People and the Earth's Ecosystem Module 3 PDF

Module in People and the Earth's Ecosystem Module PREPARED BY: JEMUEL B. LAGARTO 3 Preface Welcome to People and the Earth’s Ecosystem, an interdisciplinary study of how the earth works, how humans interact with it, and how we can address the world's...

Module in People and the Earth's Ecosystem Module PREPARED BY: JEMUEL B. LAGARTO 3 Preface Welcome to People and the Earth’s Ecosystem, an interdisciplinary study of how the earth works, how humans interact with it, and how we can address the world's environmental issues. The concepts, facts, and issues presented in this module and the course you are taking will be beneficial to you now and in the future since environmental issues touch every aspect of your life. This module is designed to enhance students understanding of basic ecology concepts in three major areas: (1) Population, (2) Ecosystem, and (3) The Anthropogenic Impact to Environment. This module comprises of three series, module 1, module 2, and module 3 and it is divided based on the grading period during the school term, prelim, midterm, and finals. This module is centered in addressing the concern of the changing environment due to climate change and what can we do about it. Varied activities are provided in each chapter to help the students to develop important 21st century skills such as effective communications skills; learning and innovation skills; and information, media, and technological skills despite the pandemic. The components found in this module are as follows: Core Case Study - This presents article or research or case study for additional information.  Key Questions & Concepts - These are essential questions that students need to answer and understand. Big Idea - These are pop-up sections placed in the discussions to so that the students can easily identify essential concepts. Wordstorm - This is a vocabulary section to help the students to understand difficult terms. Gear Up - This is a set of enrichment activities. Self-Check - This is a 10-20 items test that includes formative and summative questions. As the students go through the pages of this module, may it be their desire to explore the world around them, observe the changes, and realize their role in protecting and conserving our ecosystem. The Author  unit 3 Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability  2 Living in an Exponential Age CORE CASE STU DY 386,400 kilometers (240,000 miles) away. If you could double it 50 times, the folded Two ancient kings enjoyed playing chess. paper would almost reach the sun—149 The winner claimed a prize from the loser. million kilometers (93 million miles) away! After one match, the winning king asked the losing king to pay him by placing one Because of exponential growth in the grain of wheat on the first square of the human population, in 2008 there were 6.7 chessboard, two grains on the second billion people on the planet. Collectively, square, four on the third, and so on, with these people consume vast amounts of the number doubling on each square until food, water, raw materials, and energy and all 64 squares were filled. in the process produce huge amounts of pollution and wastes. Unless death rates Two ancient kings enjoyed playing rise sharply, there will probably be 9.3 chess. The winner claimed a prize from the billion of us by 2050 and perhaps as many loser. After one match, the winning king as 10 billion by the end of this century. asked the losing king to pay him by placing one grain of wheat on the first square of The exponential rate of global the chessboard, two grains on the second population growth has declined since 1963. square, four on the third, and so on, with Even so, each day we add an average of the number doubling on each square until 225,000 more people to the earth’s all 64 squares were filled. population. This is roughly equivalent to adding a new U.S. city of Los Angeles, This fictional story illustrates the California, every 2 months, a new France concept of exponential growth, by which a every 9 months, and quantity increases at a fixed percentage a new United States—the world’s third per unit of time, such as 2% per year. most populous country—about every 4 Exponential growth is deceptive. It starts years. off slowly, but after only a few doublings, it grows to enormous numbers because No one knows how many people the each doubling is more than the total of all earth can support, and at what level of earlier growth. resource consumption or affluence, without seriously degrading the ability of Here is another example. Fold a piece the planet to support us and other forms of of paper in half to double its thickness. If life and our economies. But there are some you could continue doubling the thickness of the paper 42 times, the stack would 1 reach from the earth to the moon— disturbing warning signs. Biologists growth in human activities such as estimate that, by the end of this century, burning fossil fuels (carbon-based fuels our exponentially increasing population such as coal, natural gas, and gasoline) and and resource consumption could cause the clearing forests will change the earth’s irreversible loss of one-third to one-half of climate during this century. This could the world’s known different types of plants ruin some areas for farming, shift water and animals. supplies, eliminate many of the earth’s unique forms of life, and disrupt There is also growing evidence and economies in various parts of the world concern that continued exponentiaL 1  Chapter 1 As you go through this chapter, you will Environmental Issues, be able to: Discuss the different environmental Climate Changes, and issues in Asian countries. Energy Security in Enumerate the different environmental dimensions that Developing Asia threaten energy security. Compare the different Asian countries in terms of the level on their emission of greenhouse gases. 2  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Lesson Key Questions and Concepts 3 1. What is climate change, and what can we do about it? 2. Why do we have environmental problems? 3. What are the top Asian countries that emit larger amount of greenhouse gases. 4. What are the environmental laws in the Philippines? 5. What are the penalties and sanctions if we disobey those environmental laws? This study explores the intersection of environmental constraints, climate change, and energy security in Asia and the Pacific. Although environmental sustainability has only recently emerged as an energy policy issue, the magnitude of energy impacts on environmental systems suggests strong links to energy security. The unchecked growth in fossil energy consumption and the ensuing acceleration of global climate change as well as related air and water pollution act as “threat multipliers” impinging on national security globally. These environmental dimensions are just a subset of a larger array of environmental concerns that threaten energy security including land pollution, forestry, and biodiversity loss. The table below summarizes the four environmental dimensions of energy security in Asia and the Pacific discussed in this chapter: climate change, air pollution, water availability and quality, and land-use change. Environmental Dimensions of Energy Security in Asia and the Pacific Dimension Link to Energy Security Energy Conservation to the Problem Climate change is a “threat multiplier” in terms of energy security. Mass migrations of refugees A total of 66.5% of global carbon dioxide Climate Change seeking asylum emissions come from energy supply and from ecological disasters transport. could destabilize regions of the world threatening energy as well as national security. 3  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Deterioration of environmental conditions can negatively impact human and About 80% of global sulfur dioxide ecological health with emissions, 80% of particulate matter significant numbers of Air Pollution emissions, and 70% of nitrogen oxide premature deaths related to emissions come from the energy and indoor and outdoor air transport sectors. pollution and significant expenditures lost in terms of lost productivity and healthcare. Lack of available safe drinking water can destabilize the security of a region. In all, 25% of global water supply is lost Because fossil, hydro, and due to evaporation from reservoirs and Water nuclear power plants consume another 10%–15% of global freshwater is Availability and large quantities of freshwater, used in thermoelectric power plants. Quality shrinking supplies of water could threaten the ability to provide electricity and the ability of nations to feed themselves. Deforestation can cause At least 15% of land-use change is social dislocation, increase the Land Use Change caused by the direct clearing of forests cost of fuelwood, destroy for fuelwood and the expansion of biodiversity, and conflict with plantations for energy crops. agriculture and the preservation of nature reserves. 4  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Climate Change Climate change is a substantial energy security concern not only because direct flooding and natural disasters can damage power plants and transmission lines, disrupt the delivery of imported energy fuels, and destroy crops for biofuels but also because it has severe impacts on food security, health, and environmental refugees that can all lower the income base of Asian countries and add to government debt further complicating attempts at sound energy policy making. Though climate change is certainly a global phenomenon, in many ways it is becoming an Asian problem. Figure 1 shows annual tons of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions from fuel combustion divided by the total national population for selected Asian countries. It indicates that emissions more than doubled from 1990 to 2010 in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Figure 2 indicates that when changes in land use are included, four of the top 10 emitters of greenhouse gases (GHGs)—the PRC, Indonesia, India, and Japan—are in Asia. CO2 emissions from the electricity supply sector in the PRC—mainly coal-fired power plants—make up almost half of the total emissions generated by the country. In 1987, only 12% of emissions were due to industrial production, but that figure rose to 21% in 2002 and to 33% in 2005. In Taipei, China emissions jumped from 160.5 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent in 1990 to 271.6 million in 2000, an increase of 5.3%. One international assessment of the carbon footprints in 12 major metropolitan areas throughout the world in 2010 found that only four cities were below the world average and that many major ones such as Seoul, Singapore, and Tokyo were already well above it. Figure 1: Per Capita Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1990 and 2010 (metric tons) Source: Sovacool et al. 2011. 5  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Figure 2: Share of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Top Ten Countries, 2010 Source: Brown and Sovacool 2011. Unfortunately from a climate standpoint, the GHGs already emitted will threaten Asia with a staggering list of negative consequences. Because of their unique geography and climatology, low per capita incomes, and changing patterns of urbanization, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam are expected to lose 6.7% of combined gross domestic product (GDP) by 2100 if temperatures change as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts, which is more than twice the rate of global average losses. Even uniform changes in climate will not affect Asia equally as Cambodia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), the Mekong River Delta, the Philippines, central Thailand, and Sumatra and Java in Indonesia are more at risk than wealthier countries such as Brunei Darussalam or Singapore. The PRC and India, for instance, could exhaust between 1% and 12% of their annual GDPs coping with climate refugees, changing disease vectors, and failing crops. One study forecasts a 37% reduction in national crop yields by 2050 in the PRC if current climate trends continue. Some states in India such as Maharashtra are projected to suffer greater drought that will likely wipe out 30% of food production inducing $7 billion in damages among 15 million small and marginal farmers. In India as a whole, farmers and fishers will have to migrate from coastal areas as sea levels rise and as they confront heat waves lowering crop output, and they will have to manage declining water tables from saltwater intrusion. 6  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability One wide-ranging survey of climate impacts in Asia and the Pacific from the United States Agency for International Development predicted the following, among other things: accelerated river bank erosion, saltwater intrusion, crop losses, and floods in Bangladesh that will displace at least 8 million people and destroy up to 5 million hectares of crops; more frequent and intense droughts in Sri Lanka crippling tea yields and reducing national foreign exchange and lowering incomes for low-wage workers; higher sea levels inundating half of the agricultural lands on the Mekong Delta causing food insecurity throughout Cambodia, the Lao PDR, and Viet Nam; increased ocean flooding and storm surges inundating 130,000 hectares of farmland in the Philippines affecting the livelihoods of 2 million people; intensified floods in Thailand placing more than 5 million people at risk and causing $39 billion to $1.1 trillion in economic damages by 2050. That study concluded that Asia and the Pacific will have more land threatened, more people damaged, and more economic damage from rising sea levels than any other part of the planet. Already, the region accounted for 85% of deaths and 38% of global economic losses due to natural disasters from 1980 to 2009. Although these vulnerabilities are great, perhaps the most severe climate change impacts will befall small developing island states. Small island countries in the Pacific are at the ever-present mercy of natural disasters, especially cyclones and storm-induced floods that can damage energy infrastructure and reduce national incomes. Since the 1950s, the quantity and magnitude of natural disasters throughout the Pacific have increased significantly, and many countries lie in the path of Pacific cyclones. Table 2 also illustrates that a selection of Pacific island countries has had no fewer than 257 disasters from 1950 to 2008 that have caused $6.8 billion in damages. In the Solomon Islands, the Ministry of Environment, Conservation and Meteorology has warned that “energy production, utilization, conversion, and transportation” have been and will continue to be negatively affected by “droughts, floods, fires, storm surges, and cyclones.” In Samoa, the earthquake and tsunami in September 2009 greatly damaged the Electric Power Corporation (EPC) generation and distribution assets in the southern and eastern coastal areas of Upolu, Manono, and Savii. Damages included toppled power poles and fittings, cracked transformers, and destroyed hydroelectric dams. With assets of only $163 million and a net 7  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability operating profit of $2.1 million per year, the EPC has little revenue to draw from to address these types of damages. In Fiji, unexpected shortfalls in water have forced the country’s hydroelectric dams to operate below full capacity increasing reliance on diesel imports and precipitating increases in electricity tariffs. Table 2: Estimated Economic and Social Impact of Disasters in Selected Pacific Island Economies, 1950–2008 Source: World Bank 2009. 8  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Air Pollution Air pollution is an energy security concern in at least two respects: outdoor air pollution degrades human health and increases hospital admissions, and indoor air pollution from using traditional and stoves for cooking and heating causes premature deaths in women and children. Outdoor air pollution is significantly caused by energy production and use as about 80% of sulfur dioxide emissions, 80% of particulate matter emissions, and 70% of nitrogen oxide emissions come from the energy and transport sectors. The International Energy Agency (IEA) notes that air quality has become a serious problem for hundreds of Asian cities and towns. Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, and Manila suffer from air pollution due to increased vehicle use, rapid rates of industrialization and urbanization, a reliance on coal, and industries operating in close proximity to residential areas. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 517,700 people in Asia die annually because of outdoor air pollution, 275,600 in the PRC alone. Of the 18 megacities worldwide with severe levels of total suspended particulate matter emissions, 10 are in Asia and 5 are in South Asia (Karachi, Osaka–Kobe, Dhaka, Beijing, Jakarta, Delhi, Shanghai, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Tokyo). Air pollution takes a substantial toll on national health-care expenditures and GDP. In the Philippines, particulate matter pollution has been estimated to cause $432 million in annual damages worth 0.6% of national GDP. In Thailand, particulate matter pollution causes at least $825 million in damages worth 1.6% of GDP. In the context of electricity prices, the cost of air pollution adds as much as $0.0417 per kilowatt to every unit of Thai electricity. In the PRC, particulate matter pollution causes from $63 to $272 billion in damages or as much as 3.3% to 7.0% of national GDP. These numbers will undoubtedly rise 9  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability with the growth in demand for automobiles in the PRC. In India, “It is now understood that rural outdoor air pollution is a significant problem with average levels of pollution in the Ganga River Basin, for example, being substantially above Indian and WHO health-based norms.” In Cambodia, the rapid increases in vehicle operation have led to ambient concentrations of particulate matter that are “very high” with “likely severe impacts on the health of residents.” Transportation is not the only cause of outdoor air pollution; burning coal for electricity and industrial uses contributes as well. The best example is the PRC. Coal is the most abundant and widely used fuel; the PRC already uses more of it than the European Union, Japan, and the United States (US) combined. Coal meets more than 70% of the country’s energy needs. The PRC is currently the world’s biggest producer and consumer of coal producing 3.8 billion tons in 2011 (compared to 1.1 billion tons in the US) amounting to about half the world total. Coal combustion provided 65% of the country’s electricity in 1985 but that figure rose to more than 80% in 2006. From 2002 to 2007, demand for electricity grew by about 12%, and more than 70,000 megawatts (MW) of capacity were brought online to meet it, a majority of which was coal fired. The PRC currently is constructing the equivalent of two 500 MW coal-fired plants per week—a capacity comparable to the entire power grid in the United Kingdom (UK) every year. More than half of the coal production is used in the non-electricity sector. It provides 60% of chemical feedstock and 55% of industrial fuel. Nearly 45% of the national railway capacity is devoted exclusively to the transport of coal. Water Quality and Availability The United Nations (UN) reports that overall, agriculture is the largest user of freshwater but that the energy sector comes second with hydropower, nuclear power, and thermal power generation accounting for about 10% to 15% of global water consumption. In addition, the UN estimates that the volume of water evaporated from reservoirs exceeds the combined freshwater needs of industry and domestic consumption which represent about 25% of global water use. As the UN concluded, hydroelectric dams therefore “greatly contribute to water losses around the world, especially in hot, tropical regions.” The energy sector consumes and contaminates water sources imposing costs on all water users from households and commercial enterprises to farmers and recreational users as 10  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability well as on fish and marine mammals. Thermoelectric power plants—those relying on coal, oil, natural gas, biomass/waste, or uranium in nuclear reactors—take water from rivers, lakes, and streams to cool equipment before returning it to its source, and they consume it through evaporative loss. As Table 3 shows, the average power plant uses about 25 gallons (95 liters) of water for every kilowatt-hour generated. This means that the power consumed in 1 day in the average US home requires 775 gallons of water. Given that the world consumed about 17,000 terawatt-hours of electricity in 2007, power plants ostensibly used 425 trillion gallons (1.61 quadrillion liters) of water that year. The water use of individual power plants is even more striking. A conventional 500 MW coal plant, for instance, consumes about 7,000 gallons (26,498 liters) of water per minute or the equivalent of 17 Olympic-sized swimming pools every day. Table 3: Water Use (Consumption and Withdrawals) for Selected Power Plants (gallons per kilowatt-hour) Source: Sovacool and Sovacool 2009b. Deficiencies in water supply and water quality already cause about 4,500 deaths throughout the world every day or 1.7 million deaths a year, 90% of which are to young children. More than 1 billion people lack access to clean water, and 2.6 billion do not have access to improved sanitation facilities. Some rivers, aquifers, lakes, and other water sources are so polluted that it is more profitable for residents to remove plastic bottles and trash from them for recycling than it is to fish. The US Central Intelligence Agency believes 11  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability that more than 3 billion people will be living in water-stressed regions around the world by 2015 (with a majority concentrated in North Africa and the PRC). Water tables for major grain producing areas in northern PRC are dropping at a rate of 5 feet per year, and per capita water availability in India is expected to drop by 50% to 75% over the next decade. Complicating this picture is climate change which is slowly but steadily altering precipitation and water patterns. For instance, if global warming induces the rise in sea levels that many climatologists and scientists expect, the intrusion of salt water could contaminate freshwater aquifers possibly reducing potable water supplies by 45%. Warmer temperatures resulting from global climate change will also increase energy demands in urban areas and require more intensive air-conditioning loads in turn raising the water needs for power plants. Hotter weather also increases the evaporation rates for lakes, rivers, and streams and thus accelerates the depletion of reservoirs and causes more intense and longer-lasting droughts as well as more wildfires that in turn need vast quantities of water to control. Land-Use Change As with climate change, air pollution, and water, the link between energy security and land-use change is complex. Energy production can affect land in many ways from converting forests into plantations for energy crops to access roads for dams and oil and gas facilities that open up areas to deforestation. One incredibly conservative estimate suggests that 15% of land-use changes are caused by clearing forests for fuelwood and for energy crop plantations. Figure 3 shows that most Asian countries saw a decline in their forest areas from 1990 to 2010 with significant decreases in Cambodia, Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines. Figure 3: Forest Area as a Percent of Land Area in Selected Countries, 1990 and 2010 (%) Source: Sovacool et al. 2011 12  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Forests can be a sink for GHG emissions but also a source depending on how they are managed. It is helpful to view forests through the lens of stocks and flows. The total stock of carbon in all tropical forests equals about 300 billion tons; through deforestation, about 1.5 billion tons are converted into 6 billion tons of CO2 that is emitted into the atmosphere. In other words, tropical forests alone contribute about 20% of overall anthropogenic CO2 emissions per year making them the largest emitter of carbon in the world after the energy sector. This amount is equivalent to the total emissions of the PRC or the US, and it is more than the emissions produced by every car, truck, plane, ship, and train on earth. Forestry is thus unique in its ability to fight climate change, but its benefits are reversible. A ton of carbon sequestered in a forest is not permanent and is a benefit to the atmosphere only if it remains stored. If a tree is felled or a forest is cleared, carbon is released and the temporary benefit reversed. Partly because of this aspect of forestry, tropical deforestation was excluded from the Kyoto Protocol as an eligible project class. Acknowledging that forests are decreasing at an alarming rate, the Copenhagen Accord produced (but not adopted) at the Fifteenth Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change meeting in 2009 does, “…recognize the crucial role of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.” Yet the rate of deforestation worldwide averaged 13 million hectares a year between 1990 and 2005 (out of a total forest coverage of about 4 billion hectares). Indonesia and Brazil accounted for about half the emissions from deforestation which also explains why they are (respectively) the third and fourth largest emitters of GHGs overall behind the PRC and the US. Table 4 shows that just nine countries, four of them in Asia, accounted for more than 80% of all GHG emissions from deforestation. Table 4: Global Leaders in Carbon Dioxide Equivalent Emissions from Deforestation Source: Boucher 2008. 13  Ecosystems: What Are They And How Do They Work? At least two main energy sources contribute to deforestation: fuelwood collection and energy plantations for biofuels. Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand are the largest producers of palm oil in the world. The land-use changes taking place there involve converting peat lands, some of the richest carbon sinks in the world, to palm oil plantations. Some scholars and global institutions concerned with bioenergy recognize the environmental dilemmas that the large-scale production of palm oil can present by encroaching on protected areas, affecting water systems, displacing food production, and harboring unsustainable land-use practices that cannot only cancel GHG emissions for decades but can also lead to widespread ecological despoliation. As a result of the twin pressures of fuelwood collection and biofuel production, in Southeast Asia as a whole deforestation have been 5 times the global average and 10 times the average for the rest of Asia. Indonesia alone is being deforested at a rate of 1.4 million hectares (3.5 million acres) a year with only 53 million hectares (131 million acres) of total forest area left. Deforestation has helped promote the forest fires and peat land degradation that have made the country such a large emitter of GHGs. Roughly 98% of the forest cover on Borneo and Sumatra will be “severely degraded” by 2012 and “completely gone” by 2022. Illegal logging is difficult to control: 75% of timber is extracted illegally and illegal harvesting has been documented in 37 out of Indonesia’s 41 national parks. Milling capacity exceeds legal limits by as much as a factor of five. Environmental Impact of Energy Technology Options Though admittedly qualitative, this section briefly assesses the environmental impacts of 13 energy systems on climate change, air pollution, water availability and quality, and land-use change. Table 5 summarizes them. Table 5: Impacts of Energy Systems on Climate Change, Air Pollution, Water Availability and Quality, and Land-Use Change 14  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability A. Energy Efficiency Energy efficiency and demand-side management—doing more with less, reducing energy consumption by substituting fuels and technologies and altering consumer behavior—is clearly the most environmentally benign way to address increases in demand for energy services. Energy efficiency can include practices as diverse as switching from conventional coal power plants to combined heat and power units, lowering thermostats, better maintaining industrial boilers, and walking or cycling instead of driving. These actions not only involve very little damage to the environment, they can be cost effective as well as long as they are strategically implemented to avoid the rebound effect. On a global scale, the IEA reviewed largescale energy efficiency programs and found that they saved electricity at an average cost of $0.032 per kilowatt-hour, well below the cost of supplying electricity from any source. B. Nuclear Power Nuclear power has minimal air pollution impacts as it is a combustion-free source of energy, but it does have moderate impacts on climate change and severe impacts for water and land use. In terms of climate change, reprocessing and enriching uranium requires a substantial amount of electricity that is often generated from fossil fuel–fired power plants. Uranium milling, mining, and leaching; plant construction; and decommissioning all produce substantial amounts of GHGs. An assessment of 103 life-cycle studies of GHG-equivalent emissions for nuclear power plants found that the average CO2 emissions over the typical lifetime of a plant in 2005 were about 66 grams for every kilowatt-hour or the equivalent of some 183 million metric tons of CO2. A second, follow-up, peer-reviewed study found that the best performing reactors had associated life-cycle emissions of 8 to 58 grams of CO2 per kilowatt-hour but that other reactors emitted more than 110 grams. 15  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability In terms of land use, nuclear power’s most significant impacts arise from uranium mining and the storage of nuclear waste. Uranium is mined in three different ways—underground, open pit, and in-situ leaching—but uranium mining is very wasteful, regardless of the technique. To produce the 25 tons of uranium needed to operate a typical rector for a year, 500,000 tons of waste rock and 100,000 tons of mill tailings toxic for hundreds of thousands of years will be created along with an extra 144 tons of solid waste and 1,343 cubic meters of liquid waste. In terms of water, the nuclear industry has serious consequences both for human consumption and for the environment. Apart from the water-related impacts of uranium mining, three other stages of the nuclear fuel cycle—plant construction, plant operation, and nuclear waste storage—consume, withdraw, and contaminate water supplies. Moreover, a team of Indian scientists studying heated water discharges from the Madras Atomic Power Station noted that substantial additions of sodium hypochlorite to seawater decreased viable counts of bacteria and plankton by 50% around the reactor site. A team of Korean marine biologists and scientists studied satellite thermal infrared images of the Younggwang Nuclear Power Plant and found that the thermal pollution plume extended more than 100 kilometers southward.56 The researchers documented that the power plant directly decreased the dissolved oxygen content of the water, fragmented ecosystem habitats, reduced fish populations, and induced eutrophication. C. Shale Gas Shale gas refers to natural gas extracted from gas shales, i.e., porous rocks that hold gas in pockets. Shale gas is captured by hydraulic fracturing or fracking, a process that shatters rocks by injecting water to release the gas. Shale gas has severe climate change, air, water, and land-use impacts. New evidence has surfaced that the life cycle of shale gas is more carbon intensive than previously thought.57 Prior estimates of the carbon footprint of shale gas did not account for losses in processing and distribution, but the US Environmental Protection Agency took a nonpartisan look at the life cycle of natural gas and its carbon equivalent emissions and doubled its previous estimate when it accounted for methane leaks from loose pipe fittings and methane vented from gas wells. When included 16  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability included, these losses make gas as little as 25% cleaner than coal from a carbon standpoint. Billions of cubic feet of natural gas are lost in the US each year—equivalent to the emissions from 35 million automobiles—seeping from loose pipe valves or venting from production facilities. Furthermore, Nature cautions that 0.6% to 3.2% of the methane captured during hydrofracking can escape directly into the airshed. Other studies have noted that 3.6% to 7.9% of methane from shale gas production escapes into the atmosphere in venting and leaks which make methane emissions from shale gas between 30% and 100% greater than conventional natural gas. These studies have noted, for example, that fugitive methane emissions are vented during the completion of wells, especially during the drill-out stage of new reserves. Venting and equipment leaks of methane are common, too, as the typical well has 55 to 150 different connections to equipment including heaters, meters, dehydrators, and compressors as well as vapor recovery systems that all can fail and leak. Processing to remove hydrocarbons and impurities such as sulfur is energy and carbon intensive, and shale gas needs more extensive processing to make it ready for existing pipelines. Shale gas is also prone to all of the environmental impacts of ordinary oil and natural gas production. D. Conventional Coal The extraction of coal poses serious problems for communities and ecosystems near mining sites. Coal mining can remove mountaintops by clearing forests and topsoil before using explosives to break up rocks, pushing mine spoils into adjacent streams and valleys. This can cause acid drainage into river systems, destroy ecosystems, blight landscapes, and diminish water quality. One global assessment of the coal mining industry noted that common, “direct” impacts include … fugitive dust from coal handling plants and fly ash storage areas; pollution of local water streams, rivers, and groundwater from effluent discharges and percolation of hazardous materials from the stored fly ash; degradation of land used for storing fly ash; and noise pollution during operation [in addition to] impacts on the health, safety, and well-being of coal miners; accidents and fatalities resulting from coal transportation; significant disruption to human life, especially in the absence of well- functioning resettlement policies; and impacts on the environment such as degradation and destruction of land, water, forests, habitats, and ecosystems. 17  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Human activities add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. For example, burning carbon- containing fuels releases huge amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. Growing crops and raising livestock release large amounts of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Clearing CO2-absorbing tropical rain forests (Core Case Study) faster than they can grow back also increases the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. There is considerable and growing evidence that these activities are increasing the natural greenhouse effect and warming the earth’s atmosphere. This in turn is changing the earth’s climate. E. Clean Coal Clean coal has moderate climate impacts but like conventional coal, severe impacts on air, water, and land use. In terms of climate change, power plants with carbon capture and storage (CCS) can sequester much of their affiliated carbon underground; however, they can also “…increase [GHG] emissions and air pollutants per unit of net delivered power and will increase all ecological, land-use, air-pollution, and water-pollution impacts from coal mining, transport, and processing, because the CCS system requires 25% more energy, thus 25% more coal combustion, than does a system without CCS.” Globally, coal mining activities have taken their toll on local environments and communities. Exploration involves drilling, clearing vegetation, trench blasting, and geophysical surveying that can result in habitat loss, sedimentation, and deforestation due to road development. Site preparation has been shown to fragment ecosystems, increase demand for water resources, change predation rates, and accelerate the chemical contamination of land. Mining operations require supporting infrastructure such as roads, electricity, processing facilities, and ports. Once closed, abandoned mines pose dangers in the form of physical injury, persistent contaminants in surface and groundwater, and acid drainage affecting hundreds of thousands of streams. Again, CCS requires more coal to produce each unit of electricity exacerbating all of these downstream impacts. F. Oil and Natural Gas Many stages of the oil and gas fuel chain—exploration, onshore and offshore drilling, refining—pose serious environmental risks. Exploration necessitates heavy equipment and can be quite invasive as it involves “discovering” oil and gas deposits in sedimentary rock through various seismic techniques such as controlled underground explosions, special air guns, and exploratory drilling. The construction of access roads, drilling platforms, and their associated infrastructure frequently has environmental impacts beyond the immediate effects of clearing 18  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability land as they open up remote regions to loggers and wildlife poachers. About 465 to 2,428 hectares of land (1,000 to 6,000 acres) are deforested for every 1 kilometer of new oil and gas roads built through forested areas around the world. The production and extraction of oil and gas—which are themselves toxic as both contain significant quantities of hydrogen sulfide which is potentially fatal and extremely corrosive to equipment such as drills and pipelines—is even more hazardous. Drilling for oil and gas involves bringing large quantities of rock fragments, called “cuttings,” to the surface. These cuttings are coated with drilling fluids called “drilling muds” that operators use to lubricate drill bits and stabilize pressure in oil and gas wells. The quantity of toxic cuttings and mud released for each facility is gargantuan ranging between 60,000 and 300,000 gallons per day. In addition to cuttings and drilling muds, vast quantities of water contaminated with suspended and dissolved solids are also brought to the surface creating what geologists refer to as “produced water.” Produced water contains lead, zinc, mercury, benzene, and toluene making it highly toxic often requiring operators to treat it with chemicals that increase its salinity and make it fatal to many types of plants before releasing it into the environment. The ratio of waste to extracted oil is staggering: Every gallon of oil brought to the surface yields 8 gallons of contaminated water, cuttings, and drilling muds. The next stage, refining, involves boiling, vaporizing, and treating extracted crude oil and gas with solvents to improve their quality. The average refinery processes 3.8 million gallons of oil per day, and about 11,000 gallons of its product (0.3% of production) escapes directly into the local environment where it can contaminate land and pollute water. Natural gas also has some environmental impacts unique to its fuel cycle. When not separated from oil deposits, it is often burned off at the well site, flared (combusted into CO2 and water vapor), or vented directly to the atmosphere. In all, 5% of world natural gas production—150 billion cubic meters of natural gas, more than 2 billion tons of CO2 equivalent —is lost to flaring and venting each year making the gas industry responsible for roughly 10% of annual global methane emissions. Methane is a GHG 21 to 23 times more potent than CO2 on a 100-year timeframe, and its half-life is only 12 years meaning its instantaneous impact is much larger on the climate system. Methane is already the second largest contributor to anthropogenic GHG emissions after CO2 accounting for 16% of the total on a CO2 - equivalent basis. Researchers at the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers and the Society of Petroleum Engineers have calculated that the global average emission ratio for gas production is about 130 to 140 tons of CO2 equivalent for every 1,000 tons of production which is more than any other electricity fuel except oil and coal. 19  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability G. Hydroelectricity Hydroelectricity poses severe water impacts but only moderate land-use impacts and minimal climate change and air pollution impacts. For hydroelectric dams, the most extensively debated and complex environmental problems relate to habitat and ecosystem destruction, emissions from reservoirs, water quality, and sedimentation. All these concerns arise because a dam is a physical barrier interrupting water flows for lakes, rivers, and streams. Consequently, dams can drastically disrupt the movement of species and change upstream and downstream habitats. They also result in modified habitats with environments more conducive to invasive plant, fish, snail, insect, and animal species all of which may overwhelm local ecosystems. To maintain an adequate supply of energy resources in reserve, most dams impound water in extensive reservoirs; however, these reservoirs can also emit GHGs from rotting vegetation. All forms of hydroelectric generation combust no fuel so they produce little to no air pollution in comparison with fossil fuel plants. One life-cycle assessment of hydroelectric facilities focused on the activities related to building dams, dikes, and power stations; decaying biomass from flooded land (where plant decomposition produces methane and CO2 ); and the thermal backup power needed when seasonal changes cause hydroelectric plants to run at partial capacity. It found that typical emissions of GHGs for hydropower were still 30 to 60 times less than those from fossil-fueled stations of the same size. H. Wind Energy Wind energy has moderate land-use impacts and minimal environmental impacts across the other three dimensions. Perhaps the most visible land-use concern associated with wind energy relates to the death of birds that collide with wind turbine blades which is termed “avian mortality.” Onshore and offshore wind turbines present direct and indirect hazards to birds and to other avian species. Birds can smash into a turbine blade when they are fixated on perching or hunting and pass through its rotor plane; they can strike its support structure; they can hit part of its tower; or they can collide with its associated transmission lines. These risks are exacerbated when turbines are placed on ridges and upwind slopes; close to migration routes; and in fog, rain storms, and at night. Indirectly, wind farms can physically alter natural habitats, the quantity and quality of prey, and the availability of nesting sites. Moreover, large, effective wind farms are sometimes highly land intensive. Large-scale utility wind turbines usually require 1 acre of land per turbine. When these big machines are built in densely forested areas or ecosystems rich in flora and fauna, they can fragment large tracts of habitat. 20  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability I. Solar Photovoltaics This form of solar energy has moderate land-use impacts and minimal environmental impacts across the other three areas. The land-use impacts center on the use of hazardous materials such as silicon which must be mined and can contaminate land when systems break down or are destroyed during hurricanes and tornados. Chemical pollution has also occurred manufacturing solar cells and modules, and when not integrated into buildings, solar power plants need comparatively larger amounts of land than conventional energy sources. J. Solar Thermal Solar thermal, or concentrated solar power, has many of the same climate and air benefits of solar photovoltaic systems. However, thermal and concentrated systems consume much more water and withdraw similar amounts as a natural gas–combined cycle power plant and also require amounts of land similar to solar photovoltaic power plants. K. Geothermal Geothermal facilities have moderate water impacts but minimal environmental impacts in the other areas. Geothermal plants can emit small amounts of hydrogen sulfide and CO2 along with toxic sludge containing sulfur, silica compounds, arsenic, and mercury (depending on the type of plant), though these can be controlled with pollution control equipment. More significantly, geothermal systems require water during drilling and fracturing and are ill- suited for deserts or arid regions. Extra land may also be required to dispose of waste salts from geothermal brines, and contamination of groundwater and freshwater can occur if plants are poorly designed. L. Biomass Biomass energy has minimal climate change impacts but moderate environmental impacts on air pollution, water, and land use. While biomass combustion has the advantage of not releasing any net CO2 into the atmosphere (and thus contributes little to the global inventory of GHGs), it releases measurable levels of a wide variety of pollutants into air, land, and water.86 The air pollution issues parallel aesthetic concerns about land use, smell, and traffic congestion. The combustion of biomass has been noted to release foul odors near some plants, and biomass fuel can contribute to traffic congestion when large amounts must be delivered by trucks. 21  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability When harvested improperly, generating electricity with agricultural wastes, forest residues, and energy crops such as sugar, legumes, and vineyard grain can strip local ecosystems of needed nutrients and minerals. M. Biofuels Biofuels raise severe climate, water, and land concerns but only moderately contribute to air pollution. As noted previously, the widespread use of biofuel crops can contribute to habitat destruction and deforestation. Biofuel production, like that for oil and gas, also involves a large amount of water. Furthermore, some GHGs such as nitrogen oxide, methane, and CO2 are emitted from nitrification and de-nitrification through the use of fertilizers, soil transformation, poorly drained soils, and motorized equipment; however, life-cycle GHG emissions are much lower for sugarcane ethanol than for gasoline with ethanol releasing 0.6 kilograms of CO2 per liter compared to 1 kilogram for gasoline. One significant benefit, however, is air pollution. Although the combustion of ethanol in automobile engines is not benign—ethanol is a significant source of aldehyde emissions (similar to formaldehyde from gasoline) and peroxyacetyl nitrate pollution (an irritant to plants)—every kilometer fueled by ethanol releases less particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, lead, Benzene (a carcinogen), 1-3 butadiene, sulfur oxide, and carbon monoxide than gasoline. VII. Conclusions 1. No energy source is free of some type of environmental impact, though energy efficiency practices properly implemented are the most environmentally friendly. While renewable energy sources such as wind and solar have clear environmental benefits compared to conventional sources, they are not free of consequences. Even with the use of renewable resources, every kilowatt-hour of electricity generated, every barrel of oil produced, every ton of uranium mined or cubic foot of natural gas manufactured produces a laundry list of environmental damage that may include radioactive waste and abandoned uranium mines and mills, acid rain and its damage to fisheries and crops, water degradation and excessive consumption, particulate pollution, and cumulative environmental damage to ecosystems and biodiversity through species loss and habitat destruction. In monetary terms, the social and environmental damage from just one type of energy—worldwide electricity generation—amounted to roughly $2.6 trillion in 2010. This means that continuing along the business-as-usual path 22  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability could result in an increased cost burden to governments as they become saddled with heavy public health-care and environmental costs and the negative effects on economic competitiveness through loss of workforce productivity. Put another way, if the increasing energy demands for the Asian Century scenario are met by the traditional mix of energy supply with current technologies, then the implications for the environment in terms of GHG emissions, green growth, global warming, and prices of fossil fuels would not be sustainable. 2. Policy makers must incorporate the cost of some of these negative environmental consequences of energy production and use into prices. At a bare minimum they should place a price on carbon and preferably other things like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, particulate matter, and water. A preponderance of evidence suggests that pricing energy more accurately will greatly improve the efficiency of the electricity industry, provide customers with proper price signals, reduce wasteful energy use, and most importantly, improve household incomes since they no longer have to waste as much time and money dealing with debilitating health issues caused by pollution. 3. If policy makers desire to truly promote cleaner forms of energy, feed-in tariffs seem the best method to rapidly accelerate their adoption. One study analyzed renewable portfolio standards, green power programs, public research and development expenditures, system benefit charges, investment tax credits, production tax credits, tendering, and feed-in tariffs, and found that only feed-in tariffs met the criteria for a truly effective policy tool. In the end, we must accept that current patterns of energy production and use have widespread and widely known negative impacts on the environment. As President Jimmy Carter once remarked when addressing the US Congress in 1976, to avoid a cycle of energy and climate crises: “We must face the prospect of changing our basic ways of living. This change will either be made on our own initiative in a planned way or forced on us with chaos and suffering by the inexorable laws of nature.” It would be far better to implement carbon taxes, to incorporate the cost of negative environmental consequences into energy prices, to pass feed-in tariffs, and to harness the powers of energy efficiency now in a proactive way rather than a few decades from now when forced to by crises. 23  Chapter 2 Environmental As you go through this chapter, you will be able to: Identify the major environmental laws in the Laws in the Philippines. Discuss the penalties and sanctions of disobeying Philippines those environmental laws. Enumerate the government sectors that are responsible in implementing those environmental laws. 24  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Presidential Decree No. 1586 - ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT SYSTEM (EIA) The process of predicting the likely environmental consequences of implementing a project and designing appropriate preventive mitigating and enhancement measures. Environment Compliance Certificate (EEC) Document issued by the DENR/EMB after a positive review of an ECC application, certifying that based on the representations of the proponent, the proposed project or undertaking will not cause significant negative environment impact. Certificate of Non-Coverage (CNC) Document issued by the DENR/EMB after a positive review of an ECC application, certifying that based on there presentations of the proponent, the proposed project or undertaking will not cause significant negative environmental impact. Environmentally Critical Project (ECP) Project or program that has high potential for significant negative environmental impact. Environmental Compliance Assistance (ECA) Area delineated as environmentally sensitive such that significant environmental impacts are expected if certain types of proposed projects or programs are located, developed or implemented. List of ECPs As declared by proclamation No. 2146 (1981) Heavy Industries - Non-ferrous Metal Industries, Iron and Steel Mills, Petroleum and Petro-chemical industries including Oil and Gas, Smelting Plants 25  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Resource Extractive Industries - Major Mining and Quarrying Projects, Forestry Projects (logging, major wood processing projects, introduction of fauna (exotic animals) in public and private forests, forest occupancy, extraction of mangrove products, grazing, Fishery Projects (dikes for/and fishpond development projects). Infrastructure Projects - Major Dams, Major Power Plants (fossil- fueled, nuclear fueled, hydroelectric or geothermal), Major Reclamation Projects, Major Roads and Bridges. As declared by Proclamation No. 803 (1996) - All golf course projects List of ECA Categories As declared by proclamation No. 2146 (1981) All areas declared by law as national parks, water shedre serves, wildlife preserves, wildlife preserves, sanctuaries. Areas set aside as aesthetic potential tourist spots Areas which constitute the habitat of any endangered or threatened species of the Philippine wildlife (Flora and Fauna) Areas of unique historic, archaeological or scientific interest Areas which are traditionally occupied by cultural communities or tribes Areas frequently visited and/or hard hit by natural calamities (geologic hazards, flood, typhoons, volcanic activity, etc.) 26  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Areas with critical slopes Areas classified as prime agricultural land Recharged areas of aquifers Water bodies characterized by one or any combination of the following conditions: tapped for domestic purposes; within the controlled and/or protected areas declared by appropriate authorities; which support wildlife and fishery activities Mangrove areas characterized by one or any combination of the following conditions: with primary pristine and dense young growth; adjoining mouth of major river systems, near or adjacent to traditional productive fry or fishing grounds; areas which act as natural buffers against shore erosion, strong wind sandstorm floods; areas on which people dependent for their livelihood. Coral reefs characterized by one or any combination of the following conditions: with 50% and above live coralline cover; spawning and nursery grounds for fish; acts as natural break water of coastlines. Class 1 and 2 Caves (Memorandum Circular No.2014-004 dated June 6, 2014 Declaring Class 1 and 2 cave as Environmentally Critical Ares(ECAs) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) Document, prepared and submitted by the project proponent and/or EIA Consultant that serves as an application for an ECC. It is a comprehensive study of the significant impacts of a project on the environment. Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) Document similar to an EIS, but with reduced details and depth of assessment and discussion. Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) Checklist Document similar to IEE, however, it is a question and answer form documents. 27  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability DENR MC NO. 2007 -08 No permits, and/or clearances issued by other National Government Agencies and Local Government Units shall be required in the processing of ECC or CNC applications. The findings and recommendations of the EIA shall be transmitted to relevant government agencies for them to integrate in their decision making prior the issuance of clearances, permits and licenses under their mandates. The issuance of an ECC or CNC for a project under theEIS System does not exempt the proponent fromsecuring other government permits and clearances asrequired by other laws. The current practice of requiringvarious permits, clearances and licenses only constrainthe EIA evaluation process and negate the purpose andfunction of the EIA. RA 9275 - PHILIPPINE CLEAN WATER ACT OF 2004 The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act No. 9275) aims to protect the country’s water bodies from pollution from land-based sources (industries and commercial establishments, agriculture and community/household activities). It provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and minimize pollution through a multi- sectoral and participatory approach involving all the stakeholders. Salient Features of the Clean Water Act of 2004 The State shall pursue a policy of economic growth in a manner consistent with the protection, preservation and revival of a quality of our fresh, brackish and marine waters.. To achieve this end, the framework for sustainable development shall be pursued. As such, it shall be the policy of the State to: Streamline processes and procedures in the prevention, control and abatement of pollution of the country’s water resources; 28  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Promote environmental strategies, use of appropriate economic instruments and of control mechanisms for the protection of water resources; Formulate a holistic national program of water quality management that recognizes that water quality management issue cannot be separated from concerns about water sources and ecological protection , water supply, public health and quality of life; Formulate an integrated water quality management framework through proper delegation and effective coordination of functions and activities; Promote commercial and industrial processes and products that are environment friendly and energy- efficient; Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizen and industries through the application of incentives market-based instruments and to promote the role of private industrial enterprises in shaping its regulatory profile within the acceptable boundaries of public health and environment; Provide for a comprehensive management program for water pollution focusing on pollution prevention; Promote public information and education to encourage the participation of an informed and active public in water quality management and monitoring; and Formulate and enforce a system of accountability for short and long term adverse environmental impact of a project, program or activity. Encourage civil society and other sectors, particularly labor, the academe and business undertaking environment-related activities in their efforts to organize, eradicate and motivate the people in addressing pertinent environmental issue and problems at the local and national levels. It mandates the various government agencies to do the following in support of the Act: Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) – act as overall of the lead agency; prepare a National Water Quality Status Report; issue rules and regulations in the implementation of the Act. Department of Agriculture (DA) – shall develop guidelines for re-use of wastewater for irrigation purposes or as soil conditioner or fertilizer; together with the PCG shall enforce water quality standards in marine waters. 29  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Philippine Coast Guard (PCG ) – shall enforce standards and regulations in offshore areas including the discharge of wastewater by ships; together with the DA shall enforce water quality standards in marine waters. Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) - together with the DENR and LGUs shall prepare a national program on sewerage and septage management. Department of Health (DOH) - shall provide specific health criteria and data related to the promulgation, revision and enforcement of drinking water quality standrads Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) and Local Water Utilities Authority (LWUA) – shall contribute inputs relative to the responsibilities of concessionaires and water districts in sewerage, septage and sanitation management. Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED) , Department of Interior and Local Governments (DILG) and the Philippine Information Agency ( PIA) – shall prepare and implement a comprehensive and continuing public education and information program Department of Energy ( DOE) – with the DENR shall formulate water quality criteria and standards specifically for geothermal exploration that encounters re- injection constraints, that provides adequate protection to other users of water bodies downstream of the geothermal project. Department of Science and Technology ( DOST) – with the DENR shall prepare a program for the evaluation, verification, development and public dissemination of pollution prevention and cleaner production technologies. 30  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Prohibited Acts Under R.A. 9275 Among others, the Act prohibits the following: 1. Discharging or depositing any water pollutant to the water body, or such which will impede natural flow in the water body 2. Discharging, injecting or allowing to enter into the soil, anything that would pollute groundwater 3. Operating facilities that discharge regulated water pollutants without the valid required permits 4. Disposal of potentially infectious medical waste into sea by vessels 5. Unauthorized transport or dumping into waters of sewage sludge or solid waste. 6. Transport, dumping or discharge of prohibited chemicals, substances or pollutants listed under Toxic Chemicals, Hazardous and Nuclear 7. Wastes Control Act (Republic.Act No. 6969) 8. Discharging regulated water pollutants without the valid required discharge permit pursuant to this Act 9. Noncompliance of the LGU with the Water Quality Framework and Management Area Action Plan 10. Refusal to allow entry, inspection and monitoring as well as access to reports and records by the DENR in accordance with this Act 11. Refusal or failure to submit reports and/or designate pollution control officers whenever required by the DENR in accordance with this Act 12. Directly using booster pumps in the distribution system or tampering with the water supply in such a way to alter or impair the water quality 13. Operate facilities that discharge or allow to seep, willfully or through grave negligence, prohibited chemicals, substances, or pollutantslisted under R.A. No. 6969, into water bodies. 14. Undertake activities or development and expansion of projects, or operating wastewater treatment/sewerage facilities in violation of P.D.1586 and its IRR. 31  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Fines and Penalties Imposed on Polluters The following are among the fines and penalties for violators of this Act and its IRR: Upon the recommendation of the Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB), anyone who commits prohibited acts such as discharging untreated wastewater into any water body will be fined for every day of violation, the amount of not less than Php 10,000 but not more than Php 200,000. Failure to undertake clean-up operations willfully shall be punished by imprisonment of not less than two years and not more than four years. This also includes a fine of not less than Php 50,000 and not more than Php 100,000 per day of violation. Failure or refusal to clean up which results in serious injury or loss of life or lead to irreversible water contamination of surface, ground, coastal and marine water shall be punished with imprisonment of not less than 6 years and 1 day and not more than 12 years and a fine of Php 500,000/day for each day the contamination or omission continues. In cases of gross violation, a fine of not less than Php 500,000 but not more than Php 3,000,000 will be imposed for each day of violation. Criminal charges may also be filed. RA 8749 - PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999 Republic Act No. 8749, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Air Act, is a comprehensive air quality management policy and program which aims to achieve and maintain healthy air for all Filipinos. Salient Features of the Clean Air Act of 1999 The State shall pursue a policy of balancing development and environmental protection. To achieve this end, the framework for sustainable development shall be pursued. As such, it shall be the policy of the State to: 32  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Formulate a holistic national program of air pollution that shall be implemented by the government through proper delegation and effective coordination of function and activities; Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizen and industries through the application of incentives market-based instruments; Focus primarily on pollution prevention rather than on control and provide for a comprehensive management program on air pollution; Promote public information and education to encourage the participation of an informed and active public in air quality planning and monitoring; and Formulate and enforce a system of accountability for short and long term adverse environmental impact of a project, program or activity. This shall include setting up of a funding or guarantee mechanism for clean-up and environmental rehabilitation and compensation for personal damages. It mandates the various government agencies to do the following in support of the Act: Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) – act as overall of the lead agency; prepare a National Air Quality Status Report which shall be used as a basis in formulating the Integrated Air Quality Improvement Framework; issue rules and regulations in the implementation of the Act. Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC) – in coordination with the DENR in case of industrial dischargers and the DOTC, in case of motor vehicles, shall, based on environmental techniques, design, impose on and collect regular emission fees from all said dischargers as part of the emission permitting system or vehicle registration renewal system, as the case may be; implement the emission standards for motor vehicles Department of Science and Technology ( DOST) – with the DENR, other agencies, private sector , the academe, non-government organizations and people’s organization, shall establish a National Research Development Program for the prevention and control of air pollution. Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) , DOST Local Government Units (LGUs) - together with the DENR shall develop an action plan for the control and management of air pollution from motor vehicles with the Integrated Air Quality Management Framework. 33  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability DOTC, DTI and DENR - shall establish the procedures for the inspection of motor vehicles and the testing of their emissions for the purpose of determining the concentration and/or rate of emission of pollutants discharged by the said sources. Department of Energy ( DOE) co-chaired with the DENR, in consultation with the Bureau of Product Standards of DTI, DOST with the fuel and automotive industries, academe and the consumers – shall set specifications for all types of fuel and fuel related products, to improve fuel composition for increased efficiency and reduced emissions. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and astronomical Service Administration (PAGASA) – shall regularly monitor meteorological factors affecting environmental conditions including ozone depletion and greenhouse gases Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) – with the DENR shall regulate all projects which will involve the use of atomic and/or nuclear energy, and will entail release of radioactive substances into the environment, incident to the establishment or possession of nuclear energy facilities and radioactive materials, handling, transport , production , storage and use of radioactive materials. Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED) , Department of Interior and Local Governments (DILG) and the Philippine Information Agency ( PIA) – shall encourage participation of government agencies and the private sector including NGOs, POs, academe, environmental groups and other private entities in a multi-sectoral campaign. 34  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Fines and Penalties Imposed on Polluters The following are among the fines and penalties for violators of this Act and its IRR: Section 1. Fines and Penalties for Violations of Other Provisions in the Act For violations of all other provisions provided in the Act and these Implementing Rules and Regulations, fine of not less than Ten Thousand Pesos (P 10,000.00) but not more than One Hundred Thousand Pesos (P 100,000.00) or six (6) years imprisonment or both shall be imposed. If the offender is a juridical person, the president, manager, directors, trustees, the pollution control officer or officials directly in charge of the operations shall suffer the penalty herein provided. Section 2. Burning of Municipal Waste - Any person who burns municipal waste in violation of Sections 1 and 3 of Rule XXV shall be punished with two (2) years and one (1) day to four (4) years imprisonment. Section 3. Burning of Hazardous Substances and Wastes Any person who burns hazardous substances and wastes in violation of Section 1 of Rule XXV shall be punished with four (4) years and one (1) day to six (6) years imprisonment. Section 4. Burning of Bio-Medical Waste. Any person who burns bio-medical waste in violation of Section 4 of Rule XXV shall be punished with four (4) years and one (1) to six (6) years imprisonment. Section 5. Smoking in Public Places Any person who smokes inside a public building or an enclosed public place, including public utility vehicles or other means of public transport or in any enclosed area outside of his private residence, private place of work or any duly designated smoking area shall be punished with six (6) months and one (1) day to one (1) year imprisonment or a fine of ten thousand pesos (P 10,000.00). 35  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Section 6. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Introduction into Commerce, Conveyance or other Disposition of Leaded Gasoline. Any person who manufactures, imports, sells, offers for sale, introduces into commerce, conveys or otherwise disposes of, in any manner leaded gasoline shall be punished with three (3) years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable for the appropriate fine as provided in Section 1. Section 7. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Introduction into Commerce, Conveyance or other Disposition of Engines and/or Engine Components Requiring Leaded Gasoline. Any person who manufactures, imports, sells, offers for sale, introduces into commerce, conveys or otherwise disposes of, in any manner engines and/or engine components which require the use of leaded gasoline shall be punished with three (3) years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable for the appropriate fine as provided in Section 1. Section 8. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Dispensation, Transportation or Introduction into Commerce of Unleaded Gasoline Fuel which do not Meet the Fuel Specifications. Any person who manufactures, sells, offers for sale, dispenses, transports or introduces into commerce unleaded premium gasoline fuel in violation of Section 3 of Rule XXXI or which do not meet the fuel specifications as revised by the DOE shall be punished with three (3) years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable for the appropriate fine as provided in Section 1 Section 9. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Dispensation, Transportation or Introduction into Commerce of Automotive Diesel Fuel which do not Meet the Fuel. Specifications. Any person who manufactures, sells, offers for sale, dispenses, transports or introduces into commerce automotive diesel fuel in violation of Section 3 of Rule XXXI or which do not meet the fuel specifications as revised by the DOE shall be punished with three (3) years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable for the appropriate fine as provided in Section 1. 36  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Section 10. Manufacture, Importation, Sale, Offer for Sale, Dispensation, Transportation or Introduction into Commerce of Industrial Diesel Fuel which do not Meet the Fuel Specifications. Any person who manufactures, sells, offers for sale, dispenses, transports or introduces into commerce industrial diesel fuel in violation of Section 3 of Rule XXXI or which do not meet the fuel specifications as revised by the DOE shall be punished with three (3) years and one (1) day to five (5) years imprisonment and liable for the appropriate fine as provided in Section 1. Section 11. Manufacture, Processing, Trade of Fuel or Fuel Additive Without Prior Registration of the Fuel or Fuel Additive with the DOE. Any person who manufactures, processes, or engages in the trade of any fuel or fuel additive without having the fuel or fuel additive registered with the DOE shall be punished with two (2) years and one (1) day to four (4) years of imprisonment and liable for the appropriate fine as provided in Section 1. Section 12. Misfuelling. Misfuelling refers to the act of introducing or causing or allowing the introduction of leaded gasoline into any motor vehicle equipped with a gasoline tank filler inlet and labeled “unleaded gasoline only.” Any person who misfuels shall be punished with one (1) year and one (1) day to three (3) years imprisonment or a fine of twenty thousand pesos (P 20,000.00) 37  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability RA 9003 - ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000 Republic Act No. 8749, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Air Act, is a comprehensive air quality management policy and program which aims to achieve and maintain healthy air for all Filipinos. Salient Features of the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 The Act mandates the State to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program which shall: Ensure the protection of public health and environment; Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable resource reduction and encourage resources conservation and recovery; Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction through source reduction and waste minimization measures, including composting, recycling, reuse, recovery, green charcoal processes, and others, before collection, treatment and disposal in appropriate and environmentally- sound solid waste management facilities in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principles; Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental practices in ecological waste management excluding incineration; Promote national research and development programs for improved solid waste management and resource conservation techniques, more effective institutional arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of waste reduction, collection separation and recovery; Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management; Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management with local government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the national government, other local government units, non-government organizations, and private sector; Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through the application of market-based instruments; 38  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of national and local integrated, comprehensive and ecological waste management programs; and Strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of formal and non- formal education in order to promote environmental awareness and action among the citizenry. It mandates the various government agencies to do the following in support of the Act: Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) – act as overall of the Commission to be created; prepare a National Solid Waste Management Status Report; provide technical and capacity-building assistance to local government units; issue rules and regulations in the implementation of the Act Department of Health (DOH) – in coordination with the DENR and other concerned agencies prepare the National Solid Waste Management Status Report which shall be the basis for the National Solid Waste Management Framework; and together with the DENR and DILG shall publish the inventory of all solid waste disposal facilities. Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) – shall formulate and implement a coding system for packaging materials and products to facilitate waste recycling and reuse and with DENR establish and manage a solid waste management information database and publish a study of existing markets for processing and purchasing recyclable materials and the potential steps necessary to expand these markets. Department of Interior and Local Governments ( DILG) - together with the DENR and DOH shall publish the inventory of all solid waste disposal facilities. Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) and Philippine Information Agency (PIA) with the DENR – shall conduct continuing education and information campaign on solid waste management. 39  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability DepEd and CHED – the national government through the DepEd and in coordination with concerned agencies , non-government organizations and private institutions, shall strengthen the integration of environmental concerns in school curricula at all levels Prohibited Acts of RA 9003 1. Littering, throwing, dumping of waste matters in public places, such as roads, sidewalks, canals, esteros or parks, and establishment, or causing or permitting the same; 2. Undertaking activities or operating, collecting or transporting equipment in violation of sanitation operation and other requirements or permits set forth in established pursuant; 3.The open burning of solid waste; 4. Causing or permitting the collection of non-segregated or unsorted wastes; 5. Squatting in open dumps and landfills; 6. Open dumping, burying of biodegradable or non-biodegradable materials in flood prone areas; 7. Unauthorized removal of recyclable material intended for collection by authorized persons; 8. The mixing of source-separated recyclable material with other solid waste in any vehicle, box, container or receptacle used in solid waste collection or disposal; 9. Establishment or operation of open dumps as enjoined in this Act, or closure of said dumps in violation of Sec. 37; 10. The manufacture, distribution or use of non-environmentally acceptable packaging materials; 40 11. Importation of consumer products packaged in non-environmentally acceptable materials; 12. Importation of toxic wastes misrepresented as "recyclable" or "with recyclable content"; 13. Transport and dumplog in bulk of collected domestic, industrial, commercial, and institutional wastes in areas other than centers or facilities prescribe under this Act; 14. Site preparation, construction, expansion or operation of waste management facilities without an Environmental Compliance Certificate required pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 1586 and this Act and not conforming with the land use plan of the LGU; 15. The construction of any establishment within two hundred (200) meters from open dumps or controlled dumps, or sanitary landfill; and 16. The construction or operation of landfills or any waste disposal facility on any aquifer, groundwater reservoir, or watershed area and or any portions thereof. Fines and Penalties 1. Any person who violates Sec. 48 paragraph (1) shall, upon conviction, be punished with a fine of not less than Three hundred pesos (P300.00) but not more than One thousand pesos (P1,000.00) or render community service for not less than one (1) day to not more than fifteen (15) days to an LGU where such prohibited acts are committed, or both; 2. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars. (2) and (3), shall, upon conviction be punished with a fine of not less than Three hundred pesos (P300.00) but not more than One thousand pesos (P1,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than one (1) day but to not more than fifteen (15) days, or both; 41  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability 3. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars. (4), (5), (6) and (7) shall, upon conviction, be punished with a fine of not less than One thousand pesos (P1,000.00) but not more than Three thousand pesos (P3,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than fifteen (15) day but to not more than six (6) months, or both; 4. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars (8), (9), (10) and (11) for the first time shall, upon conviction, pay a fine of Five hundred thousand pesos (P500,000.00) plus and amount not less than five percent (5%) but not more than ten percent (10%) of his net annual income during the previous year. 5. The additional penalty of imprisonment of a minimum period of one (1) year but not to exceed three (3) years at the discretion of the court, shall be imposed for second or subsequent violations of Sec. 48, pars. (9) and (10). 6. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars. (12) and (13) shall, upon conviction, be punished with a fine not less than Ten thousand pesos (P10,000.00) but not more than Two hundred thousand pesos (P200,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than thirty (30) days but not more than three (3) years, or both; 7. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars. (14), (15) and (16) shall, upon conviction, be punished with a fine not less than One hundred thousand pesos (P100,000.00) but not more than One million pesos (P1,000,000.00), or imprisonment not less than one (1) year but not more than six (6) years, or both. 8. If the offense is committed by a corporation, partnership, or other juridical identity duly recognized in accordance with the law, the chief executive officer, president, general manager, managing partner or such other officer-in-charge shall be liable for the commission of the offense penalized under this Act. 9. If the offender is an alien, he shall, after service of the sentence prescribed above, be deported without further administrative proceedings. 10. The fines herein prescribed shall be increased by at lest ten (10%) percent every three (3) years to compensate for inflation and to maintain the deterrent functions of such fines. 42  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability 3. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars. (4), (5), (6) and (7) shall, upon conviction, be punished with a fine of not less than One thousand pesos (P1,000.00) but not more than Three thousand pesos (P3,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than fifteen (15) day but to not more than six (6) months, or both; 4. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars (8), (9), (10) and (11) for the first time shall, upon conviction, pay a fine of Five hundred thousand pesos (P500,000.00) plus and amount not less than five percent (5%) but not more than ten percent (10%) of his net annual income during the previous year. 5. The additional penalty of imprisonment of a minimum period of one (1) year but not to exceed three (3) years at the discretion of the court, shall be imposed for second or subsequent violations of Sec. 48, pars. (9) and (10). 6. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars. (12) and (13) shall, upon conviction, be punished with a fine not less than Ten thousand pesos (P10,000.00) but not more than Two hundred thousand pesos (P200,000.00) or imprisonment of not less than thirty (30) days but not more than three (3) years, or both; 7. Any person who violates Sec. 48, pars. (14), (15) and (16) shall, upon conviction, be punished with a fine not less than One hundred thousand pesos (P100,000.00) but not more than One million pesos (P1,000,000.00), or imprisonment not less than one (1) year but not more than six (6) years, or both. 8. If the offense is committed by a corporation, partnership, or other juridical identity duly recognized in accordance with the law, the chief executive officer, president, general manager, managing partner or such other officer-in-charge shall be liable for the commission of the offense penalized under this Act. 9. If the offender is an alien, he shall, after service of the sentence prescribed above, be deported without further administrative proceedings. 10. The fines herein prescribed shall be increased by at lest ten (10%) percent every three (3) years to compensate for inflation and to maintain the deterrent functions of such fines. 43  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability RA 6969 - TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND HAZARDOUS AND NUCLEAR WASTE CONTROL ACT OF 1990 The act was carried out to control, supervise and regulate activities on toxic chemicals and hazardous waste. Under this act, the importation, manufacture, processing, handling, storage, transportation, sale, distribution, use and disposal of all unregulated chemical substances and mixtures in the Philippines, as well as the entry even in transit, or storage and disposal of hazardous and nuclear wastes are regulated. Objectives of RA 6969 To keep an inventory of chemicals that are presently being imported, manufactured, or used, indicating, among others, their existing and possible uses, test data, names of firms manufacturing or using them, and such other information as may be considered relevant to the protection of health and the environment; To monitor and regulate the importation, manufacture, processing, handling, storage, transportation, sale, distribution, use and disposal of chemical substances and mixtures that present unreasonable risk or injury to health or to the environment in accordance with national policies and international commitments; To inform and educate the populace regarding the hazards and risks attendant to the manufacture, handling, storage, transportation, processing, distribution, use and disposal of toxic chemicals and other substances and mixture; and To prevent the entry, even in transit, as well as the keeping or storage and disposal of hazardous and nuclear wastes into the country for whatever purpose. 44  Environment Problems, their Causes, & Sustainability Prohibited Acts of RA 6969 The following acts and omissions shall be considered unlawful: Knowingly use a chemical substance or mixture which is imported, manufactured, processed or distributed in violation of this Act or implementing rules and regulations or orders; Failure or refusal to submit reports, notices or other information, access to records, as required by this Act, or permit inspection of establishment where chemicals are manufactured, processed, stored or otherwise held; Failure or refusal to comply with the pre-manufacture and pre-importation requirements; and Cause, aid or facilitate, directly or indirectly, in the storage, importation, or bringing into Philippines territory, including its maritime economic zones, even in transit, either by means of land, air or sea transportation or otherwise keeping in storage any amount of hazardous and nuclear wastes in any part of the Philippines. Criminal Offenses and Penalties The penalty of imprisonment of six (6) months and one day to six (6) years and one day and a fine ranging from Six hundred pesos (P600.00) to Four thousand pesos (P4,000.00) shall be imposed upon any person who shall violate section 13 (a) to (c) of this Act and shall not be covered by the Probation Law. If the offender is a foreigner,