For some of you, a consequence might be gathering information to use in writing a paper or performing well in an exam. Others may be reading for nobler consequences: to gain knowledge for solving an environmental problem or simply to learn more about environmental psychology. People often persist in old patterns of behavior despite awareness of the negative consequences for the environment and the presence of viable alternatives (e.g. organically grown products, public transport). So why do people maintain their environmentally harmful behaviour? How can we decrease the occurrence of such undesirable behaviour and increase the frequency of pro-environmental behaviour? According to applied behaviour analysis, in order to change behaviour, one has to analyse and alter the consequences of behaviour. As you may realise by now, almost all behaviour is determined by its consequences. As proposed by B. F. Skinner (1974), people are motivated to do things for the promise of what follows. In other words, we do what we do to obtain positive consequences or to escape or avoid negative consequences. Moreover, we repeat behaviours that lead to positive consequences and avoid behaviours that result in negative consequences. This elegantly simple idea is the theoretical basis for interventions that aim to improve environmental behaviour by offering rewards and penalties. Although research shows behaviour is controlled by consequences, it also demonstrates the importance of the ABC model. The Antecedent →Behaviour →Consequence sequence is known as the three-term contingency or ABC model, and is the theoretical basis for many interventions designed to improve environmental behaviour. What this model states is that rather than occurring in isolation, behavior is preceded by an antecedent (trigger) that sets off the behavior and is followed by a consequence, or a reaction to the behavior. This process is easily remembered by the acronym ABC. Antecedents are events or environments that trigger behavior and are followed by consequences. The three-term contingency suggests a behaviour-based approach for encouraging pro-environmental behaviour. The strategy is to introduce the availability of pleasant consequences for pro-environmental behaviours or unpleasant consequences for environmentally harmful behaviours. Programmes that offer rewards for beverage containers provide a real-world example of the three-term contingency. The antecedent is the message on the container announcing the availability of a reward. When individuals perform the desired behaviour (i.e. turn in the bottles or cans at a designated location instead of throwing them in the trash), they receive the consequence of a small reward. Another way to encourage pro-environmental behaviours is by means of monetary and non- monetary incentives, i.e. material compensation for individuals that engage in the desired behaviour. Monetary incentives relate to cash bonuses, which can take the form of direct payments, discount fees or potential wins at lotteries, whereas non-monetary incentives are gifts or coupons that cannot be directly exchanged for cash. Monetary rewards have been shown to have a positive effect on energy savings and may serve as an extrinsic motivator to pro-environmental behavior. In 1971, Oregon was the first US state to enact a ‘bottle bill’. This bill mandated a five-cent rebate for the return of cans, bottles and other beverage containers. After the bill was implemented, 90 percent of containers were returned, resulting in a significant reduction of levels of litter (Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, 2004), improved recycling rates, and improved resource conservation. It is now considered one of the success stories in environmental management. However, results of several studies suggest that the effect of rewards is rather short-lived, as the desired behaviors usually dropped back to baseline levels when the reward was removed (Abrahamse et al., 2005). While incentives are acknowledged to be effective for an initial behaviour change, their sustained effect over time is still debated. For example, Deci et al. argue that motivation to sustain the pro-environmental behaviour is reduced after the incentive is discontinued. Other methods of encouraging PEB: Outreach and relationship building Outreach and relationship building (ORB) relates to all activities designed to provide services and goods to improve pro-environmental attitudes and behaviours. Such activities can take the form of direct and indirect information but it distinguishes them from EEA interventions because the focus under ORB is building relationships within communities. Examples of ORB interventions include workshops, training, and community engagement activities (e.g. focus groups and public events). Miller and Buys (2008) found that residents who kept a close connection with others in the community tended to wash their cars in a more environmentally friendly way. Residents who scored higher on the Neighborhood Connections element of social capital were more likely to wash their car in an environmentally friendly manner. Videras et al. (2012) found that social relationship matters for working with others in the community to solve a local environmental problem, volunteering in environmental protection projects, and recycling. Macias and Williams (2014) found that time spent with neighbors can significantly increase residents’ pro-environmental lifestyles. Typically, successful ORB projects require several training sessions, focus groups, and a large number of meetings with moderators, where participation is high and people exchange opinions and build trustworthy relationships. Given the amount of time, money and organizational activities requested for ORB projects, they are less numerous, and published assessments of such projects are even fewer. Commitment A commitment is an oral or written pledge or promise to change behavior. Once people have made a commitment as an antecedent strategy, they are more likely to perform the target behavior due to the activation of personal and social norms, especially when the commitment is active, public, and perceived as voluntary. Social norms are rules and standards for human behavior that are shared by members of a group. These norms are what is commonly done or (dis)approved of and they refer to what other people think or do. In that sense, social norms can be potential driving forces for the progress of behavior change, but they can also contribute to regress (Thøgersen, 2008). The tendency to compare one’s actions with those of others is true for most people (Festinger, 1954). From these observations of others, people derive which subjective and descriptive norms can be considered the “correct” behavior. Modeling Modeling strategies demonstrate the desired behavior to intervention participants who are influenced through observational learning, an insight based on Bandura (1977). The demonstrated examples used as antecedent stimuli are assumed to be followed when they are perceived as understandable, relevant, meaningful, and rewarding (Abrahamse et al., 2005; Sussman, Greeno, Gifford, & Scanell, 2013). Modeling can involve in vivo demonstrations, videotapes, or demonstrations via television. 4.4 Environmental movements Starting an Environmental Movement: https://youtu.be/MdkQFKJOuk0 An environmental movement can be defined as a social movement, for the conservation of the environment or for the improvement of the state of the environment. The terms ‘green movement’ or ‘conservation movement’ are alternatively used to denote the same. Concept of Social Movement: The term ``social movement “first came into use, early in the nineteenth century. The term “social movement'' is being used to denote a wide variety of collective attempts to bring about a change in certain social institutions or to create an entirely new order. Definitions of Social Movements: As defined in International Encyclopedia of Sociology, “a social movement is an organized attempt by a number of people united by a shared belief to effect or resist changes in the existing social order. The ultimate objective of a social movement is what its members see as the betterment of society”. Social movements are a specific kind of concerted action groups; they last longer and are more integrated than mobs, masses, and crowds Group consciousness, that is, a sense of belonging and of solidarity (unity or agreement of feeling or action, especially among individuals with a common interest; mutual support within a group.) among the members of a group, is essential for a social movement, although empirically it occurs in various degrees. This consciousness is generated through active participation and may assume various socio-psychological characteristics. 1. the awareness exhibited by individual group members about the group, its members, and their commonalities. Just as self-consciousness pertains to awareness of the self, so group consciousness pertains to awareness of the collective. Concept of Environmental Movement: Environmental movement is a type of “social movement that involves an array of individuals, groups and coalitions that perceive a common interest in environmental protection and act to bring about changes in environmental policies and practices” (Tong, Yanki 2005: 167-168). Environmental movements are also an example of social movements. Definitions of Environmental Movements: According to Rootes, Christopher (1999): The environmental movements are conceived as broad networks of people and organizations engaged in collective action in the pursuit of environmental benefits. Environmental movements range from the highly organized and formally institutionalized ones to the radically informal activities. The spatial scope of various environmental movements ranges from being local to almost global. Why are they important? The environmental movements favour the sustainable management of natural resources. The movements often stress the protection of the environment via changes in public policy. Many movements are centred on ecology and environmental health Environmental movements have played a key role in three areas such as 1] in creating public awareness about the importance of bringing about a balance between environment and development, 2] in opposing developmental projects that are inimical (harmful) to social and environmental concerns, and 3] in organizing model projects that show the way forward towards participative, community- based natural resource management systems. Origin of Environmental Movements in India: “It was only in the 1970s a coherent and relatively organized awareness of the ecological impact of the state development process started to develop, to grow into a fully fledged understanding of the limited nature of natural resources and to prevent the depletion of natural resources” The genesis of concern for environmental protection in India, “can be traced back to the early twentieth century when people protested against the commercialization (the process of managing or running something principally for financial gain) of forest resources during the British colonial period. At the international level, the growing salience of the environmental crisis was brought out by four important events. 1. The first event was the United Nations Conference on ‘Human Environment’ held in Stockholm, Sweden (1972). 2. The second event was publication of the report “Limits to Growth” (1972). 3. The third, release of the report of the Brundtland Commission entitled ‘Our Common Future’ (1987). 4. Fourth, event was the ‘Earth Summit’ in 1992. Guha Ramchandra (1997: 345-346) lists the three events which occurred within the country in 1973, that facilitated debate on environmental issues in India: Guha, Ramchandra lists the three events: 1. First, in April, the government of India announced the launching of Project Tiger, an ambitious conservation programme aimed at protecting the country’s national animal 2. Second, the publication of an article in Economic and Political Weekly (March 31, 1973) entitled ‘A Charter for the Land’ authored by B. B. Vora, a high official in the ministry of agriculture, which drew attention to the extent of erosion, water logging and other forms of land degradation in the country. 3. Third, on March 27, 1973, in Mandal, a remote Himalayan village, a group of peasants stopped a group of loggers from felling a stand of trees by hugging the trees. This event sparked a series of similar protests through the 1970s, collectively known as “Chipko” movement A large number of environmental movements have emerged in India especially after 1970s and 1980s. In this context Sahu, Geetanjoy (2007) noted that: In India, the environmental movement has grown rapidly over the last three to four decades. Reasons of the Emergence of Environmental Movements in India: Major reasons of the emergence of environmental movements in India have been discussed by Sharma, Aviram (2007) which include reasons such as i) control over natural resources, ii) false developmental policies of the government, iii) socioeconomic reasons, iv) environmental degradation/ destruction and, v) spread of environmental awareness and media Some of the best-known environmental movements in India 1. Bishnoi Movement: Notes: Year: 1700s Place: Khejarli,Marwar region, Rajasthan Leader: Amrita Devi along with Bishnoi villagers Aim: Save the sacred tress rom being cut down by the king’s soldiers for a new palace. What it was all about: September 11 signifies a very important landmark in the history of India’s environmental movement. It’s said on this day, back in 1730, in a tiny desert village near Jodhpur, 363 Bishnoi people led by a brave woman resisted the cutting down of khejri trees, among others, by the king’s men, preferring instead to lay down their own lives rather than allow the desecration of their environment. The love for nature has been handed down the ages, becoming an integral part of the Indian psyche. Nowhere is this better exemplified than in the martyrdom of the Bishnois in Khejarli village in Rajasthan. In 1730 AD the then ruler of a native state had ordered the khejri (Prosopis cineraria) trees to be cut in order for the construction of a fort. This sparked off a strong collective protest from the local Bishnoi community. 363 men and women, young and old, one after the other, placed their heads against the trees to prevent them being cut and were axed along with the trees. The ruler of the state was so moved by this sacrifice that he sought pardon from the people and issued an order that no green trees should in future be cut in the Bishnoi village. This happened over two centuries ago when the world had scarcely become conscious of ecological consequences of the reckless felling of trees. The Khejarli sacrifice was characterised by total non-violence, or ahimsa, on the part of the Bishnois who stood up to perform what they considered their bounden duty. For them, every plant or animal is a living being just as humans, and hence deserves to be protected. This served them well as it fosters a better relationship between human beings, their environment, their religious beliefs and each other, allowing all to live harmoniously. Today experts call this ‘sustainability’, and have labelled Bishnois as ‘India’s first environmentalists. Yet, within their community it is simply understood to be their dharma. 2. Chipko Movement Notes: Year: 1973 Place: Chamoli district and later at Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttarakhand Leader: Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sunderlal Bhauguna, Gaura Devi, Govind Singh Ranawat, Shamsher Singh Bisht and Ghanasyam Raturi Aim: the amin objective was to protect the trees on the Himalayas from the axes of the contractors of the forests. What it was all about: The name of the movement, that is ‘Chipko’, comes from the word ‘embrace’, in Hindi. It is said that the villagers hugged or embraced or stuck to the trees in the forest to prevent them from being felled by the contractors. The strategy of ‘embracing’ the trees to resist the felling of the trees was thought of by Chandi Prasad Bhatt in a meeting in the Mandal on April 1, 1973. The name ‘Chipko’ was derived from the consensual strategy of clinging on to the trees as a non-violent direct action. 3. Narmada Bachao Andholan Year: 1985 Place: Narmada River, which flows through Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat states of India. Leader: Medha Patkar, Baba Amte, Sunderlal Bahuguna, environmentalists and many other social activists. Aim: A social movement against a large number of dams being built across the Narmada river. What it was all about: Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is an Indian social movement spearheaded by native tribals (adivasis), farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against a number of large dam projects across the Narmada River, which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat is one of the biggest dams on the river and was one of the first focal points of the movement. It is part of the Narmada Dam Project, whose main aim is to provide irrigation and electricity to people of the above states. The mode of campaign under NBA includes court actions, hunger strikes, rallies and gathering support from notable film and art personalities. The NBA, with its leading spokespersons Medha Patkar and Baba Amte, received the Right Livelihood Award in 1991. Other recent environmental movements include: Save Aarey At a time when the rest of the world was moving towards climate action, the Bombay High Court dismissed several petitions against the felling of the Aarey Colony for the Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation Limited’s (MMRLC) metro 3 car-shed. The ‘Save Aarey’ protest rallies had been going on since the proposal of the car shed and gained momentum after the approval in August. Aarey is the only national park located within the city limits of a metropolis; it is home not only to flora and fauna, but also to many tribal communities who have been displaced because of various government projects. Several concerned citizens, environmentalists, students and activists took to the streets on September 1, 2019, with posters to form a human chain and express their dissent against the move. It was amid this that HC cleared the path to felling trees. Following its dismissal, Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) authorities, in an inexplicable haste, felled approximately 2000 trees on the night of 4 October. Protesters started pouring into Aarey to save the ‘green lungs of Mumbai.’ They were lathi- charged by the police and many were detained for several hours in various police stations across Mumbai over the weekend. Section 144 was imposed till October 6. When the newly elected CM Uddhav Thackeray ordered to stop the construction work of the shed, things looked promising. However, the issue is still ongoing with little hope of the forest being restored to its former glory.  Save the Sundarbans The Sundarbans are the largest mangrove forest in the world, and are located in the delta of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The area is home to Bengal tigers and saltwater crocodiles among other species. 60% of it lies in Bangladesh and the rest in India. It spans over 10,000 square kilometers and is home to several species of flora and fauna including the Royal Bengal Tiger. However, the largest intact tract of mangrove forest in the world is shrinking fast because of increased sea levels and beatings from cyclones, which are more frequent due to climate change. The recent cyclone Amphan in May 2020, the worst cyclone since 1737, left a trail of misery in the Sundarbans. Livelihoods were destroyed, people were displaced, embankments were breached and thousands of people are now solely reliant on relief camps. The mangrove forests are at a high risk because of a more pronounced rise in sea level than anywhere else which could eventually lead to a severe migration crisis of the local communities. A campaign emerged online to #SavetheSundarbans. In the middle of a global pandemic, concerned citizens resorted to donating to organisations working on ground, initiating dialogue about this treasure like the Amazon or Australian Bush and making art to spread awareness under Climate Action Strike The third week of September, 2019 saw students across big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Kolkata and Chennai stage peaceful protests at prominent city centers, heeding to Greta Thunberg’s call for mass protests to urge governments to take definitive action on the issue of Climate Change. This was largely youth-led who made it a point to stress the urgency of global warming through creative slogans. The point was to spread awareness about the impact a mere 2-degrees shift could have on the planet. Environmentalists like Bittu KR also participated and he emphasised how the government has to heed to concrete policy demands and go beyond token afforestation in an attempt to portray its commitment to the environment. It was part of a global expression of solidarity to fight for climate justice and emphasise on its importance. Right to Breathe Protest The nation’s capital throttled into an environmental crisis as the Air Quality Index (AQI) plummeted to 494. Toxic smog choked the city with mere breathing in Delhi being considered a hazard to one’s health. The protest, organised as a result of various movements on social media, saw over 1,500 people gather at Amar Jawan Jyoti, India Gate on November 5. Leonardo Dicaprio highlighted the success of these demonstrations in triggering climate action by the government. A special panel was set up to address the issue, Supreme Court ordered the state governments to address the crop and waste burning issue, Centre agreed to use the Green fund to combat toxic air pollution but the air quality was still abysmal. Delhi experienced ‘clean’ air following the lockdown but the air quality started dipping slowly. New Delhi has been the world’s most polluted city for the past 2 years despite government efforts like the Odd-Even Scheme. It just goes to show just how large the threat of global warming is looming. The government needs to be making stronger policy changes to combat air pollution and ensure safety for its citizens.