Research Methodology PDF

Research Methodology UNIT - I INTRODUCTION OF RESEARCH METHODS Introduction In the modern complex world every society today is faced with serious social, economic and political problems. These problems need systematic intelligent and practical solution. Problem...

Research Methodology UNIT - I INTRODUCTION OF RESEARCH METHODS Introduction In the modern complex world every society today is faced with serious social, economic and political problems. These problems need systematic intelligent and practical solution. Problem solving is a technical process. It requires among all other things accumulation of new knowledge. Research provides the means for accumulating such a fund of knowledge and wisdom. In other words research is a systematic effort at gathering analysis and interpretation of the problems confronted by humanity. It is a thinking process and a scientific method of studying a problem and finding solution. Research is not the exclusive preserve of a chosen few. Any individual belonging to any field of activity can undertake research or activities to repeat a search. Research or activities to repeat a search. Research or activities to repeat a search. Research helps to push the frontiers of knowledge beyond the horizon. It is an in depth analysis based on reflective thinking of the various phenomena or observed units to make a generalization. Research is essential for building up of the knowledge base in social science. It develops concepts theories and tools of measurement. It also provides the research investigator necessary skills to analyze problems scientifically and find solutions. ~1~  Research Methodology What is Research? Or define the word research The word “research” is derived from the French word “researcher” meaning “to search back”. A man in his social, economic, educational, political and business life faces many problems. Research is the process of moving from “unknown” to “known’. Research is the process gaining new knowledge. In broader sense, Research is a serious academic activity with a set of objectives to explain or analysis or understands a problem or finding solution for problem adopting a systematic approach in collecting, organizing and analyzing the information relating to a problem. Definition Fred Kerlinger: “Research is an organized enquiry designed and carried out to provide information for solving a problem”. Francis Rummel: “Research is a careful enquiry or examination to discover new information or relationship and expand and to verify existing knowledge”. Robert Ross: “Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidence for the purpose gaining knowledge”. What is Business Research? (or) Meaning of Business Research An increasing amount of attention is being devoted to the making process of business managers, customers, and employees. Many of the advances in business management in recent years are the result of adopting research findings in the behavioral sciences to business situations. ~2~  Research Methodology It is important to beat in mind that all the social science law and many other disciplines may have aspects that relate to business. Research in all aspects of business is becoming increasingly important in the major countries of the world. It is a method of obtaining and evaluating data for the decision process. Business research is both basic and applied. State the Objectives of Research (a) To gain familiarity with a concept or to achieve new insight into it. (b) To reveal accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation, event or group. (c) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else. (d) to test a hypothesis of casual relationship between variables. What are the Motives that Induces a Researcher to Undertake Research Work? Motives in Research (a) To get a research degree along with its benefits. (b) To face the challenge in solving unsolved problems. (c) To get intellectual joy of doing some creative work. (d) To serve the society. ,To get respectability. Significance or Importance of Research “All progress is born of enquiries. Doubt is often better than overconfidence. Doubt leads to enquiry and enquiry leads to invention” is a famous maxim in context of which the significance of research can be understood ~3~  Research Methodology 1. The role of research in several fields of economics, whether related to business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. 2. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. 3. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry. 4. It is equally important for social scientists in studying answers to various social problems 5. In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be studied keeping in view of the following points 6. To those students who are to write a master‟s degree or PhD thesis, research may mean careerism or a way to attain high position in the social structure. (a) To someone, it may mean the development of new style and creative work. (b) To analysts and intellectuals, it may mean the generalizations of new theories. Process of Research Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. Formulating the Research Problem At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. There are two significant steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the ~4~  Research Methodology problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view. Extensive Literature Survey Once the problem formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is a compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a PhD. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive survey connected with the problem. Development of Working Hypotheses Researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses, after extensive literature survey is over. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. Preparing the Research Design The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design. i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible in yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with expenditure of effort, time and money. ~5~  Research Methodology Determining Sample Design All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute of a „Universe‟ or „Population‟. A complete list of all the items in the population is known as a census inquiry. Even the slightest element of bias in such as inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increase. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Data Collection In dealing with any real data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. These are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. The researcher can use any one of the following methods of data collection 1. By observation, 2. Through personal interview, 3. Through telephone interview, 4. By mailing of questionnaire, 5. Through schedules. Analysis of Data The researcher turns to the task of analyzing data after they have been collected. The analysis of data required a number of closely related operations such as establishment of ~6~  Research Methodology categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. Hypothesis Testing After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had defined before. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. The researcher can use the suitable test for testing of the defined hypothesis. The use of tests depends upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. Generalizations and Interpretation If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generation, i.e., to build a theory. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. Preparation of the Report and The Thesis Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following: a. Preliminary pages, b. Main text, c. The end matter. ~7~  Research Methodology Features or Nature of Research a) Controlled: there are many factors that influence an outcome. In a study of cause and effect relations, it is important to be able to link the effect with the cause and vice versa. b) Rigorous: The researcher must confirm that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. c) Systematic: this implies that the procedures followed to undertake an investigation follow certain logical sequence. d) Valid and verifiable: this implies that the conclusions and findings of a research should be valid and verified by others. e) Empirical: This means that conclusions drawn are based on evidence gathered from information collected from real life experience or observation. Classification or Kinds of Research Action Research The process by which researchers attempts to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and an action is called action research. The following example will clearly explain how action research is conducted. A teacher finds out that most of his students are weak in mathematics. This poses a problem to him. He finds out the probable cause for it. As a result of it, he can improve the understanding capacity of the students. ~8~  Research Methodology Applied Research The applied research may be conducted with a view to test the basic assumptions of a theory or validity of a theory. In short, applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization. It is undertaken with the aim of uncovering data to solve an existing problem. The driving force of this research is finding solution to a problem. Applied research aims at application of science to a singular situation. Comparative Research This research aims at comparing institutions, practices, concepts and the like over a period of time. For example, a study of the financial performance of two banks in terms of profitability over a period of time is comparative study. Descriptive Research Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research, we quite often use the term Ex Facto research for descriptive research studies. Exploratory Research When the purpose of research is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or acquire new insights into it in order to formulate a more precise problem or to develop hypothesis, the exploratory studies come in handy. If the theory happens to be too general or too specific, a hypothesis cannot be formulated. Therefore a need for an exploratory research is ~9~  Research Methodology felt to gain experience that will be helpful in formulating relevant hypothesis for more definite investigation. The following are the three approaches to the exploratory study, a) The survey of literature b) The experience survey c) Case study Historical Research Historical research is the induction of principles through research to the past and social forces which have shaped the present. Its aim is to apply reflective thinking to unsolved social problem by discovering past trends of events, facts and attributes, and by tracing lines of development in human thought and action. Individual and Group Research The research undertaken by an individual is called individual research. It is done on the basis of one‟s own interest and capacity. Group research is undertaken by several researchers. Research in colleges and universities financed by grants is done on a group basis. Library Research It is conducted with the help of written materials mostly located in large libraries. This research is concerned with the evolution of theories, study involving cause and effect relationship and seeking out significant facts and interpretation of the past data which are found in journal and reports. ~ 10 ~  Research Methodology Model Building Research This type of research is mostly done in the field of management. The basic management science represents many theories, which are mostly complex. In the area of business, sales forecasting models, advertising models, inventory control models, production control models and capital investment models can be constructed. Operation Research This method of research has been done for solving problems by using scientific methods and quantitative techniques. The industrial operations researcher is interested in the application of methods to solve the pressing or critical problems of their firm. Pure, Basic or Fundamental Research Pure research is being undertaken to satisfy the researcher thirst for knowledge and it is mainly goaded by the researcher‟s curiosity. It may be undertaken for designing tools to tackle practical problems. It is concerned with particular situation and not suitable to a wide area. Pure research provides the basis for applied research. Thus, pure research enables us to make tools and applied research uses such tools to study a particular case. Social Research: It includes social sciences, humanities and languages. It incorporates man and his institutions. It is largely empirical and it does believe in arm-chair research. Empirical Study Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone for system and theory. The other name of empirical research is experimental research. The three main features of ~ 11 ~  Research Methodology experimental techniques, viz., Isolation of factors, replication of the experiment and quantitative measurement of results appear to be applicable and relevant at least in some social sciences and in some fields. Analytical Research: If the researcher has to use the facts or information already available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material is known as analytical research. Quantitative Research: It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable variable that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative Research: It is concerned qualitative fact. That is fact relating to quality. Case Study In the words of Pauline V.Young, “A comprehensive study of a social unit – be that unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district, or a community is called a case study”. The case study is an intensive study through which one can know precisely the factors and causes of a particular phenomenon. It is a very good method for collecting information about a social unit. Other Types a) One time research or longitudinal research b) Field setting research or laboratory research. c) Clinical diagnostic research. ~ 12 ~  Research Methodology Research Design Meaning A research design is a logical and systematic planning and it helps in directing a piece of research. In short, it is the blue print of the proposed study. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an enquiry constitute a research design. Components of Research Design Title of the Study In order to identify the proposed study, sufficient information should be given in the title. While selecting a title, the researcher should deem the following points; a) The title should be specific b) The title should indicate the topic of the study c) The title language should be professional in nature but not pedantic. Introduction: The researcher is asked to give a brief explanation about the study in general. Statement of the problem: The researcher should state the problem after the introduction stage is over. While stating the problem, use of clear, simple and concise statement is preferable. Review of Literature A review of previous literature enables the researcher to know about different areas covered by various studies, to focus on the areas where little research has been carried out, to look into various merits and pitfalls of certain studies already finished and to verify the present findings with that of the previous ones. ~ 13 ~  Research Methodology Scope of the Study It is depends on several factors such as time and money available with the investigator, availability of the sample, and co-operation of the sample force and so on. Objectives of the Study The objectives enlighten the researcher‟s own mind and lead to more efficient enquiry. Once the objectives are framed, the study can be undertaken with required accuracy and within the given resources. The objectives framed should be well within the scope of the study. Formulation and testing of Hypothesis: Hypotheses are formulated to explain observed facts, conditions, or behaviors and to serve as a guide in the research process. To determine whether hypothesis is valid or not, each hypothesis is individually tested. It should be stated in clear, concise and understandable language. Operational Definition of Concepts All terms, which are not clear in meaning, used in the study should be clarified. It is very important to understand the terms used in the study clearly. It is necessary to identify and label the variables. The variables can be labeled as independent variable and dependent variable. Geographical area to be covered: In this head, the researcher mentioned the area to be covered in his study. Period of the study: The period of reference can be mentioned under this heading. Methodology The researcher should know the kind of information needed to answer the research questions, know the sources of ~ 14 ~  Research Methodology data and finally he must know the techniques which are to be applied for analyzing and interpreting the data. Sampling Sampling involves taking a portion of population, making observation on this smaller group and then generalizing the findings to be applied to a large population. If the sample is biased, the findings of the study cannot be generalized. Tools for Collection of Data According to subject matter, the unit of enquiry and the scale of study, the choice of method for collecting the data are determined. Observational techniques are used on a study of the behaviour of a group of people. A questionnaire is adequate for a simple enquiry among cross section of population. A survey of general population entailing many complicated questions would call for personal interviewing. Need for Research Design (a) It is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations. (b) Just like a blueprint, the researcher is in need of research design to know the types of data and its sources. (c) It is required to identify the basic objectives of the research. (d) It helps the researcher to find out flaws or discrepancies of his study. (e) It can be referred by guide or some other experts, so that mistakes can be corrected. (f) It helps to define the problem which is to be solved ~ 15 ~  Research Methodology Essentials of Research Design A good research design should be of definite help in achieving optimum objectivity, reliability, validity and generalization: 1. Objectivity When a phenomenon is observed in its true form without being affected by observer‟s own views it may be termed as objective observation. For example when we say that milk is white, it is an objective statement. But if we say that milk is most useful drink, the statement may not be purely objective. Thus the research design must be objective or definite in nature. 2. Reliability It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. The investigator should frame his items in such a way that the respondent cannot give only one genuine response. i.e. if a respondent gives a response to an item, he should give the same response to the related items. In the same manner, a good research must be a reliable one which should not lead to confusion. 3. Validity A good research design must be a valid one in the sense, the correctness of a research design must be subject to verification. 4. Generalization Most research is concerned not only with the effect of one variable upon another under the particular setting studied, ~ 16 ~  Research Methodology but also with its effect in a natural setting and on a larger population. Other Criteria (a) It must be free from bias (b) It must be flexible in nature (c) It should describe the situation. (d) It should involve testing of hypothesis. Types of Research Design The problems of conducting theoretically informed concrete research can be illuminated further by considering alternative research designs. Sellitz and others have suggested four broad categories of research designs namely (a) exploratory or formulate study (b) descriptive study (c) diagnostic study (d) experimental study ~ 17 ~  Research Methodology UNIT - II SAMPLING METHODS Introduction The structure of the social sciences consists of two parts theory and empirical evidence. These two elements are so inextricably interwoven, for successful social understanding a study of one without the other is barren. Theory is an attempt to account for a number of closely related observations or phenomena. e.g., price and demand. When price increases demand decreases and vice versa. We call it price theory. Theory is confused with speculation. It remains speculation until it is proved. Once the proof is made it becomes a fact and empirical evidence. Facts are definite. A fact is an empirically verifiable observation. They are called empirical evidence. Facts play an important role in the development of a theory. Survey method is one of the techniques used in the analysis of fact finding. They are the widely used method of social research. A study of them require systematic of gathering and data through personal contracts, interview techniques etc. They are called social survey. Data collection is one of the important steps involved in the process of research. But a researcher cannot approach the entire population for collecting data as money and time play a main role. Thus he has to select few parts from the population which should represent the universe. ~ 18 ~  Research Methodology Meaning of Sample Sample is a part of the universe ,which we select for the purpose of investigation.A sample should exhibit the characteristics of the universe.A sample is a sample specimen or separated part of the whole population representing its general qualities. Blalock and Blalock define a sample as “it is a small piece of the population obtained by a probability process that mirrors, with known precision, the various patterns and sub- classes of the population”. Features of Sample a. It must be a representative of the population which must be valid. the validity of sample depends upon its accuracy and precision b. Accuracy means the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An accurate sample is one which represents the population c. The sample must yield accurate estimate. Precision is measured by the ST. Error or standard deviation of the sample estimate. The smaller the set error, the higher is the accuracy. d. A good sample must be adequate in order to reliable. e. Samples should be selected at random that is, there should not be no bias in the selection of sampling elements. Merits of Sample 1. It saves time, because fewer items are collected and processed. When the results are urgently required, this method is very helpful. ~ 19 ~  Research Methodology 2. It reduces cost: Only a few and selected items are studied in sampling. So there is reduction in cost of money and reduction in terms of man-hours. 3. Sampling provides more detailed information. As it saves time, money and energy, we can collect more detailed information in a sample survey. 4. Sampling method is sometimes the only method possible. If the population under study is infinite, sampling methods is the only method to be used. Introduction to Sampling Design A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample design is determined before the data are collected. There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select or prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study. Define Population The population is a complete set of all possible observations of the type which is to be investigated. Define Finite Population In population when the number of observation can be counted and definite, it is known as finite population. ~ 20 ~  Research Methodology Define Infinite Population When the number of observation cannot be measured on number and is infinite, it is known as infinite population. Information on population is collected in two-ways. Census and sample method. Define Census Method The object of a census or complete enumeration is to collect information for each and every unit of the population. In census or universal coverage every element of the population is included in the investigation. When we make a complete enumeration of all items in the population, it is known as census method of collection of data. Census and Sample Survey The term census denotes a total record of individual elements, or units in defined population. In other words, it is a complete enumeration of all items in the „population‟. Census survey can be presumed that in such an inquiry, when all the items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But it is not possible in real life. There is no way checking the element of bias except through resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry takes more time, money and effort in its process. Merits and Demerits of Census Method Merits 1. The data are collected from each and every item of the population 2. The results are more accurate and reliable, because every item of the universe is enquired. ~ 21 ~  Research Methodology 3. The data collected may be used for various surveys, analysis etc., Demerits 1. It requires a large number of enumerators and it is a costly method. Therefore govt. alone can use this method for conducting population census, production census etc., 2. It requires more money, labour, time, energy etc., 3. It is not possible in some circumstances where the universe is infinite. Types of Sampling Techniques or Sampling Design The various methods of sampling can be grouped under two broad heads: probability sampling (also known as random sampling) and non-probability sampling (non- random sampling). Probability sampling methods are those in which every item in the universe had a known chance of being chosen as sample. Non-probability sampling methods are those which do not provide every item in the universe with a known chance of being included in the samples. The selection process is partial. The chart below depicts the sampling methods that are popularly used in practice. ~ 22 ~  Research Methodology Random and Non Random Sampling Probability Sampling Methods 1) Simple or Un-Restricted Random Sampling Simple random sampling refers to the sampling technique in which each and every unit of the population has an equal opportunity of being selected in the sample. To ensure randomness of selection one may adopt either lottery method or consult table of random numbers. ~ 23 ~  Research Methodology Lottery Method Under this method all the items of population/universe is numbered on separate slips of paper. These slips are then folded and filled up in a container or drum. A blind fold selection is then made of the number of slips required to contribute the desired sample size. Thus, the selection of item depends entirely on chance. Table of Random Numbers The random numbers are generally obtained by some mechanism which, when repeated, a large number of items ensure approximately equal frequencies for the numbers from 0 to 9 and also for proper frequencies foe the various combinations of numbers (such as 00,01…..99,000,001,……99, etc.,) that could be expected in a random sequence of the digits 0 to 9. Several standard tables of random numbers are available, among which the following may be specially mentioned, as they have been tested extensively for randomness. a) Tippet b) Fisher and Yates Advantages of Simple Random Sampling a) All elements in the population have an equal chance of being selected. b) Of all the probability sampling techniques, simple random sampling in the easiest to apply. c) It is the more simple type of probability sampling to understand. d) It does not require a prior knowledge of the true composition of the population. ~ 24 ~  Research Methodology Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling a) It is often impractical, because of non-availability of population list, or of difficulty in enumerating the population. b) This technique does not ensure proportionate representation to various groups constituting the population. c) The sampling error in this sampling is greater than that in other probability samples of the same size, because it is less precise than other methods. d) A simple random design may be expensive in time and money. 2) Systematic sampling or fixed interval method: A systematic sample is formed by selecting one unit at random and then selecting additional unit at evenly spaced intervals until the sample has been formed. Advantages of Systematic Sampling a) It is much simpler than random sampling. It is easy to use. b) It is easy to instruct the field investigators to use this method. c) This method may require less time. A researcher operating on a limited time schedule will prefer this method. d) This method is cheaper than simple random sampling. e) Sample is spread evenly over the population, Disadvantages of Systematic Sampling a) This sampling cannot be considered to be a probability sampling in the strict sense of the term. ~ 25 ~  Research Methodology b) As each element does not have an equal chance of being selected, the resulting sample is not a random one. For studies aiming at estimations or generalizations, this disadvantage would be a serious one. c) This method may sometimes give a biased sample. Restricted Random Sampling 3. Stratified sampling This is an improved type of random or probability sampling. In this method, the population is sub-divided into homogeneous groups or strata, and from each stratum, random sample is drawn. Need for stratification: Stratification is necessary for a) increasing a sample‟s statistical efficiency, b) providing adequate data for analyzing the various sub- populations, and c) Applying different methods to different strata. Stratification ensures representation to all relevant sub- groups of the population. d) It is thus more efficient statistically than simple random sampling. e) Stratification is essential when the researcher wants to study the characteristics of population subgroups. The Stratified Random Sampling is Appropriate or a Large Heterogeneous Population A) Proportionate Stratified Sampling This sampling involves drawing a sample from each stratum in proportion to the latter‟s share in the total population. ~ 26 ~  Research Methodology Merits of Proportionate Sampling 1. It ensures the representativeness of the sample by giving proper representation to all sub-groups in the population 2. It gives higher statistical efficiency than that given by simple random sampling for a given sample size. 3. It is easy to carry out this sample method Demerits of proportionate stratified random sampling: 1. A prior knowledge of the composition of the population and the distribution of the population characteristics is required to adopt this method. 2. This method is very expensive in time and money. Of course, its greater efficiency may offset the additional cost. 3. The identification of the strata might lead to classification of errors. B) Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling This method does not give proportionate representation to strata. It necessarily involves over representation to some strata and under-representation to others. There may be several disproportionate schemes. All strata may be given equal weight may be given weight, even thought their shares in the total population vary. Alternatively some substrata may be given greater weight and others lesser weight. Merits a) It is less time consuming compared with proportionate sampling. b) It facilities giving appropriate weighting to particular groups which are small but more important. ~ 27 ~  Research Methodology Demerits 1) This method does not give each stratum proportionate representation. Hence the resulting sample may be less representative. 2) This method requires a prior knowledge of the composition of the population, which is not always possible. 3) This method is also subject to classification errors. It is possible that the researcher may misclassify certain elements. Meaning Cluster sampling means random selection of sampling units consisting of population elements. Each unit is a cluster of population elements. Then from each selected sampling unit, a sample of population element is drawn by either simple random selection or stratified random selection. 4. Cluster Sampling Where the population elements are scattered over a wider area and a list of population elements is not readily available, the use of simple or stratified random sampling method would be too expensive and time-consuming. In such cases cluster sampling is usually adopted. Advantages of Cluster Sampling a) This method is much easier and more convenient to apply when large populations are studied or large geographical areas are covered. b) The cost of this method is much less when compared with other sampling methods ~ 28 ~  Research Methodology c) This method promotes the convenience of field work as it could be done in compact places. d) Units of study can be readily substituted for other units within the same random section e) This method is flexible. Where it involves multistage sampling, it is possible to employ different types of sampling in successive stages. Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling a) The cluster sizes may vary and this variation could increase the bias of the resulting sample. b) The sampling error in this method of sampling is greater. Thus this method is statistically less efficient than other probability sampling methods. c) Adjacent units of study (e.g., households) tend to have more similar characteristics than do units distantly apart. This affects the „representativeness‟ of the sample and this effect is reflected in a greater sampling error. 5. Sequential Sampling When the number of samples is more than two but how many is neither certain nor decided in advance, this type of system is often referred to as sequential sampling. in brief, we can say that in sequential sampling one can go on taking samples one after another so long as one desire to do so. Non-probability sampling methods Non-probability sampling does not adopt the theory of probability and it does not give a representative sample of the population. The primary methods of non-probability sampling are: ~ 29 ~  Research Methodology (a) Convenience sampling (b) Purposive or Judgement sampling (c) Quota sampling (d) Accidental sampling (e) Snow-ball sampling. Convenience Sampling This method of sampling involves selecting the sample elements using some convenient method without going through the rigour of sampling method. The researcher may make use of any convenient base to select the required number of samples. Merits 1. It is the cheapest and simplest 2. It does not require a list of population and any statistical expertise. Demerits 1. It is highly biased, because of the researcher‟s subjectivity, and so it does not yield a representative sample. 2. It is the least reliable sampling method. 3. The findings cannot be generalized. Judgement or Purposive Sampling A judgement sample is one which selected according to some one‟s personal judgement. In other words, the investigator uses his judgement in the choice and includes only those items of the universe in the sample which he considers are most typical of the convenience. ~ 30 ~  Research Methodology Merits 1. It is less costly and more convenient 2. It guarantees inclusion of relevant elements in the sample. Probability sampling plans cannot give such guarantee. Demerits 1. It does not ensure the representativeness of the sample 2. This is less efficient for generalizing when compared with random sampling 3. This Method requires more prior extensive information about the population one studies. Quota Sampling In this method, the sample size is determined first and then quota is fixed for various categories of population, which is followed while selecting the sample. Suppose we want to select 100 students, then we might say that the sample should be according to the quota given below: boys 50% , Girls 50% then among the boys, 20% college students, 40% plus two students, 30% high school students and 10% elementary school students. A different or the same quota may be fixed for the girls. In this method, the quota has to be determined in advance and intimated to the investigator. The quota for each segment of the population may be fixed at random or with a specific basis. Normally, such a sampling method does not ensure representativeness of the population. ~ 31 ~  Research Methodology Merits 1. It is considerably less costly than probability sampling 2. It takes less time 3. There is no list of population. Thus quota sampling is a suitable method of sampling a population for which no suitable frame is available. 4. Field work can be easily organized. Demerits 1. It may not yield a precise representative sample and it is impossible to estimate sampling error. 2. The quota of sampling is subject to a higher degree of classification error, because the investigators are likely to base their classification of respondents‟ social status, economic status mostly on their impressions about them. 3. Strict control of field work is difficult. 4. Under this method, Interviewer may tend to choose the most accessible persons; they may ignore slums or areas difficult to reach. Thus they may fail to secure a representative sample within their quota groups. Accidental Sampling In accidental sampling, the researcher simply reaches out and takes the cases that fall to hand continuing the process till such time as the sample reaches a designated size. The researcher. Snow-ball sampling: This is the colorful name for a technique of building up a list or a sample of a special population by using an initial set of its members as informants. ~ 32 ~  Research Methodology Merits 1. It is very useful in studying social groups and informal groups in a formal organisation 2. It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are readily available. Demerits 1. It does not allow the use of probability statistical methods. 2. It is difficult to apply this method when the population is large 3. It does not ensure the inclusion of all elements in the list. Types of Sampling Samples can be either probability samples or non- probability samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non- probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques. Probability Sampling Methods 1. Simple sampling Method 2. Systematic Sampling method 3. Stratified Sampling Method 4. Cluster sampling and area sampling 5. Multi-stage sampling 6. Sequential sampling ~ 33 ~  Research Methodology 1. Simple sampling Method This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being same probability of being same probability of being selected. 2. Systematic Sampling method In some instances the most practical way sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. an element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured. 3. Stratified Sampling Method If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, the stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling. ~ 34 ~  Research Methodology 4. Cluster sampling and area sampling Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. for cluster sampling this list of 15000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might then the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other source of error is usually accentuated. The clustering approach can. However, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, especially in the case of personal interviews. Area Sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is especially helpful where we do not have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at each location. 5. Multi-stage sampling This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. this technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then ~ 35 ~  Research Methodology districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling. 6. Sequential sampling This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. The design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control. Non Probability sampling Methods 1. Deliberate Sampling 2. Judgment Sampling 3. Quota Sampling 1. Deliberate Sampling Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non- probability sampling. this sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling. if a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is not homogeneous ~ 36 ~  Research Methodology 2. Judgment Sampling In judgment sampling the researcher‟s judgment is used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the population. 3. Quota sampling In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual‟s strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer‟s judgement. This is called quota sampling. Size of Sample and Research Methods Size of Sample? One of the most important issues to be settled while using sampling method is to determine the size of sample. There is a thumb rule, which says that to satisfy statistical requirement, the size of the sample should be minimum of 30 and above. In statistics, any sample with 30 and more elements is considered large sample. Less than 30 elements in a sample constitute only small sample. By definition this might appear to be an easy way out to determine the sample size. But it should be noted that there are several other considerations or factors which influence the sample size. Factors Determining the Size of Sample 1. The size of the population: Depending upon the size of population, the size of sample has to be decided. If the population is very small (say for example only 50), then the sample size could also be small. But, it should be remembered that larger the size of population, larger should be the sample size to achieve representativeness and accuracy. ~ 37 ~  Research Methodology 2. The resources available: What amount of time and financial resources are available to the researcher will determine the size of the sample. With sufficient time and large volume of funds available, the sample size could be large, otherwise it should be small. 3. The extent of accuracy desired: One of the requirements of data analysis is the accuracy level. There is no choice about the level of accuracy that one wants to achieve or maintain. Size of sample will be large if accuracy is expected. 4. Nature of population: The similarities and dissimilarities identified with population itself may affect the sample size. If the population contains a lot of heterogeneous sub population (i.e., small segments of population with different features or characteristics), then large sample size is required. 5. Method of sampling adopted: Depending upon the method of sampling used, the size of sample will be decided. 6. Nature of respondents: Success or failure of a sample survey depends ultimately on the response of the informants. So, the nature of respondents will influence the sample size. Suppose in a survey on the opinion of a policy of liberalization, introduced by the Government, if the respondents are literate, the size of sample could be smaller. If the respondents are illiterate, the size of the sample should be large. ~ 38 ~  Research Methodology Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors Sampling Errors The errors which arise because of studying only a part of the total population are called sampling errors. These may arise due to non-representativeness of the sample and the inadequacy of sample size. 1) Biased Errors: These errors arise from any bias in selection and collection information and faulty method of analysis. 2) Unbiased Errors: These errors arise due to change difference between the members of the population. The estimate obtained from a particular sample will differ from the universe value, because the sample selected by chance is not truly representative of the universe. If the researcher took another random sample from the same universe, the resulting estimate might differ a little. Non-Sampling Errors This type of error can occur in any survey, whether it may be a complete enumeration or sampling. Non-sampling errors include biases and mistakes. Some of the factors responsible for the non-sampling errors are enumerated here. Vague definition of population; vague questionnaire, conception regarding the information desired, inappropriate statistical unit, inaccurate / inappropriate methods of interview, observation, tabulation, etc., errors committed during presentation and printing of tabulated results. Non-sampling errors tend to increase with the sample size and require be controlling and reducing to a minimum. ~ 39 ~  Research Methodology UNIT - III COLLECTION OF DATA Introduction There are several ways of collecting data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and the other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or a data, with help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. In case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways. 1. By observation, 2. Through personal interview, 3. Through telephone interviews, 4. By mailing of questionnaires, 5. Through schedules Methods of Data Collection The basic problem of statistical enquiry is to collect facts and figures relating to a particular phenomenon under study, whether the enquiry is in business, economic or social science. The investigator is the person who conducts the statistical enquiry. He is a trained and efficient statistician. He counts or measures the characteristics under study for further statistical analysis. The respondents (informants) are the persons from whom the information is collected. The statistical units are the items on which the measurement is taken. ~ 40 ~  Research Methodology Collection of data is the process of enumeration together with the proper recording of results. The success of an enquiry is based upon the proper collection of data. Collection of data is the first step in any statistical investigation. Data are generally classified into two groups. a) Observation b) Interview c) Mail Questionnaire d) life history published records (or) unpublished records e) diaries journal & magazines f) letters news papers g) memories radio & T.V. Films & public speeches Internal data Internal data come from internal sources related with the functioning of an organization or firm where records regarding purchase, production, sales, profit etc., are kept on regular basis. Various Government departments like ~ 41 ~  Research Methodology Railways, Communications, Education etc.,, also generate internal data which are useful for their proper internal functioning. External data The external data are collected and published by external agencies. This type of data can be obtained from primary source of secondary source. Thus the external data can further be classified as 1. Primary data 2. Secondary data. Primary and Secondary Data Primary Data The sources of information that a researcher should tap way with his interest and type of study he has undertaken. The sources of information are divided in to two such as field and documentary sources. The data from field sources may be collected from persons who have a fund of knowledge about social conditions by following observation, interview, questionnaire and other devices. Primary data are those, which are collected for the first time, and they are original in character. The data which are collected directly from the field of enquiry for specific purpose is called primary data. The collection of primary data may be made through either by complete enumeration or sampling survey methods. Considerable amounts of data are available in the published and unpublished documents, reports, manuscript, letters, and diaries and so on. Data obtained from published and unpublished records of governmental or public bodies are called secondary data. The secondary data may be collected from primary sources, secondary sources and tertiary sources of information. ~ 42 ~  Research Methodology Primary sources of information include firsthand accounts of experimentation and investigation (articles in professional journals, doctoral thesis, monographs and questionnaires), original works (letters, diaries, autobiographies) and reports (proceedings of state legislature and parliament, court annual reports and minutes) Secondary Data Secondary sources of information are summaries of information gathered from primary sources. These include translations, summaries and reviews of research (encyclopedia, articles) abstracts guide books and other publications containing factual information, commentaries and so on. Tertiary sources of information include text books. Secondary data are those, which are already collected by someone for some purpose and are available for the present study. 1. Bibliographies, 2. Indexes, 3. Abstracts, 4. Statistical, 5. Sources, 6. Directories, 7. Year books, 8. Encyclopedias. Tools of Collection of Data 1. Questionnaire, 2. Personal interview, 3. Observation, 4. Schedule Questionnaire? What are Its Types? Questionnaire is a statement of questions which are to answered by the respondents. Questionnaire is used primarily in making status studies of current practices and in conducting opinion polls and surveying attitudes. Questionnaire is a schedule to be filled up by an informant rather than by the researcher.the researcher must construct ~ 43 ~  Research Methodology his questionnaire so as to elicit reliable and authentic information. The information is a competent source of data. The respondent must have the ability to understand the questions asked. The researcher should decide what facts and opinion are to be solicited.He should also determine the persons to whom the questionnaire is to be sent. Every questionnaire should contain either in its body or in a covering letter 1) A descriptive title for the study 2) Purpose of the study 3) Name sponsoring agency or institution 4) Name of address of the persons to whom the completed questionnaire is to be returned 5) How to fill up and the questionnaire should include a guarantee that the identity of the respondent will not be revealed. Types of Questionnaire There are two types of questions.They are supply type and selective type. The supply type of question allows the respondent to write how he feels about a topic. Such questions require a high standard of literacy. These questions demand still greater amount of energy, willingness and care on the part of the respondent. As a consequence, unless the sample is carefully chosen and restricted to literate groups, the answers to such free questions are likely to be incomplete. The selection type of questions may be yes-No or true /false or right/wrong or multiple choice, the respondent checks the suggested answer had applied to him. ~ 44 ~  Research Methodology Guidelines for Constructing a Questionnaire The following rule should be followed in the construction of questionnaire a) Express the items as clearly as possible b) Choose words that have precise meanings wherever possible c) Avoid complex or awkward word arrangement d) Include all qualifications needed to provide a reasonable basis for response selection. e) Avoid unessential specificity in the question or in the response f) Avoid the inclusion of non functional words in the item. g) Make the suggested answers as simple as possible. h) Avoid inclusion of trivial questions i) Be sure that the items will seem to the respondent to apply to the situation j) Refrain from asking questions of opinion ,unless opinion is specifically required k) Avoid items that are too suggestive or too in stimulating.they should not lead a respondent to beyond the facts, but they should induce him to provide the required information. Interview? Its Types It is meeting in which the interviewer puts questions the interview and records his responses. the meeting is always face to face where both the parties communicate with each other not only through words (verbal interaction) but also through gestures, mannerisms, facial expressions, etc.(visual interaction)All interviews are pseudo-conversational in nature. This means that they are with a purpose where the ~ 45 ~  Research Methodology interviewers aim is to elicit as much relevant information as is possible within a specified time. Type of Interview Structured Interview In structured interview a detailed schedule is used.A list of predetermined question is used and takes the form of a questionnaire. it predetermined questions is used and takes the form of a questionnaire. It is highly useful for administrative and market research of various types. Non Structured Interview The non structured interviews are free flowing interviews. No list of predetermined questions was used. The researcher uses an inter-guide. He encourages the interviewee to have free expression by such comments as it so “Go ahead”, etc. Focused Interview Focused interview is focused on the reaction, attitude and emotional response of persons on a particular situation under study such as film seen by him and radio programme heard by him. Depth Interview The depth interview aims at eliciting deeper feelings, emotions or convictions. It calls for specialized training on the part of the researcher. When skillfully and cautiously used by an interviewer having specialized training, the depth interview can reveal important aspects of psycho-social situations which are otherwise not readily available and yet may be crucial for understanding observed behavior and reported opinions and attitudes. ~ 46 ~  Research Methodology Panel Interview The panel interview aims at the investigator to call on a respondent periodically and collect the data for the periods between two consecutive visits. Advantages and Disadvantages of Interview? Advantages a) The interview can be used with illiterate respondents b) Proportion of the respondents participating in an interview is generally more than proportion of respondents who return a mail questionnaire. c) The information secured through an interview is likely to be more correct than that secured by a mail questionnaire. This is because interviewer can point out the inconsistencies in replies on the spot and correct them. In case of deliberate lies he can probe deeper to find out the truth and can observe and record details of interviewee‟s behaviour (nervousness, hesitations, etc) in responding.he can also clarify certain questions which the interviewee does not fully understand. d) Discussion on sensitive and emotional subjects can be better approached by an unstructured interview than by any other technique. e) In an interview the respondent is generally caught off guard which enables the interviewer to observe his spontaneous reaction (facial expressions, gestures, etc.) to the questions put to him and advantage not available in the case of mail questionnaires. ~ 47 ~  Research Methodology Disadvantages of Interview Techniques a) The interview is generally more costly than other techniques b) The organization required for selecting, training and supervising a field staff is more complex than that need in other techniques. The training of interviewers is often a long and costly process. The more on directive the interview, the greater the need for highly killed interviewers c) The interviewer may suffer from bias, faulty perception, faulty memory, lack of insight and inability to articulate. He put words in the mouth of respondent or changes the whole context of a question. d) The interviewer may (because of fatigue, decreased task interest, etc.)Alter the manner in which questions are put to interviewee or the sincerity with which responses are recorded from one interview to the next, etc. As a consequence, the validity and reliability of obtained data may suffer. e) The characteristics of the interviewer, the interviewee (Ex: sex, race, socio economic status, etc.) and their combination may influence the measured variables. Methods Adopted for Collecting Primary Data a) Personal Interview Under this method of collecting data, the investigator should contact the persons from whom the information‟s obtained. The investigator must be tactful and courteous in behavior. He asks the questions the informant and collects necessary information. ~ 48 ~  Research Methodology Merits 1. Original (first hand information) data are collected. 2. True and reliable data can be had 3. The investigator can extract correct information. 4. A high degree of accuracy can be aimed. 5. Uniformity and homogeneity can be maintained. Demerits 1. It is unsuitable where the area is large. 2. It is expensive 3. The chances of bias are more 4. An untrained investigator will not bring good result. b) Indirect Oral Investigation This is a method of collecting primary data through indirect sources. Under this method the investigator approaches the witness on third parties, who are in touch with the informant. The investigator interviews the people, who are directly or indirectly connected with the problem under study. This method is usually adopted by enquiry committees or commissions appointed by the government, private bodies etc. Merits 1. It is simple and convenient. 2. It saves time, money and labour 3. The information is unbiased 4. Adequate information can be had 5. It can be used in the investigation of a large area. Demerits 1. Absence of direct contact is there, the information cannot be relied. ~ 49 ~  Research Methodology 2. Interview with an improper man will spoil the result. 3. In order to get the real position, a sufficient number of persons are to be interviewed. 4. The careless attitude of the informant will affect the degree of accuracy. c) Information from Correspondents The correspondents gather information on the subject of enquiry and pass on the same to the investigator. This method is adopted by newspaper and journals etc, when information is needed in different fields for ex, accidents, share markets, politics, strikes etc,. The informants are generally called correspondents. Merits 1. Extensive information can be had 2. It is the most cheap and economical method 3. Speedy information is possible. 4. It is useful where information is needed regularly. Demerits 1. The information may be biased. 2. Degree of accuracy cannot be maintained. 3. Uniformity cannot be maintained. 4. Data may not be original. d) Mailed Questionnaire Method In this method, a questionnaire consisting of a list of questions pertaining to the enquiry is prepared. There are blank spaces for answers. This questionnaire is sent to the respondents, who are expected to write the answers in the blank spaces. A covering letter is also sent along with the ~ 50 ~  Research Methodology questionnaire. To get quick and better response, the return postage expense is borne by the investigator. Merits 1. Of all the methods, the mailed questionnaire method is the most economical 2. It can be widely used, when the area of investigation is large. 3. It saves money, labour, and time. 4. Error in the investigation is very small, because information is obtained directly from the respondents. Demerits 1. In this method, there is no direct contact between the investigator and the respondent. 2. This method is suitable only for literate people. 3. There is long delay in receiving questionnaires duly filled in. 4. People may not give the correct answer and thus one is led to false conclusion. e) Schedules sent through Enumerators It is the most widely used method of collection of primary data. A number of enumerators are selected and trained. They are provided with Standardized questionnaires. Each enumerator will be in charge of a certain area. The investigator goes to the informants along with the questionnaire and gets replies to the questions in the schedule and records their answers. He explains clearly the object and the purpose of the enquiry. Population census is conducted by this method. ~ 51 ~  Research Methodology Merits 1. This method is very useful in extensive enquiries 2. It yields reliable and accurate results. 3. The scope of the enquiry can also be greatly enlarged. 4. Even if the respondents are illiterate, this technique can be widely used. Demerits 1. This is a very costly method, as the enumerators are trained and paid for. 2. This method is time-consuming, because the enumerators go personally to obtain the Information 3. Personal bias of the enumerators may lead to false conclusion. 4. It is not suited to all persons due to its costliness. Methods of Collecting Secondary Data (A) Published Sources a) Government publications: A number of government, semi- government and private organizations collect data related to business, trade, prices, income, health, population etc., These publications are very powerful source of secondary data. Central statistical organization (C.S.O), National sample survey organization (N.S.S.O) office of the Registrar and Census commissioner of India, Directorate of Economic and Statistics and labour Bureau are few of the government publications. b) International publications: Various Government in the world and international agencies regularly publish reports on data collected by them on various aspects. ~ 52 ~  Research Methodology Department of the Union and state governments regularly publish reports on a number of subjects. They gather additional information. Some of the important publications are The Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, Census of India, Agricultural Statistics of India, Indian Trade Journal, etc,. c) Semi- Government institutions like Municipal corporation, District Board, Panchayat publish reports on the factors like birth, death, health etc., 1. Report of committees and commissions: At times state and central government appoint committees and commissions with a specific reference for study. The report of these committees and commissions provide important secondary data. For example Pay Commission Report, National Agriculture Commission 2. Private Publications: The following private publications also enlisted as secondary data. They are A. Journals and Newspapers – Monthly Statistical trade, Economic Times etc B. Research publications. – Indian Statistical Institute, I.C.A.R C. Publications of Business and Financial Institutions. Sugar Mills Associations, Trade union and Co- operative Societies. D. Articles - Market Reviews and report also provide data for analysis. (B) Unpublished Sources There are various sources of unpublished data. They are the records maintained by various government, and private offices, the researches carried out by individual research ~ 53 ~  Research Methodology scholars in the universities or research institutes. All statistical data are not published. For example, Colleges and Universities maintain records. They collect the details for administrative purposes. Similarly, details collected internally by private Organizations regarding persons, profit, sales, production, etc. become secondary data and are used in certain surveys. Banks collect certain particulars while giving, advances Stock Exchanges get details of the projects of the companies, and. Government offices gather necessary- information during, registration, issue of permits, licenses, etc. They can provide the necessary data for others. Interview Schedule Meaning: Schedule like the questionnaire is an important survey tool to collect primary data. As Goode and Hatt explain, “Schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled by an interviewer, in a face to face situation with another.” The schedule and questionnaire are similar in every way. The major difference is that questionnaire is filled up by the interviewer or investigator on the basis of discussion with the respondent. Hence the schedule may have two types of questions. The first category is direct questions. Features 1. The interviewer questions are asked, presents he notes down the schedule and the answers 2. The list of questions is a note format document, it need no be attractive 3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research ~ 54 ~  Research Methodology Importance / Purpose 1. To provide a standardized tool for observation or interview in order to attain objectivity 2. To act as memory tickler, the schedule keeps the memory of the interview 3. To facilitate the work of tabulation and analysis. Guidelines for Constructing Schedule a. Study the different aspects of the problem: The problem under study should first of all split up in to various aspects. The determinations of these aspects will depend upon clear understanding of the problem under study. b. Sub-divide the problem to get necessary information: Each aspect has again to be broken up in to a number of sub parts. These sub parts should complete picture of the aspects under study. c. The framing of actual questions: Proper care should be taken to see that the questions convey the exact sense is easily followed by the respondents and they will be willing to supply information without any habitation, bias of facts. d. Serialization of questions; In order to obtain well organized information, it is necessary that the questions should be presented to the respondents in a well order serial. e. Testing the validity of schedule: Whatever may be the degree of pre caution taken, some steps are bound to be left out and cannot be located unless the schedule has been put in to operation. ~ 55 ~  Research Methodology Various Types of Schedules Types of Schedule 1. Rating Schedule They are used in sociological and psychological research. They are useful where opinions, attitudes, behavior are to be measured. Different ranks or scales are constructed and rating is done on its basis. 2. Document Schedule As the name suggests, these schedules are used for recording data from case histories, documents, official records, autobiographies etc. They help as the source material for collecting preliminary data. Tabulations can be done from the schedules mechanically or manually. 3. Institutional survey forms The use of these schedules as is evident from the name is made to gather data about specialized institutions or agencies. 4. Observational Schedule In this schedule, the observer records the activities and responses of an individual or a group under specific conditions 5. Interview Schedule Normally the term schedule is used in research to refer to the interview schedule. These schedules contain questions to be asked by the interviewer and the answers are to be written in blank tables. f) Characteristics of a Good schedule: Pauline.V Young gives two essential characteristics of a good schedule. ~ 56 ~  Research Methodology 1) Accurate communication 2) Accurate response 1. Accurate communication: accurate communication refers to the ability of the schedule to be understood properly by the respondents, i.e. the questions should be properly worded, so that there is no ambiguity in questions as well as answers. 2. Accurate response: Accurate response refers to the ability of the schedule to get the information required in the proper manner. This should be unbiased and true. A major requirement in this direction is that the schedule should be short. It must have simple questions. Schedule must be in attractive form style. Questions should be related to the problem being studied. The questions should be so framed to help in the easy tabulation of the information obtained. Observation? What are its Types? Observation is the basic method of obtaining information about the world around us. All the observation is not scientific, if it is planned and recorded systematically and is subject to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Types of observation: Observation may take place either in real life setting and laboratory. The observer may participate in the group he is observing or he may be an observer from outside. His presence may be unknown to the people he is observing. The scientific observation may broadly be classified as structured /unstructured observation, participation & non-participation /disguised observation. The choice of an observational technique depends upon the study.In the exploratory study the observer is participating in ~ 57 ~  Research Methodology group activity. For the experimental type, the observation procedure is structured and involves a minimum of participation on the part of the observer. Structured Observation: The investigator should decide the data he needs. Sound recording and motion pictures have been used to describe the overall nature of the event or to code certain actions of a member. Motion pictures, tape recording and television may be very helpful in giving an overall view of a social event Unstructured Observation: There is no careful definition of the units to be observed and the information to be recorded. Any record of the information may affect the naturalness of the situation and create suspicion in the minds of persons being observed. With a view to overcome these problems different observers observes same event and record the information.this enables the observers to maintain accuracy and avoids the difficulties of memory on one or few observers. Participant observation: The observer is sharing to a greater or lesser degree the life of the group he is observing. The members of the group are unaware of the researcher‟s purpose. The researchers obtain a greater depth of experience. He can also check the truth of statements made by the members of the group. Non participant observation: The observer is not sharing to a greater or lesser degree the life of the group he is observing. A sociologist cannot become a criminal in order to study the behavior of a criminal gang. Aids in the Fields of Observation? 1. Detailed Field Notes: The field noted taken at the time of observation are carefully transcribed as soon as possible after observation. ~ 58 ~  Research Methodology 2. Photographs: They tend to present accurately a mass of detail. The photographic eye views with authenticity and impartiality. It has no preconceived notions and selective interests. It is difficult to prescribe the facial expression and particularly the expression of the eyes. At times words can be deficient in expressing the hunger of children, despair of refuges and so on. In such cases photographs are highly useful. 3. Maps: The social back ground of the respondents can be known from the maps. The social base maps show the relationship of topographical aspects of a community to its social organization. This will facilitate further study 4. Schedule: They help in standardizing the recording of observed phenomenon. The isolate individual elements and thus facilitate concentration and measurement. 5. Socio metric scales: They are used in the measurement of social attitudes, morale status, home environment, social press judgment, participation and a variety of other factors. 6. Behavior diaries: This is mainly meant for recording the exceptional behavior of an individual as observed by the researcher over a period of time.this method is time consuming and its effectiveness depends upon the skill of the observer detaining what incidents to be recorded. State the Basic Principles of Observation 1. The problem should be formulated and specific points needing investigation should be decided. 2. Device a method of recording the results. 3. Observe carefully and critically 4. Rate specific phenomena independently 5. Well acquaint with the recording instrument. ~ 59 ~  Research Methodology Distinguish between Questionnaire and Schedule Questionnaire Schedule It is sent through mail and It is filled by the researcher filled by the respondents himself. It is costly as field staff are It is cheap and economical required Non-response is the basic Response will be effective problem Identification of respondents is It is possible not possible. It is a slow process It is done in time Indirect contact between the Direct contact is possible researcher and the respondents It is effective when the It is effective even when the respondents are educated respondent is illiterate It is not effective for It is effective complicated questions Risk of collecting wrong data is Chances are less more. Along with this method, observation method cannot be It can be applied applied Pilot Study? Advantages? Meaning of a Pilot Study Pilot study is a preliminary study conducted on a limited scale before the original studies are carried out in order to gain some primary information, on the basis of which the main project would be planned and formulated. The preliminary survey of the universe in question helps to ~ 60 ~  Research Methodology acquire a general knowledge about the problem which ultimately helps to know the nature and different aspects of the problem. Advantages 1. Helps in the respondent and selection procedure: It helps in bringing out the inadequacies of the draft questionnaire 2. Provides training and motivation to interviewer It unfolds how effective the training has been ridding the interviewer from their prejudices and in motivating them. 3. Inculcates seriousness and honesty in interviewer It also helps in finding out the type of person most likely to be a good interviewer in the study 4. Provides opportunities The interviewers learn a variety of tactics and codes of conduct, which they should follow to build rapport with the respondent. 5. Provides a trial or rehearsal to test interviewers work It test the interviewer‟s stamina to work under conditions of personal discomfort, stress ad fatigue. Principles of Pilot Study? Following are the basic principles 1. It is to be conducted among a random sample of the universe. 2. Adequate number of questionnaire should be sent under pilot study. Meaning of Pre-Testing Common sense suggests the necessity of doing a few test interviews or sending out trial forms by way of preparing for the main survey, and such informal trial and error is as much part of the preliminary study as are talk with experts and study of the ~ 61 ~  Research Methodology literature. But it is necessary to go further, and to try out systematically all the various features of the main inquiry. This may take the form, first, of a series of small „pre-tests‟ on isolated problems of the design, and them of the broad plan of the main survey. What is Pre-Testing of Questionnaire? a) Pre-testing is the process in which a questionnaire is tested with limited respondents before it is sent to the entire sample unit. b) It is done mainly for checking the validity and reliability of the technique to be adopted. c) The pre-test involves debriefing and protocol analysis. d) The procedure of asking the respondents to explain their answers, to state the meaning of each question and describe the problem they face in answering the questions. It is called as debriefing. e) The protocol analysis envisages thinking while completing the questionnaire. f) The project director is responsible for conducting pre- test. g) The respondents selected under pre-test should represent the entire sample size. In the light of a pre-test, I questionnaire can be modified. ~ 62 ~  Research Methodology UNIT - IV ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA Introduction Analysis and interpretation of data are the creative aspect of research. The first is a matter of reorganizing the material that is already available which depends upon the skill of the researcher and interpretation requires either statistical analysis or qualitative classifications. Analysis of data comes prior to interpretation. But there two operations are mixed up and hence cannot be regarded as two separate operations. The data that have been collected by following whatever method will be in the form of raw data. The first step in analyzing that data will be to prepare these data for the type of analysis the researcher plans to carry out. The collected data must undergo some processing like  Editing  Coding and  Tabulation What is Editing? State its Guidelines Editing is the first step in data processing. Editing can be defined as the process of examining the data collected in questionnaire or schedules to detect errors and omission and to see that they are corrected and the schedules prepared for tabulation. Guidelines: Following are the guidelines which are to be followed while editing the data: ~ 63 ~  Research Methodology a) Editor should be familiar with the instructions given to the interviewers. b) He should not destroy or erase the original entry. c) All answers changed must be initialled by the editor. d) Editor‟s initial and date of editing must be mentioned on each schedule completed. e) Incorrect answers should be discarded. What is Coding? State the Rules relating to Coding Coding is the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers for a question. Each answer is assigned a code. Coding is a practice which simplifies recording of answers. When for a question could be indicated each answer is assigned a code. Classifying the data edited into number of groups. In other words, coding involves two important operations:  Deciding the categories to be used and  Allocating individual answers to them Rules a) Give code numbers for each respondent for identification. b) Give code number for each response. c) Give numbers for qualitative response also. d) Do not delegate the work of categorization to others. e) Design the instructions to the coders. f) Have a random checking of the coded items. What is Classification of Data? State its Types Classification of data is the process of grouping the data under various understandable homogeneous groups for the purpose of convenient interpretation. ~ 64 ~  Research Methodology Types  Classification on periodical basis  Classification on area basis What is Transcription? What are its Methods? Transcription is the process of transferring information from an interview schedule to a card so that there is one card corresponding to each unit in the survey population. It is the process of transferring data contained in questionnaire to another material for the purpose of tabulation. Types a) List and tally method. b) Card sort and count method. c) Strip method. d) Punch card method. What is Tabulation? What are its Methods? After the transcription of data is over, data are summarized and arranged in a compact form for further analysis. This process is called tabulation. A table contains columns and rows. These columns and rows create small boxes which are called as cells. Entries made in each are understood with the title of the column and the row. a) Manual tabulation. b) Mechanical tabulation. c) Electronic data processing. ~ 65 ~  Research Methodology Explain the general rules relating to tabulation Following rules are to be followed while preparing table: 1. Title: the table should be first given a brief, simple and clear title which may express the basis of classification. 2. Columns and rows: each table should be prepared in just adequate number of columns and rows. 3. Captions and stubs: The columns and rows should be given simple and clear captions and stubs. 4. Ruling: Columns and rows should be divided by means of thin or thick ruling. 5. Arrangement of items: Comparable figures should be arranged side by side. 6. Size of column: This should be according to requirement. 7. Special emphasize: This can be done by writing important data in bold letters. 8. Unit of measurement: The unit of measurement must be mentioned below the title. 9. Foot notes: It must be mentioned below the table, if necessary. 10. Total: Totals of each column and grand total should be in one line. What is Analysis of Data? State its Types Meaning: Analysis of data means studying the tabulated materials in order to determine inherent facts (or) meaning. It involves breaking down existing complex factors into simpler parts and putting the part together in new arrangements for the purpose of interpretation. ~ 66 ~  Research Methodology Types of Analysis: Analysis may be categorized as i. Descriptive analysis and ii. Inferential analysis. (i) Descriptive analysis: This analysis describes the nature of an object under the study. This sort of analysis may describe data on one variable. It consists of  Multiple regression analysis  Multiple discriminate analysis  Canonical analysis  Factor analysis (ii) Inferential analysis: This is concerned with drawing inferences and conclusions from the finding of a study. What is Interpretation of Data? What are its Essentials? Analysis is not complete without interpretation and interpretation cannot proceed without analysis. Interpretation means application of logical thinking and derivation to the facts to understand and explain the line between variables. Essentials (or) Pre-Requisites for Interpretation Following are some of the pre-conditions for effective interpretation of data. i. Accurate data: This is the most important pre-requisites of interpretation and analysis. Accurate data means the facts collected should be relevant to the research study. In the absence of such materials, the investigator fails to interpret the data in a proper and required form. ii. Sufficient data: More collection of accurate data cannot ensure success in interpretation. Along with that, the adequate data should be available. ~ 67 ~  Research Methodology iii. Homogeneous data: Data homogeneity means uniformity in the features of collected data. If the data are heterogeneous, it may fail to yield the desired results. Ex: Rs, $ iv. Possibility for statistical treatment: Every data (or) information is not suited to statistical treatment. If information available is scarce, proper interpretation and statistical analysis are not possible. Researcher should know where the tool should be applied, what type of data are required for applying tool, what the analytical tool means, how to apply the tool etc., in the absence of this correct interpretation is not possible. Majority of researchers are weak in respect of application of types of tools. Whether to apply simple tools (or) advanced tools? It should be determined on the basis of objectives of research. v. Consistency of information: In consistent information and data are always subject to inaccurate results. In the absence of consistent data, the application of statistical method is not only difficult, but might give different results at different occasions. What is Hypothesis? What are the Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis? Meaning The formulation of hypothesis is the important step in the process of formulation of research problem. Once the researcher knows the problem he makes guesses. The guesses he makes are the hypothesis which either solve the problem (or) guide him in future investigation. Ex: 1.Increase in absenteeism in colleges is due to increasing unemployment among educated young students. ~ 68 ~  Research Methodology 2. The small family concept gives place to increasing number of old age homes. It is a tentative statement, which may (or) may not be happen (or) true. Definitions A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested. At the elementary level, it may be mere intuition, guess and imaginative data, which becomes the basis of action (or) investigation. According to Goole and Hah, “Hypothesis is a proposition, which can be put to test to determine validity”. Characteristics of Hypothesis (1) Conceptual clarity: A hypothesis should be conceptually clear. When hypothesis is conceptually clear, it provides a clear direction to the researcher. Clarity can be obtained by means of defining operational concepts. (2) Scope for verification: Hypothesis should be agreeable for verification empirical. Moral verification is not sufficient. (3) Specific: The hypothesis should be very clear and not a general statement. It should be constructed with simple languages. (4) Testable: Hypothesis formulated should be testable with the available technique of analysis. It should not be a moral judgement. It should be possible to collect empirical evidences to test hypothesis. (5) Availability of Techniques: Hypothesis should be related to available techniques. Otherwise they will be researchable. Therefore, researcher must make sure that methods are available for testing his proposal hypothesis. ~ 69 ~  Research Methodology (6) Linked to Theory: Hypothesis should facilitate establishing relationship with a body of theory. (7) Consistency: Hypothesis should be logically consistent. (8) Simplicity: A hypothesis should be simple one requiring fewer conditions (or) assumptions Essentials (or) Pre-Requisites for Interpretation Various Types of Hypothesis Hypotheses are classified in several ways. They are given below: Descriptive Hypotheses These are propositions that describe the characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organization, situation or event. Some examples are: “The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates.” “Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized planning” Relational Hypotheses These are proportions which describe the relationship between two variables. The relationship