Management and Supervision in LLCD 2024 PDF

Management and Supervision in LLCD By Minyichl D. 2024  Chapter One: Introduction 1.1. Definition of key terms and concepts (leadership, planning, management, supervision,)  Reflective activity 1. What do you expect fro...

Management and Supervision in LLCD By Minyichl D. 2024  Chapter One: Introduction 1.1. Definition of key terms and concepts (leadership, planning, management, supervision,)  Reflective activity 1. What do you expect from this course? 2. How do you define the term leadership, management, planning and supervision ? 3. What distinctions did you observe between leadership, management, planning and supervision?  * Leadership *Leadership is defined as a process of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts towards goal setting and goal achievement. *It is “the relationship in which one person, the leader, influences others to work together willingly on related tasks to attain that which the leader desires”(Terry. 1977, 410).  * Management *Management is the co-ordination of human resource and material resource in order to achieve the objective of the organization. *Itis the function that coordinates the efforts of people to accomplish goals and objectives by using available resources efficiently and effectively. *Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals working together in group efficiently accomplish selected aims.  * Difference between management and leadership oManagement seeks to produce predictability and order by:  Setting operational goals, establishing action plans with timetables, and allocating resources;  Organizing and staffing e.g. Establishing structure, assigning resources and tasks; and  Monitoring results and solving problems. oLeadership seeks to produce organizational change by:  Developing a vision of the future and strategies for making necessary changes;  Communicating and explaining the vision, and  Motivating and inspiring people to attain the vision.  * Planning *Planning is a basic management function involving formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources. *Planning is required to make decisions on;  What should be done?  How it should be done?  Who will be responsible?  Where the action is to be taken?  Why is it done?  * Supervision *Supervision is the process of guiding, helping and encouraging staff to improve their performance so that they meet the defined standards of their organization. *a way of stimulating, guiding, improving, and encouraging a certain groups with the aim of improving a particular tasks. *It is an interaction between persons for work improvement.  * Theories of leadership Great Man Theory/Trait Theory Behavioral Theories Contingency/Situational Theories, Transactional Theory of Leadership Transformational Theory of Leadership  * Great Man Theory/Trait Theory *The trait theory of leadership consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders *The assumption behind trait theory was that leaders are born and not made. *The theory also assumes that a leader cannot be a normal person and they are different from the average person in terms of personality traits such as intelligence, perseverance and ambition.  Behavioral Theories * Behavioral theories assume that specific behavioral patterns of leaders can be acquired through learning and experience. *While the trait theory concentrates on what the leaders are, the behavioral theories concentrate on what the leaders do‟.  Contingency/Situational Theories *This theory views leadership in terms of a dynamic interaction between a number of situational variables like the leader, the followers, the task situation, the environment, etc. *Fiedler has identified three situational factors; leader member- relations, task structure and position power, which determine leadership effectiveness. (i) Leader-Member Relations:  The degree of confidence, trust and respect that members have on their leader; (ii) Task Structure:  The degree to which the job assignments are structured or unstructured; (iii) Position Power:  The degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases.  Transactional Theory of Leadership *There are several assumptions that underlie the transactional theory, which are as follows: * People perform their best when the chain of command is definite and clear. *Workers are motivated by rewards and punishments. *Obeying the instructions and commands of the leader is the primary goal of the followers. *Subordinates need to be carefully monitored to ensure that expectations are met.  Transformational Theory of Leadership *This theory pay attention to the developmental needs and concerns of the followers, and inspire followers to give a new outlook and motivate the followers towards achievement of the goals of the organization. *there are four dimensions to the transformational theory of leadership, these are; *Idealized Influence (II): In this form of leadership, the leaders act as role models for their subordinates and they exhibit high morals and ethical standards. *Inspirational Motivation (IM): In this dimension of leadership, leaders inspire their subordinates in various ways and give meaning to their work and bring new challenges and enthusiasm. *Intellectual stimulation (IS): in this form, the leaders stimulate the intellectual ability of their followers. *Individualized consideration (IC): the leaders, under this dimension, pay more Attention to the individual needs of development of the subordinates so as to Achieve success  * Leadership strategies *Leadership strategies involve themselves in five key activities: 1. Direction-setting Strategic leaders are concerned with not just managing the now but setting up a framework of where the organization needs to be in the future. Translate the moral purpose and vision into reality. 2. Translating strategy into action – develop strategic and organizational processes 3. Aligning the people and the organization to the strategy  Changing the mindset and the behavior of the people within the organization through participation, strategic conversations, motivation and strategic capability. 4. Determining effective intervention points – the right things at the right time. 5. Developing strategic capabilities- Creativity in problem-solving and team working are necessary to give the school deep-seated strategic capabilities or abilities.  Chapter Two Decision Making Reflective activity 1. What is decision making? 2. What are the major phases of decision making? 2.1. The Essence of the Manager’s Job oDecision is a choice whereby a person comes to a conclusion about given circumstances/ situation. oItrepresents a course of behavior or action about what one is expected to do or not to do. oDecision- making may, therefore, be defined as a selection of one course of action from two or more alternative courses of action.  * 2.2 The decision making process *There are seven steps of decision making process these are Step 1: Identification of the purpose of the decision oIn this step, the problem is thoroughly analyzed. There are a couple of questions one should ask when it comes to identifying the purpose of the decision.  What exactly is the problem?  Why the problem should be solved?  Who are the affected parties of the problem?  Does the problem have a deadline or a specific  Step 2: Information gathering oA problem of an organization will have many stakeholders. oIn addition, there can be dozens of factors involved and affected by the problem. oIn the process of solving the problem, you will have to gather as much as information related to the factors and stakeholders involved in the problem. oFor the process of information gathering, tools such as 'Check Sheets' can be effectively used. Step 3: Principles for judging the alternatives *In this step, the baseline criteria for judging the alternatives should be set up. *When it comes to defining the criteria, organizational goals as well as the corporate culture should be taken into consideration.  Step 4: Brainstorm and analyze the different choices *For this step, brainstorming to list down all the ideas is the best option. *Before the idea generation step, it is vital to understand the causes of the problem and prioritization of causes. Step 5: Evaluation of alternatives *Use your judgment principles and decision-making criteria to evaluate each alternative. *In this step, experience and effectiveness of the judgment principles come into play. *You need to compare each alternative for their positives and negatives. *Step 6: Select the best alternative *the selection of the best alternative is an informed decision since you have already followed a methodology to derive and select the best alternative. Step 7: Execute the decision *Convert your decision into a plan or a sequence of activities. *Execute your plan by yourself or with the help of subordinates. 2.3. The managers as decision makers oManagers can make decisions on the basis of rationales and bounded rationality or intuition. 1. Rational decision making: oManagerial decision making is assumed to be rational that is, making choice that are consistent and value maximizing within specific constraints. oIfmanagers could be perfectly rational, he/she would be completely logical and objective. 2. Bounded rational: which is decision making behavior that is rational, but bounded by an individual ability to process information. a. Under bounded rationality, managers make satisficing decisions in which they accept solutions that are good enough. b. Managers decision making may be strongly influenced by the organization’s culture, internal politics, power considerations and by phenomena. 3. Intuitive decision making oIntuitivedecision is a subconscious process of making decision on the basis of experience and accumulated/rich experience judgment. 2.4. Decision making for today’s world o Today’s business world revolves around making decisions, which are often risky ones made with incomplete or inadequate information and under intense time pressure. oHow can managers make effective decisions under these conditions? A. Understand cultural differences. B. Know when it is time to call it quits. C. Use an effective decision-making process. D. Build highly reliable/trustworthfull/ organizations that practice five habits: 1. Do not be tricked by your own success. 2. Defer to the experts on the front lines/give chance to another experts to share their ideas/ 3. Let unexpected circumstances provide the solution. 4. Embrace complexity. 5. Anticipate, but also recognize the limits to your ability to anticipate.  Chapter Three Foundation of Planning Reflective activity 1. What is planning? 2. How did you develop a plan 3.1. The concept of planning  Planning is the process by which managers establish goals and define the methods by which these goals are to be attained.  Planning involves selecting missions and objectives the actions to achieve them;  It requires decision making, which is choosing from among alternative future courses of action.  It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job.  3.2. Establishing goals and developing planning oGoals are the specific result expected from the project. oThe project goals specify what will be accomplished over the entire project period and should directly relate to the problem statement and vision. oIt needs mentioning in this connection that objectives must be understandable and rational to make planning effective. oBecause the major objective, in all enterprise, needs be translated into derivative objective, accomplishment of enterprise objective needs a concrete endeavor of all the departments. 3.3. Developing planning oDuring the strategic thinking phase of the planning process a large amount of information and data is collected through focus groups, interviews, surveys, and selected readings. oThis information is then analyzed in a variety of ways.  PEST Analysis oA PEST analysis is a technique that looks at the political, economic, social, and technological factors. oIt is often done prior to a SWOT analysis. oBoth types of analysis are used to identifyoutside factors that can significantly impact an organization.  SWOT Analysis *SWOT is a technique for gathering information for the strategic planning processes. *SWOT information provides data to accurately determine current performance. *SWOT information provides a foundation for effectively and intelligently setting goals and priorities and making key decisions for the group’s future.  GAP Analysis *GAP analysis is a technique for determining the steps to be taken in moving from a current state to a desired future-state. *The “gap” in gap analysis refers to the space between desired and actual outcomes. *Types of gaps can be: performance gaps, profit gaps, manpower gaps, etc. oQuestions to Consider when Developing Plans Where are we now? Where do we want to be in the future? What will we do to get to our desired future?  How will we measure our progress along the way?  Chapter Four Strategic Management 4.1. Defining strategic management oSM can be defined as “the art and science of formulating, implementing and evaluating cross- functional decisions that enable an organization to achieve its objective.” oIt is “the on-going process of formulating, implementing and controlling broad plans guide the organizational in achieving the strategic goods given its internal and external environment”. 4.2. The importance of strategic management oStrategic management offers the following benefits:  It allows for identification, prioritization, and exploitation of opportunities.  It minimizes the effects of adverse conditions and changes.  It allows major decisions to better support established objectives.  It allows more effective allocation of time and resources to identified opportunities.  It allows fewer resources and less time to be devoted to correcting erroneous or ad hoc decisions.  It creates a framework for internal communication among personnel.  It provides a basis for clarifying individual responsibilities.  It encourages forward thinking etc. 4.3. Stages of strategic management oThe strategic management process consists of three stages: 1. Strategy Formulation (strategy planning) 2. Strategy Implementations 3. Strategy Evaluation 1. Strategy Formulation (strategy planning)  Strategy formulation includes developing:-  Vision and mission (the target of the business)  Strength and weakness (strong points of business and also weaknesses)  Opportunities and threats (these are related with external environment for the Business) 2. Strategy Implementation *It is a process by which strategies and policies are put into action through the development of programs, budgets, and procedures. *Implementing means mobilizing employees and managers in order to put formulated strategies into action. *It is often considered to be most difficult stage of strategic management. It requires personal discipline, commitment and sacrifice. 3. Strategy evaluation It is a process in which corporate activities and performance results are monitored so that actual. Performance can be compared with desired performance. Managers at all levels use the resulting information to take corrective action and resolve problems. 4.4. Types of organizational strategies  There are four popularly used organizational strategies the are; 1. Product innovation strategy 2. Revenue and sales strategies 3. Service based strategies and 4. Process- based strategies 1. Product innovation strategies oIs a growth strategy built around the idea of developing, improving and introducing new products or improved products to the market. 2. Revenue and sales strategies oIs a school of thought that promotes generating revenue and growing profits through the optimization of sales activities. 3. Service-based strategies oIs the idea that companies can widen their market share, win new customers and ending outstanding brand differentiation through exceptional customer services. 4. process-based strategies oIt aims to optimize business processes, reduce costs, enhance efficiency and support strong reliable productivity.  CHAPTER FIVE PLANNING AS TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES Reflective activity 1. What are the techniques for assessing the environment? 2. What are the techniques for allocating resources  5.1. Techniques for assessing the environment Environmental Scanning oThe screening of information to anticipate and interpret changes in the environment. oThis helps organizations to develop their strategies accordingly. Forecasting oThe second technique managers can use to assess the environment is forecasting. oThismeans predict future events effectively and in a timely manner. oEnvironmental scanning establishes the basis for forecasts, which are predictions of outcomes. Benchmarking oBenchmarking, the search for the best practices among competitors or non competitors that lead to their superior performance. 5.2.Techniques for Allocating Resources There are four techniques for allocating resources these are; * budgeting, * scheduling, * breakeven analysis, and * linear programming. Budgeting oThis is a numerical plan for allocating resources to specific activities. oManagers typically prepare budgets for revenues, expenses, and large capital expenditures such as equipment. oSuch items as person-hours, capacity utilization, or units of production can be budgeted for daily, weekly, or monthly activities. Scheduling oDetailing what activities have to be done, the order in which they are to be completed, who is to do each, and when they are to be completed. Breakeven Analysis oIt is a widely used resource allocation technique to help managers determine breakeven. oTo compute breakeven point (BE), a manager needs to know the unit price of the product being sold (P), the variable cost per unit (VC), and total fixed costs (TFC). Linear Programming oA mathematical technique for maximizing or minimizing a linear function of several variables, such as output or cost. 5.3. Contemporary Planning Techniques oToday’s managers face the challenges of planning in an environment that’s both dynamic and complex. oTwo planning techniques that are appropriate for this type of environment are project management and scenarios. i. Project management is the task of getting a project’s activities done on time, within budget, and according to specifications. ii. A scenario is a consistent view of what the future is likely to be. o Developing scenarios also can be described as contingency planning; that is, if this event happens, then we need to take these actions.  CHAPTER SIX CONTROLLING AS AN ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITY Reflective activity 1. How do you define the term controlling? 2. Discuss the major steps in control process 3. What are the main features of effective control systems 6.1. Controlling and the control process oControlling is determining what is being accomplished. oThat means evaluating the performance and if necessary, applying corrective measures so that the performance takes place according to plans. oThe essence of the concept is in determining whether the activity is achieving the desired results. 6.2. Steps in control process 1. Establishing standards. 2. Measuring and comparing actual results against standards 3. Taking corrective action  1. Establishing standards The standards the managers desire to obtain in each key area should be defined as far as possible in quantitative terms. Standards expressed in general terms should be avoided. Standards need to be flexible in order to adapt to changing conditions. 2. Measuring and comparing actual results against standards Measurement of performance can be done by personal observation, by reports, charts and statements. A quick comparison of actual performance with the standard performance is possible, if the control system is well organized. 3. Taking corrective action After comparing the actual performance with the prescribed standards and finding the deviations, the next step that should be taken by the manager is to correct these deviations. Correctiveaction should be taken without wasting of time so that the normal position can be restored quickly. These steps must be repeated periodically until the Organizational goal is achieved. 6.2. Characteristics of effective control systems Accuracy: effective control generate accurate data and information and leads to effective managerial decisions. Timeliness: if information about such problems does not reach management in a timely manner, then such information may became useless and damage may occur. Flexibility: a rigid control system would not be suitable for a changing environment. So that flexibility needs in planning as well as in control. Acceptability: control should be such that all people who are affected by it are able to understand them fully and accept them. Integration: when control are consistent with corporate values and culture, they work in harmony with organizational policies and hence are easier to enforce. Economic feasibility: the cost of control system must be balanced against its benefit. The system must be economically feasible and reasonable to operate. Strategic placement: effective control should be placed and emphasized at such critical and control points. Corrective action: an effective control system not only checks for and identifies deviations but also is programmed to suggest solutions to correct such deviation.  Emphasis on exception: managements does not 6.3. The impact of control on organizational members oSome of the most obvious benefits of controlling function are; It provides the accurate information for effective decision making process as well as maintaining effective functioning state of a business; It used to offer timely help and assistance to key individuals of a business; It aimed at improving efficiency, effectiveness and achieving better results;  It can bring better results while it can lead a mining organization to survive, succeed and attain its goals,etc.  6.4. The control and involvement oriented approaches to planning and controlling oThere are two main approaches to planning and controlling these are; i. Control-oriented approach ii. Involvement-oriented approach i. Control-oriented approach This approach is a top-down planning and decision- making where upper manager sets goals and strategies. Centralized control with power concentrated at the top of the organizational hierarchy. Emphasizes on strict adherence to plans and procedures to ensue consistency and predictability. ii. Involvement-oriented approach Inthis approach participative planning and decision making that includes input from employees at various levels. Decentralized control with authority distributed throughout the organization Emphasizes on flexibility and adaptation to changing circumstances. Encourages employee inputs and creativity to foster innovation and problem solving. Promotes employee engagement through active participation in decision making processes.  Chapter seven The concept, context and emergency of financial management 7.1. The concept of Educational Financial Management oFM is the process of strategically planning, organizing, directing, controlling and monitoring of financial resources with the aim of achieving the goals of an organization. oEducational finance refers to governmental and organizational processes by which revenues are generated, distributed, and expended for the operational and capital support of formal schooling. oIn educational institutions, FM refers to that management activity that is concerned with decisions on how to procure funds, of an organization's financial resources. oEducational Financial Management aims to:  Estimate the needs of local educational training;  Obtain finances in accordance with the estimated needs;  Administers the finances thus obtained in a legally correct manner.  7.3. The Context of Educational Financial Management o The scope of educational financial management also includes: i. The procurement and raising of funds. ii. The allocation of financial resources to different educational institutions. iii. The effective utilization of funds. iv. Supervision of cash receipts and payments. v. Safeguarding of cash balance. 7.2. The importance of educational financial management Ithelps the school to be more accountable to donors and other stakeholders. It helps the school gain the respect and confidence of funding agencies, partners and beneficiaries. It give the school competitive advantage in the mobilization of scarce financial resource. It prepare school for long-term financial sustainability. It ensure that the school funds are safeguard and used for the intended purpose 7.4. The Role of Government in financing and Provision of Education Education is today largely paid for and almost entirely administered by governmental bodies or non-profit institutions. Broadly speaking, the rationale for financing of education by the governments may be grouped into four categories: Manpower development, Promotion of social equity, Promotion of productivity and economic growth, nation building, Improving quality and efficiency of educational system. oSome role of gov’t in financing and provision of education are; Subsidizing education in several forms including school fee. Ensuring the public schools offer a high quality of knowledge to the learners. Ensuring that teachers are well paid so that they motivated in the provision of their services. The gov’t ensure that private institutions interested in carrying out educational activities meet certain standards,etc.  Chapter Eight Human Resource Management Reflective activity 1. How do you define human resource planning? 2. What is performance appraisal? 3. What is conflict management? 8.1. Concepts of Human resource planning HRP is the art of procuring, developing and maintaining competent workforce to achieve organizational goals effectively. It is the process that seeks to ensure that the right number and kinds of people will be at the right places at the right time in future. It Involves attracting, developing, and maintaining a talented and energetic workforce to support the organization’s mission, objectives, and strategies. 7.2. Development quality workforce o Workforce development is efforts that prepare people for education and available careers, and connect businesses to skilled workers. For example: Job training and retraining Vocational education Basic skills (e.g., literacy, math) Hard skills (e.g., welding, IT) Soft skills (e.g., work ethic, attitude) Who benefits from workforce development programs? Employers prosper by meeting their labor force needs with skilled workers. People upgrade their skills and advance in their careers, increasing income and wealth. Communities gain a higher quality workforce, improving their competitiveness as a location for business. 7.3. Performance Appraisal Performance appraisal is a tool used by organizations to assess an employee’s performance against standards or objectives set by the organization. Performance appraisal is the process of measuring quantitative & qualitatively an employee’s past or present performance against the background of his expected role performance and about his future potential of an organization.  Performance of employees is appraised based on standard criteria provided in the job analysis. Reasons for Conducting Appraisal To review past performance To assess training and development needs To improve current practice To set performance objectives To assist career planning decisions To assess future potential To assess pay increases or new salary levels Issues of human resource planning oForecasting future manpower requirements, either in terms of mathematical projections of trends in the economic environment and development in industry, oMaking an inventory of present manpower resources and assessing the extent to which these resources are employed optimally; oAnticipating manpower problems by projecting present resources into the future oPlanning the necessary programs of requirement, selection, training, development, utilization, transfer, promotion, motivation and compensation to ensure that future manpower requirements are properly met.  Managing conflicts - Conflict is an unavoidable consequence of being in a relationship for a length of time, and is a normal part of relationships. - Nevertheless, it is important to deal with conflict in healthy ways. - Toncich (1999) classifies conflicts between supervisors & supervisees into four categories: Interpersonal(issues with compatibility, arguments, communication, styles) Belief system (judgments on approach to work, expectations) Technical (disagreements over methods, approaches, skills) Ethical/Moral (cultural differences, codes of conduct etc).