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Fil 103 – MASINING NA PAGPAPAHAYAG ANDREA LUNSFORD ang retorika ay sining, pagsasanay, at pag-aaral at pantaong komunikasyon. ARALIN 1 HILL, A.S. - na ang retori...

Fil 103 – MASINING NA PAGPAPAHAYAG ANDREA LUNSFORD ang retorika ay sining, pagsasanay, at pag-aaral at pantaong komunikasyon. ARALIN 1 HILL, A.S. - na ang retorika ay sining ng mahusay na Masining ang pahayag kung ang daloy ng mga komunikasyon gamit ang wika. pangungusap sa pagpapahayag sa kabuuan ng teksto ay mabisa, malinaw, kaakit-akit at epektib sa AUSTERO, BANDRIL, AT DE CASTRO (1999) - sa mambabasa. aklat nila, binanggit nila na ang retorika ay mabisang RETORIKA - galing sa salitang Griyego na Rhetor pagpapahayag ng damdamin at kaisipan na taglay “guro o maestro o mahusay na mananalumpati o ang kariktan sa wastong paggamit ng wika, pasalita orador”. Tumutukoy sa agham at sining ng man o pasulat man. pagpapahayag maging pasalita man o pasulat. ARISTOTLE AT SOCRATES - sa tulong nila, ang PROP. RUBIN (1987) - ang retorika ay sining ng Retorika o Masining na Pagpapahayag ay lalong maganda at kaakit-akit na pagpapahayag. umuunlad at tumitindi. Pinasimulan ang pag-aaral ng G. TUMANGAN - ang retorika ay tumutukoy sa Retorika tungo sa Masining na Pagpapahayag. kaakit-akit at magandang pagsasalita at pagsulat DEMOSTHENES - pinakaharing orador sa Griyego. kung saan pinag-aaralan dito ang ukol sa mga tuntunin ng malinaw, mabisa, at kaakit-akit na DEPINISYON NG RETORIKA pagpapahayag. PLATO - ang retorika ay sining ng pagwawagi ng BADAYOS (2001) - ang retorika ay susi sa mabisang kaluluwa sa pamamagitan ng diskors. pagpapahayag na nauukol sa kaakit-akit, kaiga-igaya CICERO - ang retorika ay isang mataas na sining na at epektibong pagsasalita at pagsulat. binubuo ng inventio (invention), dispositio (argument), SEBASTIAN - ay nagsabing ang retorika ay isang elocutio (style), memoria (memory) at pronunciatio mahalagang karunungan sa mabisang (delivery). pagpapahayag. Isang sining ng maganda at kaakit- QUINTILLAN - ang retorika ay sining ng akit na pagsasalita at pagsulat. pagpapahayag nang mahusay. AUSTERO, MATEO, ABUEG, SITJAR, AT RICHARD WHATELY (1800) - isang obispo at SUGURAB - ang retorika ay ang hulmahan at manunulat ay nagsabing ang retorika ay isang pandayan ng masining na pagpapahayag. pampublikong komunikasyon kung saan ang KASAYSAYAN NG RETORIKA gumagamit at nakaiintindi nito ay nagkakamit ng resulta. Noong 5 B.C., ang bayan ng Syracuse, sa bansang Gresya ay dumanas ng maraming kaguluhan. Ang FRANCIS BACON - ang retorika aplikasyon ng rason kanilang lipunan ay nabalot ng sigalot at alitan dahil sa imahinasyon sa pagpapatuloy ng will. sa walang batas na nakapangyayari upang mag ayos KENNETH BURKE - ang retorika ay nakaugat sa ng kanilang bayan. Maging ang pagmamay-ari ng esensyal na fanksyon ng wika - fangksyon na lupa ay naging malaking suliranin. Ang isang lupain realistiko at patuloy; ito ay paggamit ng wika bilang na pag-aari ng isang tao ay maaari pang angkinin ng simbolong nagpapakilos sa tao na tumutugon sa mga ibang tao. Kaya nga, naging malaking usapin sa korte simbolo. ng Syracuse kung sino ang tunay na may-ari ng lupain. SONJA AT KAREN FOSS - katulad ng winika ni Burke. Ayon sa kanila, ang retorika ay aksyon na Sa korte ay nagtuos ang mga taong nagsasabing siya nagagawa ng tao kapag gumagamit ng simbolo sa ang tunay na may-ari ng lupa. Kailangang ipresenta mga pag-uusap sa isa't-isa. nila ang kanilang mga argumento sa harap ng hukuman. At upang maipanalo ang kanilang kaso, BAZERMAN CHARLES - ito ay pag-aaral kung nangangailangan sila ng serbisyo ng isang tao na paano ginagamit ng tao ang wika at ibang simbolo magaling magsalita upang turuan sila sa paghahanda upang matamo ang kanilang mga gol at maisagawa ng kanilang argumento sa pag-aangkin lupain. ang kanilang mga pagtaong gawain - isang praktikal na pag-aaral. Sa paniniwala ni Corax, isang guro, kailangang Ang labanan ay wala sa arena o lugar ng tunggalian maturuan ang tao na maipagtanggol ang kanyang kundi nasa pasalita/oral na pagpapalitan ng pag-angkin (claim) sa lupain kaya nagtayo siya ng salita/idea. isang paaralan. Ipinangako niya sa mga tao na turuan RHETOR ang tawag sa mga orador sila na maipanalo ang kanilang mga kaso sa (mananalumpati/mambibigkas) ng Gresya. pamamagitan ng mahusay na presentasyon at maingat na preparasyon at maingat na preparasyon Sa kasaysayan ng Europa, ginamit ng mga rhetor ang kung sila'y mag-eenrol sa paaralang itinayo niya. retorika sa mga pampublikong pagtitipon upang Nagturo public speaking si Corax at siya'y mangatwiran, manghikayat, pumuri at tumuligsa. nagtagumpay. Sa gayo'y maraming tao ang nagkainteres naglakad nag-enrol sa kanyang Pagkatapos ni Corax, sumunod sa kanyang mga paaralan. Subalit sa di inaasahang pangyayari, yapak sina Isocrates at Aristotle. Isang influwensyal nagamit ang retorika sa paglilisya o panlilinlang sa na guro sa Athena si Isocrates noong 400 B.C. katotohanan (to deceive). Katulad ng pangyayari kay Sinasabing napaghusay niyang ganap ang kanyang Corax at sa kanyang mag-aaral na si Tisias. talino sa retorika, kaya may pangyayaring nagsasaad na naghanda siya ng sampung taon para sa isang Pumasok si Tisias sa paaralan ni Corax. Nakinig pahayag sa festival Olympic. siyang mabuti sa kanyang gurong si Corax. Nang matapos ang kanyang kurso, ayaw niyang bayaran ELEMENTO NG RETORIKA ang kanyang guro, kaya dinala ni Corax ang kaso sa 1. Paksa - Para sa mga awtor, iminumungkahi ang husgado. Ang sabi ni Corax, "simple lang ang kaso, pagtitipon ng mga “keyword" o susing salita upang ang mag-aaral kong ito ay naturuan ko at nabigyan ng makalikha/makapag-isip ng paksa. instruksyon, samakatuwid, dapat niya akong bayaran ngunit ayaw niyang magbayad." 2. Kaayusan at Debelopment ng mga bahagi "Kagalang-galang na hukom," ang sagot ni Tisias, I. May introduksyon na binubuo ng: Pambungad na "Ipinangako ni G. Corax na kailangan kong ipaglaban Pahayag o Tesis Isteytment ang kaso ko sa korte. Kung nagawa ang aking guro II. Ang katawan na maayos na natalakay dahil na ako'y turuan nang mabuti, samakatuwid, dapat masinop na inihanay ang mga detalye sa kong maipanalo ang kasong ito, kung yan pong pagdedebelop ng paksa. mangyayari, hindi ko siya dapat bayaran dahil ako ang nanalo. Samantala, kung ako naman ay matalo, III. May konklusyon na nagbubuod sa paksa. lalong hindi ako kailangan magbayad dahil hindi niya · Nagbabalik-tanaw sa tesis isteytment ako napagaling, hindi niya nagampanan ang kanyang · Nag-uulit ng mga susing pahayag trabaho, di niya ako naturuan. Sa ganitong · Nagbibigay ng pangwakas na pahayag. pangyayari ay wala akong dapat bayaran." 3. Istilo - Sa pagsulat, ang estilo ay tumutukoy sa Ang pangyayaring ito ay nagpapakita ng tunggalian kung papaano sinusulat ang ideya, kung papaano sa pagitan ni Corax na kumakatawan sa taong inaayos ng manunulat ang pangungusap at salita. naghahanap ng katarungan at ni Tisias na AMERICAN HERITAGE DICTIONARY - tinukoy ang kumakatawan sa naglilisya ng katotohanan at kung estilo ng paraan kung papaano sinasabi o ginagawa walang huwes... huwes na dirinig ng kanilang mga ang isang bagay. Sa pagsulat, ang istilo ay kaso, maaaring mauwi sa kaguluhan ng buong bayan nangangahulugan ng "paano sinasabi ang isang ng Syracuse. bagay?" - ang paraan kung paano inaayos at salita at PAGLAGANAP NG RETORIKA pangungusap at sabstans ng mensaheng gustong iparating; samakatuwid, ang estilo ay paraan kung Sa Gresya, nagsimula ang retorika sa mga paaralan paano isusulat ang komposisyon. ng mga Sophista. Kalaunan ay naituro sa imperyo ng Roma sa Gitnang Taon bilang isa sa tatlong orihinal 4. Tono na malayang sining kasama ng lohika at gramar. Ito ang tinig ng manunulat na nadarama kapag Mahalaga ang retorika sa mga Griyego sapagkat sila binabasa ang kanyang sulatin. ay isang demokratikong bansa kung saan ang mga lider nagkukumpitensya sa suporta ng mamamayan. ANG BALARILA ARALIN 2 FEDERICO B. SEBASTIAN - Ang balarila ay isang ANG MGA SANGKAP NG RETORIKA agham na tumatalakay sa mga salita at sa kanilang 1. PAKSA– sa pagbuo ng isang sulatin kailangan pagkakaugnay-ugnay. may sapat na kaalaman o impormasyon sa paksang LOPE K. SANTOS - “Ang balarila ay bala ng dila” susulatin. BALARILA - isang agham sa paggamit ng salita at ang pagkakaugnay-ugnay. Sinasabi din na may a. Encyclopedia kaugnayan sa pag-aaral ng mga salita, tamang gamit b. Almanacc.Diksyunaryo ng mga salita at pahayag upang makabuo ng malinaw c. Dokyumentaryo na kaisipang pang-gramatika. d. Internet Sangay ng mabisang pag-aaral ng karunungang 2.KAAYUSAN NG MGA BAHAGI– Dito nakasalalay pangwika: ang lubos na pagunawa ng mga mambabasa o - BALARILA - nagdudulot ng kawastuhan sa nakikinig. Kailangan may introduksyon, katawaan, at pahayag konklusyon. - RETORIKA - Nagbibigay-linaw, bias at 3.ESTILO– Bawat tao ay may kanikaniyang istilo sa kagandahan sa pagpapahayag pagsusulat. Ito ang magsisilbing tatak o PAGPILI NG WASTONG SALITA mapagkakakilanlan ng isang manunulat o tagapagsalita. Ang pagiging malinaw ng pahayag ay nakasalalay sa mga salitang gagamitin. KATANGIAN NG MASINING NA PAHAYAG Kinakailangang angkop ang salita, kaisipan at Isang kooperatibong sining (hindi ito maaaring sitwasyong ipapahayag. gawin mag-isa) ito ay ginagawa para sa iba sapagkat sa reaksyon ng iba nagkakaroon ito ng May mga pagkakataon na ang salita na tama naman kaganapan. ang kahulugan ay lihis o hindi angkop gamitin. 1. ISANG PANTAONG SINING: Wika ang midyum ng MALING HALIMBAWA: Tanaw na tanaw na namin retorika, pasalita man o pasulat. ang maluwang na bibig ng bulkan. 2. ISANG TEMPORAL NA SINING: Ang retorika ay WASTONG HALIMBAWA: Tanaw na tanaw na namin nakabatay sa panahon. ang maluwang na bunganga ng bulkan. 3. ISANG LIMITADONG SINING: sa realidad hindi GAMPANIN NG BALARILA SA RETORIKA lahat ng bagay ay magagawa nito. Kung sa imahinasyon ay walang limitasyon ang retorika, sa Gamitin nang wasto ang Balarila at Retorika upang realidad ay limitado ang kayang gawin nito. maging malinaw ang mga pahayag. 4. ISANG MAY KABIGUAN SINING: Hindi lahat ng May mga pagkakataon na tama ang kahulugan ngunit tao ay magaling sa paghawak ng wika, marami sa hindi angkop ang pagkakagamit. atin ang limitado lamang ang kaalaman at kasanayan TATLONG MAHAHALAGANG SAKLAW NG sa wika. Bunga nito, hindi lahat ng tao ay BALARILA nagtatagumpay sa layunin sa lahat ng pagkakataon, sailang mga tao sa ilang mga okasyon ang retorika ay - Kaayusan ng mga salita sa pangungusap nagiging frustrating na karanasan. - Pagpili ng mabisang salita sa pagbuo ng kahulugang naglalayon. Maraming mga salita 5. ISANG NAGSUSUPLING SINING: ang retorika ay ang magkakasing-kahulugan subalit may kani- nagsusupling ng mga kaalaman Saklaw ng Retorika kaniyang tiyak na gamit. Wika Sining Pilosopiya Lipunan. - Paggamit ng mga retorikal na kagamitan o transisyunal na pananalita. PAMAMARAAN SA PAGSULAT MASINING NA 2. PANGHIHIKAYAT (CONATIVE) - Ito ay ang gamit PAYAHAG ng wika upang makahimok at makaimpluwensya sa iba sa pamamagitan ng pag-uutos at pakiusap. 1. Magkaroon ng maraming artikulong binabasa na mapaghahanguan ng kaisipan 3. PAGSISIMULA SA PAKIKIPAG-UGNAYAN (PHATIC) - Ginagamit ang wika upang makipag- 2. Sanayin ang sarili sa palagiang pagsusulat ng iba’t- ugnayan sa kapwa at makapagsimula ng usapan. ibang uri ng artikulo. 4. PAGGAMIT BILANG SANGGUNIAN 3. Makipagpalitan ng kaisipan sa iba/kapwa upang (REFENTIAL) - Ipinakikita nito ang gamit ng wikang yumaman ang sariling kaisipan /ideya. nagmula sa aklat at iba pang sangguniang 4. Maglaan ng oras sa panonood ng telebisyon, sa pinagmulan ng kaalaman upang magparating ng mga pelikula, sa mga panooring pang-entablado at mensahe at impormasyon. iba pang mapaghahanguan ng kaisipan. 5. PAGGAMIT NG KURO-KURO (METALINGUAL) - 5. Maglakbay at maging sensitibo sa pag-oobserba sa Ito ang gamit na lumilinaw sa mga suliranin sa paligid. pamamagitan ng pagbibigay ng komento sa isang kodigo o batas. 6. Mg-surf sa internet upang makapangalap ng maraming impormasyon. 6. PATALINGHAGA (POETIC) - Saklaw nito ang gamit ng wika sa masining na paraan ng 7. Mapanghawakan ang emosyong nasa mataas na pagpapahayaggaya ng panulaan, prosa, sanaysay, at lebel na maging hanguan ng paksang isusulat. iba pa. SAKLAW NG MASINING NA PAHAYAG 1. TAO/MGA TAO. Tumutukoy ito sa mga tao ARALIN 3 lipunang makikinig o di kaya’y babasa ng isinulat o Martin Joas sa panulat ni Austero (1999) ang wika ipinahayag ng manunulat. ay may estilong frozen. Katumbas nito’y mga salitang nasa loob ng ating utak na inilalabas o inaalaala sa 2. KASANAYAN NG MANUNULAT. Kung walang panahong sadyang kailangan. kasanayang pansarili ang manunulat mahirap magkaroon ng sining ang mabisang pahayag. MGA ANGKOP NA KAISIPANG ANGKOP SA PAGPAPAHAYAG 3. WIKA. Ang wika ay sadyang makapangyarihan. PAGKALINAWAN (2004) - ang wika ay salamin ng 4. KULTURA. Malaki ang kinalaman ng kultura sa kaisipan at saloobin ng tao. pagpapaunlad ng sinabi o pinahayag dahil anumang gampanin ng isang mamamayan, tuwina ito’y saklaw TRUDGILL - ang wika’y di lamang ng kulturang kinabibilangan. pakikipagtalastasan o pagbibigay impormasyon, manapa ang pahayag ay ginagamit upang mapanatili 5. PILOSOPIYA. Tumutukoy ito sa pansarilinng ang magandang ugnayan, pagkakaisa at pilosopiya ng manunulat o di kay’ay pilosopiya ng iba pagkakaunawaan ng mambabasa. na mapag-aangklahan ng ipinahahayag ng manunulat. DR. OFELIA SILAPAN AT PROP. LIGAYA RUBIN (1999) - ang kalinawan, kawastuhan at katiyakan sa 6.SINING. Kumakatawan ito sa taglay na galing o pagsusulat at pagsasalita ay natutupad kung sapat talino ng manunulat mananalita sa larangan ng ang talasalitaan ng manunulat, nagagamit at pagsasalita o pagsusulat. nagagawa niyang maiangkop ang mga salitang ito sa anumang isinusulat o sinasabi. BADAYOS (1999) - ang paggamit ng mga tayutay ay PARAAN NG PAGGAMIT NG WIKANG FILIPINO nagsisilbing panghimok sa mga mag-aaral sa 1. PAGPAPAYAHAG NG DAMDAMIN (EMOTIVE) - pagbibigay ng masining na paghahambing ng mga saklaw nito ang pagpapahayag ng mga saloobin o bagay o pangyayari. damdamin. SEBASTIAN (1956) sa panulat nina Tanawan et.al 5.PAGUYAM (SARCASM/IRONY) -Isang tayutay na (2003), ang pahayag retorika ay tumutukoy sa mga kung saan ito ay pangungutya o pangaasar ito sa tao batas ng malinaw, mabisa at maayos na o bagay. pagpapahayag. Halimbawa: Ang sipag mo naman, Juan. Makikita ko ang sipag mo sa madumi mong warto. IBA’T-IBANG MGA MATALINHAGANG PAHAYAG 6.PAGLIPAT-WIKA -Ito ay paggamit ng pang-uri A. SALAWIKAIN - nakasulat sa anyong patula kayat upang ipaglalarawan ang mga bagay. may sukat at tugma mayaman ito sa kagandahang Halimbawa: Ang masayang larawan ni Pedro ay asal. Maituturing na matalinhaga dahil magkaminsan nagpapakita nga kanyang emosyon ngayon. di-tahasang sinasabi ang tunay na kahulugan. 7.PAGLILIPAT-SAKLAW (SYNECDOCHE) - Pagbanggit ito sa bahagi nga isang bagay o ideya LOPE K. SANTOS (1999) - sa aklat ni Tanwan bilang katapat ng kabuuan. (2003), ang salawikain ay karunungang napag-aralan Halimbawa: Tatlong kamay ang tumutulong sa ng tao. kawawang ulila B. SAWIKAIN - Ito ay nagsasaad din ng 8.PAGTAWAG (APOSTROPHE) -Ito ay pagtawag sa kagandahang asal ngunit di kasinlalim ng mga bagay na parang ikinausap sila. ipinahahayag ng salawikain. Kumabaga tanging mga Halimbawa: O Pag-ibig, nasaan ka na? paalala ito sa taong nakakalimot kaya’t mababaw lamang ang aral na ibinibigay. 9.TANONG RETORIKAL (RHETORICAL QUESTION) -Mga tanong ito na hindi C. KASABIHAN - ito ay bukambibig na hango sa nangangailangan nga sagot. karansan ng tao at nagsisilbing patnubay sa dapat Halimbawa: Kailangan ko bang tanggapin na hindi gawin sa buhay. (Nacin et.al 2003). Sa anyo, niya ko mapapansin at mamahalin? kadalasa’y anyong patula na isa o dalawa ang 10.PAGPAPALIT- TAWAG (METONYMY) -Ito ay taludtod na may sukat at tugma. pansamantalang pagpapalit ng mga pangalan ng D. IDYOMA - matalinhagang pahayag na nakatago sa bagay na magkaugnay. likod ng salita ang tunay na kahulugan nito. Halimbawa: Igalang dapat ang mga maputing naniningalang pugad – nanliligaw buhok. kabungguang balikat – kaibigan 11.PANDAMDAM (EXCLAMATORY) -Ito ay di mahulugang karayom – matao naglalarawan sa mga karaniwang damdamin E. TAYUTAY - Anumang pahayag ay gumaganda Halimbawa: Noon, kapag nakikita kita, punung-puno kung katuwang nito’y mga tayutay sa iba’t-ibang uri ako ng kaligayahan at kilig pero ngayon, sa tuwing nito. nakikita kita na may ibang kasama, dumilim ang mundo ko at punung-puno ng pighati at kirot. 1.PAGTUTULAD/SIMILI - Ang paghahambing ng dalawang bagay sa tulong ng mga salitang 12.TAMBISAN (ANTITHESIS) -Ito ay pagtatabi ng pahambing sa masining na pahayag. mga hagap na nagkakahidwaan sa kahulugan upang 2.PAGWAWANGIS (METAPHOR) - Ito ay katulad ng lalong mapatingkad na lalo ang mga salita. pagtutulad, maliban sa hindi ginagamit ang mga Halimbawa: Ang pag-ibig ay ideyal ngunit salitang tulad ng, katulad ng, parang, kawangis ng, ang kasal ay tunay na bagay. animo, kagaya ng atbp. 3.PAGTATAO (PERSONIFICATION) - Ito ay 13.PAG-UULIT (ALLITERATION) -Ginagamit nito pagsasalin ng talino, gawi at katangian ng tao sa ang magkatulad na titik o pantig sa simula ng dalawa bagay. o mahigit pang salitang ginagamit sa isang 4.EKSAHERASYON (HYPERBOLE) - Ito ay lubhang pangungusap. pinalalabis o pinakukulang ang katunayan at Halimbawa: Si Sam ay sumasayaw sa silid-aralan. kalagayan ng tao, bagay, pangyayari atbp. 14.PAGTANGGI (LITOTES) -Ito ay ginagamit ang Halimbawa: Ang pagmamahal ko sa iyo ay singlayo salitang “hindi” sa unahan ng pangungusap. ng buwan. Halimbawa: Hindi niyo ako maloloko 15.SALANTUNAY (PARADOX) -Ito ay ang CC 106 pagpapahayag ng isang katotohanan sa INTRODUCTION TO APPLICATION pamamagitan ng paggamit ng sangkap na animo’y di DEVELOPMENT totoo sa biglang basa o dinig. Ang mayaman ay mahirap sa kaligayahan. APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT - the process of creating a computer program or a set of programs to 16.PANGITAIN (VISION IMAGERY) -Ito ay perform the different tasks that a business requires. nagpapahayag ng mga laman ng isip na animo’y - goes to the process of planning, creating, testing tunay na kaharap o nakikita sa nagsasalita. and deploying an information system, also known as Nakikita kong mananalo ako sa kompetisyon. the software development life cycle. 17.PAGHAHALINTULAD (ANALOGY) -Ito ay pagtutulad ng dalawang bagay, lugar, o ideya na THE BASIC STAGE OF SDLC magkatumbas. Phase 1: Planning - involves defining the software’s Halimbawa: Ang dalaga ay parang isang bulaklak, at purpose and scope, much like pinpointing our ang binata ay parang isang bubuyog. destination and plotting the best route. A feasibility study also takes place during the Kahulugan: Planning phase. Developers and product teams a. Ang mga damo ay sumasayaw. evaluate technical and financial challenges that might - pagsasatao (personipikasyon). Ang damo ay affect the software’s development or success. gumagalaw, marahil dahil sa ihip ng hangin. The Planning phase fosters effective communication and collaboration within the team. By defining clear b. Igalang dapat ang mga maputing buhok. roles, responsibilities, and expectations, it lays a solid - pagtanda o karunungan ng mga nakatatanda. foundation for an efficient software development Dapat silang igalang dahil sila ay matanda. process. Phase 2: Requirements Analysis - seeks to identify c. Parang nabiyak ang aking ulo sa kaiisip sa ginawa and record the precise requirements of the final users. mo. In this phase, the team is looking to answer, “What - sakit ng ulo na dulot ng labis na pag-aalala o pag are the expectations of our users from our software?” iisip This is called requirements gathering. The project team collects information from d. Mas magiting ang panulat kaysa espada. stakeholders, including analysts, users, and clients. - metapora. mas makapangyarihan ang salita o ideya Phase 3: Design - all about building the framework. kaysa sa dahas o karahasan. Kahalagahan ng The development team is responsible for software komunikasyon. engineering and outlines the software’s functionality and aesthetic. e. Ang ulilang bag na iyun ay galing kay Tala. The Design phase is the link between the software’s - metapora. Isang bagay na iniwan o walang tagapag- purpose (established in the Planning and alaga. Requirements Analysis phases) and its execution (defined in the coding phase). f. Tatlong kamay ang tumutulong sa kawawang ulila. Phase 4: Coding – when engineers and developers - tulong ng iba’t ibang tao sa isang nangangailangan get down to business and start converting the software design into tangible code. g. Si Bino ay humingi ng kamay sa dalaga. Developers use an appropriate programming - paghingi ng pahintulot upang magpakasal o mag- language, Java or otherwise, to write the code, guided umpisa ng relasyon. by the SDD and coding guidelines. Phase 5: Testing – a stringent quality inspection on a production line. It is when vulnerabilities are uncovered. Software testing involves a thorough examination of the software for any bugs or glitches that might have slipped through during coding. Once the required fixes are implemented, the Spiral Model - This model combines the iterative software re-enters the testing phase for validation. model's repeated cycles with the waterfall model's Phase 6: Deployment - After crafting a product with linear flow to prioritize risk analysis. It's best for precision, it’s time to present it to the users by complex projects with frequent changes but can be pushing to the production environment. The expensive for smaller projects. Deployment phase involves rolling out the Big Bang Model - The Big Bang Model is a unique meticulously tested and fine-tuned software to its end- approach where developers jump right into coding users. without much planning. This means that requirements Phase 7: Maintenance - is characterized by constant are implemented as they come, without any kind of assistance and improvement, which guarantees the clear roadmap. If changes are needed, it can require software’s best possible functioning and longevity and a complete revamp of the software. ensures it meets customer expectations. The maintenance phase also considers long-term Lesson 2 strategies, for instance, upgrading or replacing the CSS – Cascading Style Sheet allow you to control software. the layout of your HTML document. - is usually a text file that is separate from your HTML COMMON SDLC MODELS file. Waterfall Model HTML is used to define the pages content while CSS The key words for the waterfall method of is used to define how the content and web page will application development are planning and sequence. look. The entire project is mapped out in the planning and analysis stages. CSS Structure Waterfall Works Best As An Application Declaration box: Development Method When: p – selector You don’t anticipate many changes { - curly braces Budgets are fixed for the project : colon You’ve done a similar project before ; semicolon The customer is very clear and doesn’t plan to be red – value involved much until the end color – property Agile Model The Agile methodology was developed as a Capabilities of CSS response to growing frustrations with Waterfall and 1. CSS makes updating web pages easy and quickly other highly structured, inflexible methodologies. 2. CSS gives you control when placing objects on the This approach is designed to accommodate change page exactly where you want them. and the need to produce software faster. 3. CSS allows you to position objects in three Unlike Waterfall, Agile is well equipped to handle the dimensions (layers). complexity and variability involved in development 4. CSS allows you to create custom tags to achieve projects. specialized objectives. Agile Is A Great Application Development Advantages: Methodology When: 1. Save typing and development time. The project is large enough to break down into 2. Download faster because your browser will several sprints. download only one file once. You have a lot of specialist who can work on a team 3. You can add multiple link tags in one document. together. The bulk of the project is known ahead of time and Kinds of CSS: can be planned out. 1. Inline Style Sheets – these are used for isolated You have good project leaders in place. changes to a headline, paragraph, picture or other Iterative Model - With this model, the team begins element. development with a small set of requirements and Ex: iteratively enhances versions until the software is 2. Embedded Style Sheets (Internal Style Sheets) ready for production. – used for creating a document-wide style rule. They are placed within an HTML document between the Operators in JavaScript and Arithmetic Operators: +, -, *, /, % Ex: Assignment Operators: =, +=, -=, etc. 3. External Style Sheets – most global of the 3 kinds Comparison Operators: ==, ===, !=, !==, of css because you can apply the same one to an Logical Operators: &&, ||, ! unlimited number of pages. They allow you to develop a consistent style across pages. Easily allow you to JavaScript Functions change layout of your entire website by simply A function is a block of code designed to perform a changing the external style sheet. particular task. Ex: Syntax: function functionName(parameters) { Lesson 3 // code to be executed JavaScript is a dynamic programming } language used for web development. Runs in the browser, enabling interactive Example: content. Can be used for front-end and back-end function greet(name) { development (Node.js). return “Hello ” + name; JavaScript Development Tools } Microsoft FrontPage: Microsoft has developed let message = greet(“John”); // “Hello John” a popular HTML editor called FrontPage. FrontPage also provides web developers with a Type of Functions number of JavaScript tools to assist in the - Function Declaration creation of interactive websites. function sum(a, b) { Macromedia Dreamweaver MX: very popular return a + b; HTML and JavaScript editor in the professional web } development crowd. It provides several handy prebuilt JavaScript components. - Function Expression Macromedia HomeSite 5: HomeSite 5 isa well- const multiply = function(a, b) { liked HTML and JavaScript editor from Macromedia return a * b; that can be used to manage personal websites } effectively. - Arrow Function JavaScript Variables const divide = (a, b) => a / b; Variables are containers for storing data values. Syntax: Control Structures Use var, let, or const to declare variables. If-else Statement: let and const are block-scoped (introduced if (age > 18) { in ES6). console.log(“Adult”); } else { JavaScript Data Types Console.log(“Minor”); Primitive Data Types: } String: "Hello World“ Number: 42, 3.14 For Loop: Boolean: true, false for (let i=0; i < 5; i++) { Undefined: Variable declared but not console.log(i); assigned a value } Null: Represents "nothing“ Non-Primitive: Object: { name: "John", age: 30 } Array: [1, 2, 3] Lesson 4 1.Create a new element using JavaScript in the Browser document.createElement. Document Object Model (DOM) is a programming 2.Set attributes and content as interface for interacting with HTML, XML, and other needed. structured documents. 3.Append the element to the DOM. Key Notes: Represents a document as a tree structure. Event Handling - Responding to user interactions Each node in the tree represents an element, with web pages. attribute, or text. Common Events: The DOM allows you to modify, create, and delete click, mouseover, mouseout, keydown, elements. keyup, submit. DOM Tree Event Listeners: Root node: html Attach event listeners to elements using Child nodes: head and body addEventListener. Grandchild nodes: title, script, p, h1 Example: button.addEventListener('click', Explain: function() {... }); Each node has properties (e.g., tagName, childNodes, attributes) and methods (e.g., DOM Manipulation inJavaScript appendChild, removeChild, innerHTML). Example: Create a simple HTML page with a button. Accessing Elements Use JavaScript to add a click event listener. Methods: When the button is clicked, change the color of the getElementById: Retrieves an element by its ID. background. getElementsByTagName: Retrieves a list of elements by their tag name. getElementsByClassName: Retrieves a list of elements by their class name. Change Background Color querySelector: Retrieves the first element that matches a CSS selector. querySelectorAll: Retrieves a list of elements that Click Me match a CSS selector. Modifying Elements Properties: const button = innerHTML: Sets or gets the HTML content of an document.getElementById("myButton"); element.textContent: Sets or gets the text content button.addEventListener("click", of an function() { element.style: Sets or gets the CSS styles of an document.body.style.backgroundColor = element.attributes: Sets or gets the attributes of an "blue"; element. ); } Modifying Elements Methods: appendChild: Adds a child node to an element.removeChild: Removes a child node from Lesson 5 an ADVANCED INTERFACE DESIGN AND USER element.replaceChild: Replaces a child node with EXPERIENCE another. - User-Centered Design: This approach Creating Elements prioritizes the needs, preferences, and Steps: limitations of end-users at every stage of the design process. Importance in Modern Applications: Structuring Information for Complex Applications Enhanced Usability: Well-designed interfaces Organizing Content: Use clear categories, tags, make applications intuitive and easy to navigate, and navigation systems to help users find information reducing the learning curve for users. easily. Increased User Satisfaction: A positive user User-Centered Design: Structure content based experience leads to higher satisfaction, encouraging on user needs and behaviors, ensuring that the most users to return and recommend the application. important information is easily accessible. Competitive Advantage: In a crowded market, superior UI/UX can differentiate a product, making it Content Strategy more appealing than competitors. Aligning Content with User Goals: Ensure that Accessibility: Inclusive design practices ensure that all content is relevant to the user’s needs and helps applications are usable by people with diverse them achieve their goals. abilities, broadening the user base. Consistency and Clarity: Maintain a consistent Efficiency and Productivity: Streamlined interfaces tone, style, and structure across all content to and workflows enhance user efficiency, leading to enhance user understanding and trust. increased productivity. Importance of Responsive Design Advanced User-Centered Design Principles User Accessibility: Ensures a seamless Definition and Importance experience across various devices (desktops, 1. Focus on user needs and behaviors tablets, smartphones). Understanding the target audience through Improved SEO: Search engines favor mobile- research and analysis. friendly websites, improving search rankings. 2. Enhancing usability and accessibility Cost Efficiency: Reduces the need for multiple Ensuring that the design is easy to use and versions of a site, saving time and resources. accessible to all users, including those with disabilities. Techniques for Creating Responsive Interfaces Fluid Grids and Flexible Layouts: Use relative Key Principles units like percentages instead of fixed units like pixels 1. Empathy and user research to create layouts that adapt to different screen sizes. Conducting user interviews, surveys, and Media Queries and Breakpoints: Apply CSS rules usability testing to gather insights. based on device characteristics to adjust the layout 2. Iterative design process and design. Continuously refining and improving the design Mobile-First Design Approach: Start designing for based on user feedback. the smallest screen size first and progressively 3. Inclusive design enhance the design for larger screens. Designing for diversity and ensuring that the product is usable by people with a wide range of Purpose of Prototyping in UX Design abilities and backgrounds. Validation: Test and validate design concepts before full-scale development. Definition and Role in UX User Feedback: Gather user feedback early to Information Architecture (IA): The practice of make informed design decisions. organizing and structuring content in a way that Iterative Improvement: Refine and improve designs makes it easily accessible and understandable for through multiple iterations. users. Content Strategy: The planning, creation, Types of Prototypes delivery, and governance of content. It ensures Low-Fidelity: Wireframes, sketches, and basic that content is useful, usable, and aligned with layouts to quickly convey ideas. both user needs and business goals. High-Fidelity: Interactive prototypes that closely resemble the final product, including detailed design and functionality. Tools and Methods CS 212 – SOFTWARE ENGINEERING Figma, Sketch, Adobe XD: Popular tools for creating both low and high-fidelity prototypes. Software: The set of instructions or programs that User Testing with Prototypes: Conduct usability instruct a computer to perform tasks. tests to gather insights and improve the design based Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC): The on user interactions. process used by development teams to create, design, and test software in an organized way. Key Concepts in Interaction Design Waterfall Model: A model of the SDLC that Usability: Ensuring the interface is easy to use completes each phase before moving to the next, and understand. visualized as flowing downward. Feedback: Providing users with clear responses to Deployment: The stage in the SDLC where the their actions. software product is released to users for operation in the real environment. Techniques for Enhancing User Interaction Agile Methodology: A framework for managing Microinteractions: Small, subtle animations that complex projects by breaking them down into provide feedback and enhance user experience smaller, manageable parts, typically done in Animation and Transitions: Smooth transitions iterations. and animations to guide users and make interactions Sprint: A short period of time in Agile development (2 feel natural. to 4 weeks) where a set of features is developed. Feedback and Affordances: Visual cues that Sprint Retrospective: A meeting where the team indicate how an element can be interacted with reflects on the last sprint and discusses what went well and what could be improved. Product Owner: A role in Agile responsible for maximizing the product's value by managing the product backlog. Daily Scrum: A brief daily meeting in Agile where the team discusses what was done yesterday, today's plans, and any obstacles. System Design: The process of transforming detailed requirements into a system design. Continuous Integration: A practice in Agile development where coding and testing happen simultaneously to detect and fix bugs quickly. Requirements Document: A document used in the SDLC to outline detailed requirements for a software system. Agile Development: A methodology encouraging adaptive planning, evolutionary development, early delivery, and continuous improvement. End-User: The individual or group who will use the software being developed. Maintenance: The phase in the SDLC where the system is monitored for performance issues and necessary maintenance is performed. Testing Strategy: The set of activities that define when and how to test software to ensure it works as expected. Project Management Tools: A collection of tools and techniques used to manage software development projects, ensuring quality and efficiency. User Interface (UI) Diagram: A visual or ✓ A layered architecture separates concerns diagrammatic representation of how users will interact into different layers. with a software system. ✓ Interaction models show the flow of data and Backlog Refinement: A continuous process in Agile control between system components. development to prioritize and manage the ✓ Agile is suitable for projects with frequently features and tasks needed to build a product. changing requirements. Sprint Backlog: A specific list of work items to be ✓ Software engineering principles include completed during a sprint in Agile development. technical and ethical responsibilities. ✓ Reuse-oriented software engineering ✓ Software engineering focuses on creating emphasizes using existing components. software solutions, not hardware. ✓ Prototyping is used to gather user feedback ✓ A software project is temporary with a defined before developing the final system. goal, while a software product is the result. ✓ The Waterfall model follows a sequential ✓ Good software should be maintainable, but it process where each phase depends on the doesn't have to be error-free. completion of the previous one. ✓ Non-functional requirements refer to how the ✓ Requirements specification involves creating a system performs, such as security and document that outlines the software's scalability. functions. ✓ A context model shows the interaction ✓ The primary focus of software testing is between a system and its environment. ensuring the software meets requirements, ✓ Structural models represent the static aspects not just finding bugs. of a system, not its behavior over time. ✓ Architectural views provide multiple ✓ The MVC (Model-View-Controller) design perspectives on a system's structure. pattern is commonly used in web applications. ✓ Architectural design involves determining the structure and organization of a system's components. ✓ Incremental development builds software in pieces that are later integrated. ✓ Agile development focuses on flexibility and collaboration, not strict documentation. ✓ In test-driven development (TDD), tests are written before the code is implemented. ✓ Requirements engineering involves gathering, analyzing, and validating requirements. ✓ Functional requirements describe the intended behavior of the software. ✓ Software processes are not always linear; some are iterative like Agile. ✓ Agile project management prioritizes customer collaboration and flexibility. ✓ Validation ensures that requirements are correct and complete. ✓ Behavioral models describe the dynamic aspects of a system. ✓ Patterns in architectural design are reusable solutions to common problems. ✓ Plan-driven development typically follows a fixed process with less flexibility. ✓ Agile development is iterative with continuous feedback. CS 104 - Algorithm and Complexity Main purpose of Theory of Computation: “Develop a formal mathematical model of computation that LESSON 1. Introduction to Theory of Computation reflects real world computers.” Theory of Computation – is the branch of computer Algorithm - a finite set of instruction that specifies a science that deals with how efficiently problems can sequence of operation is to be carried out in order to be solved on a model of computation, using an solve a specific problem or class of problems algorithm. - a list of instructions specifying a sequence of operations, which will give the answer to any problem AUTOMATA, COMPUTABILITY, AND COMPLEXITY of a given type. - three traditionally central areas of the theory of computation. They are linked by the Characteristics of Algorithm question: 1. Input – O or more inputs What are the fundamental capabilities and 2. Output – at least 1 output limitations of computers? - This question goes back 3. Definiteness – clear, exact to the 1930s when mathematical logicians first began 4. Finiteness – stop or the statement is terminated to explore the meaning of computation. 5. Effectiveness – efficient, the program is success COMPLEXITY THEORY - Computer problems come Problem  Algorithms in different varieties; some are easy, and some are Differences of Algorithm and Program hard. Algorithm Program What makes some problems computationally hard Design Implementation and others easy? - This is the central question of Domain Knowledge Programmer complexity theory. Any language Prog Language H/W & OS H/W & OS COMPUTABILITY THEORY - During the first half of Analyze Testing the twentieth century, mathematicians such as Kurt Godel, Alan Turing, and Alonzo Church discovered Example: Search ( array ) array that certain basic problems ¨ cannot be solved by Case 1: x is the first element computers. No. of checks = 1 BEST CASE Case 2: x is not present (unsuccessful) In complexity theory, the objective is to classify No. of checks = N WORST CASE problems as easy ones and hard ones; whereas in How do we calculate the worst-case time? computability theory, the classification of problems By counting the operations of the actual is by those that are solvable and those that are not. algorithm. AUTOMATA THEORY - deals with the definitions and How to Analyze Algorithm? properties of mathematical models of computation. Criteria: These models play a role in several applied areas of 1. Time – How much time it taken? computer science. Time efficient finite automaton - used in text processing, Time function f(n) compilers, and hardware design. 2. Space – we need to know how much the memory context-free grammar - used in programming consume languages and artificial intelligence. 3. N/Co – Network Consumption How much the data transfer Automata theory allows practice with formal 4. Power – how much power consumed definitions of computation as it introduces concepts 5. CPU Register relevant to other non-theoretical areas of computer science. History of Algorithm Design and Analysis of Algorithms - is a crucial Algorithm - comes from the name of a Persian subject of computer science technology: author, Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa al - deals with developing and studying efficient Khowarizmi (c. 825 A.D.), who wrote a textbook on algorithms for fixing computational issues. Mathematics. He is credited with providing the step-by-step Steps in Design and Analysis of Algorithms rules for adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing 1. Problem Formulation Process - entails identifying ordinary decimal numbers the computational problem to be solved as well as specifying the input and output criteria. Algorismus - when written in Latin, the name 2. Algorithm Layout - algorithm design process became Algorismus, from which algorithm entails creating a set of instructions that a computer originated. can use to solve the problem. 3. Algorithm Analysis Process - entails determining "algorithm" has come to refer to a method that can the method's efficiency in terms of time and space be used by a computer for the solution of a problem. complexity. Between 400 and 300 B.C., the great Greek 4. Algorithm Optimization Process - involves mathematician Euclid invented an algorithm. enhancing the method's efficiency by making changes to the design or implementation. Why study Algorithm? As the speed of processor increases, performance is Strategies in Algorithm’s Design and Evaluation frequently said to be less central than other software 1. Brute Force Algorithms - are exactly what they quality characteristics (e.g. security, extensibility, sound like – straightforward methods of solving a reusability etc.). problem that rely on sheer computing power and Large problem sizes are commonplace in the area of trying every possibility rather than advanced computational science, which makes performance a techniques to improve efficiency. very important factor. 2. Divide and Conquer Algorithms - In computer Because longer computation time, to name a few science, divide and conquer is an algorithm design mean slower results, less through research and paradigm. A divide-and-conquer algorithm recursively higher cost of computation (if buying CPU Hours from breaks down a problem into two or more sub- an external party). problems of the same or related type, until these The study of Algorithm, therefore, gives us a become simple enough to be solved directly. language to express performance as 3. Dynamic Programming - is defined as a computer a function of problem size. programming technique where an algorithmic problem is first broken down into sub-problems, the results are Types of Algorithms saved, and then the sub-problems are optimized to 1. Searching Algorithms find the overall solution. 2. Approximation Algorithms Richard Bellman was the one who came up 3. Greedy Algorithms with the idea for dynamic programming in the 1950s. 4. Backtracking Algorithm Fibonacci sequence is a classic example 5. Dynamic Programming that demonstrates the power of dynamic 6. Mathematical Algorithms programming. 7. Bitwise Algorithms 4. Greedy Algorithms - a class of algorithms that 8. Sorting Algorithms make locally optimal choices at each step with the 9. Divide and Conquer Algorithms hope of finding a global optimum solution. 10. Recursion Algorithm 11. Randomized Algorithms The steps to define a greedy algorithm are: 12. Pattern Searching 1. Define the problem: Clearly state the problem to 13. Geometric Algorithms be solved and the objective to be optimized. 14. Branch and Bound Algorithm 2. Identify the greedy choice: Determine the locally optimal choice at each step based on the current state. 3. Make the greedy choice: Select the greedy choice 2. Better scalability: As the size of the input and update the current state. information will increase, poorly designed algorithms 4. Repeat: Continue making greedy choices until a can quickly turn out to be unmanageable, leading to solution is reached. slow execution times and crashes. 3. Improved code exceptional: A nicely designed Algorithm Analysis - refers to how to investigate the algorithm can result in better code first-rate standard, effectiveness of the algorithm in terms of time and because it encourages developers to think seriously space complexity. about their application's shape and organization. - is to decide how much time and space an algorithm 4. Increased innovation: By knowing how algorithms needs to solve the problem as a feature of the scale work and how they can be optimized, developers can of the input create new and progressive solutions to complex problems. Algorithm Analysis importance: 5. Competitive benefit: In industries where pace and - To forecast the behavior of an algorithm without performance are vital, having properly designed putting it into action on a specific computer algorithms can provide an extensive - It is far more convenient to have basic metrics for an competitive advantage. algorithm's efficiency than to develop the algorithm and access its efficiency each time a specific Application of Algorithms parameter in the underlying computer system 1. Search engines: Google and other search engines changes use complex algorithms to index and rank websites, ensuring that users get the most relevant search Types of Algorithm Analysis results 1, Time complexity evaluation: This kind of analysis 2, Machine Learning: Machine learning algorithms measures the running time of an algorithm as a are used to train computer programs to learn from characteristic of the input length. data and make predictions or decisions based on that 2. Space complexity evaluation: This form of data. evaluation measures the amount of memory required 3. Cryptography: Cryptographic algorithms are used via an algorithm as a characteristic of the enter size. to secure data transmission and protect sensitive 3. Worst-case evaluation: This type of analysis information such as credit card numbers and measures the worst-case running time or space passwords utilization of an algorithm, assuming the enter is the 4. Optimization: Optimization algorithms are used to maximum toughest viable for the algorithm to deal find the optimal solution to a problem, such as the with shortest path between two points or the most efficient 4. Average-case analysis: This kind of evaluation resource allocation path measures the predicted walking time or area usage of 5. Finance: Algorithms are used in finance for an algorithm, assuming a probabilistic distribution of applications such as risk assessment, fraud detection, inputs and frequent trading 5. Best-case evaluation: This form of analysis 6. Games: Game developers use artificial intelligence measures the nice case running time or area and algorithms to navigate, allowing game characters utilization of an algorithm, assuming the input is the to make intelligent decisions and navigate game easiest possible for the algorithm to address environments more efficiently 6. Asymptotic analysis: This sort of analysis 7. Data Analytics: Data analytics applications use measures the overall performance of an algorithm as algorithms to process large amounts of data and the enter size methods infinity. extract meaningful insights, such as trends and patterns Advantages of design and analysis of algorithm: 8. Robotics: Robotics algorithms are used to control 1. Improved efficiency: A properly designed robots and enable them to perform complex tasks algorithm can notably improve the performance of a such as recognizing and manipulating objects program, leading to quicker execution instances and reduced resource utilization. Lesson 2 Basic of Algorithm CS 110 Lesson 1 Introduction to Operating System An ALGORITHM and PROGRAM is a step-by-step procedure to solve specific problem. Operating system (OS) is a software which acts as an interface between the end user and computer Differences: hardware. Every computer must have at least one OS Algorithm to run other programs. 1. It is an abstract concept. 2. Can be written in any language. Hardware – CPU, Memory, Hard Drive 3. Developed during design phase. Operating System – Windows, Apple OS X, Linux 4. Independent of the hardware and Operating End User System. 5. It is analyzed. History of OS Program - Operating systems were first developed in the late 1. It is a concrete implementation. 1950s to manage tape storage 2. Can be written using a Programming Language. - The General Motors Research Lab implemented 3. Developed during Development Phase. the first OS in the early 1950s for their IBM 701 4. Depends on the hardware and Operating System. - In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use 5. It is tested. disks - In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS Algorithm was developed - The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built 1. Start in 1981 by purchasing the 86-DOS software from a 2. Initialize a variable result to 1 Seattle company 3. Read the input number ‘n’ - The present-day popular OS Windows first came to 4. Repeat the following until ‘n’ becomes ‘0’ existence in 1985 when a GUI was created and a. Multiply result by ‘n’ paired with MS-DOS b. Decrement ‘n’ by 1. 5. Print the value of ‘result’ as the factorial. The first operating system is named as Resident 6. Stop Monitor. Parts of Resident Monitor Program 1. Control card interpreter - responsible for reading and carrying out instructions on the cards Int fact(int n) 2. Loader - loads systems programs and application { programs into memory. int result = 1; 3. Device Driver - knows special characteristics and while (n > 0) { properties for each of the system’s I/O devices. result *= n; n--; Features of Operating System } - Protected and supervisor mode return result; - Manipulation of the file system } - Allows disk access and file systems Device drivers Networking Security - Program Execution - Memory management - Handling I/O operations - Error Detection and handling - Resource allocation - Information and Resource Protection Components of Computer System 2. Memory management module performs the task 1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources of allocation and deallocation of memory space to (CPU, memory, I/O devices). programs in need of this resources. 2. Operating system – controls and coordinates the 3. File management – it manages all the file-related use of the hardware among the various application activities such as organization storage, retrieval, programs for the various users. naming, sharing, and protection of files. A file 3. Applications programs – define the ways in which represents a collection of related information. the system resources are used to solve the computing Computers can store files on the disk (secondary problems of the users (compilers, database systems, storage), for long-term storage purpose. video games, business programs). A file system is normally organized into directories 4. Users (people, machines, other computers). for easy navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and other directions. An operating system serves as : 4. Device Management keeps track of all devices. 1. Resource Allocator – manages and allocates The module also responsible for this task is known as resources. the I/O controller. It also performs the task of 2. Control Program – controls the execution of user allocation and deallocation of the devices. programs and operations of I/O devices. 5. I/O (Input/Output) System Management - An I/O 3. Kernel - the central component of a computer subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their operating system. The only job performed by the corresponding driver software. I/O operation means kernel is to manage the communication between the read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O software and the hardware. The nucleus of a device. computer. 6. Secondary-Storage Management - Systems have several levels of storage which include primary What does an Operating System DO? storage, secondary storage, and cache storage. 1. Process Management - A process is a program in 7. Security module protects the data and information execution, and an integral part of any modern-day of a computer system against malware threat and operating system (OS). The OS must allocate unauthorized access. resources to processes, enable processes to share 8. Command interpretation - This module is and exchange information. interpreting commands given by the user and acting 2. Process synchronization in OS is the task of system resources to process that commands coordinating the execution of processes in such a way The command interpreter's main role is to read, that no two processes can access the same shared interpret, and execute commands that are either data and resources. entered by the user or called by an application. 3. Memory management is the process of controlling 9. Networking - A distributed system is a group of and coordinating a computer's main memory. processors which do not share memory, hardware 4. File management in the operating system allows devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with users to create a new file, and modify and delete the one another through the network. old files present at different locations of the computer 10. Job Accounting - Keeping track of time & system. The operating system file management resource used by various job and users. software manages the locations of the file store so 11. Communication Management - Coordination that files can be extracted easily. and assignment of compilers, interpreters, and 5. Operating system security (OS security) is the another software resource of the various users of the process of ensuring OS integrity, confidentiality and computer systems. availability. Types of Operating System Functions of Operating System 1. Batch Operating System – some computer 1. Process Management - helps OS to create and processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To delete processes. It also provides mechanisms for speed the same process, a job wih a similar type of synchronization and communication among needs are batched together and run as a group. In processes. this type of OS every user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a punch card and submit it to the Operating system is a large and complex system computer operator. that can only be created by partitioning into small 2. Multitasking/Time Sharing OS – time sharing os pieces. enables people located at a different terminal (shell) Although Mac, Unix, Linux, Windows, and other OS to use a single computer system at the same time. do not have the same structure, most of the operating Processor time (CPU) shared among multiple users is systems share similar OS system components like termed as a time sharing. File, 3. Multiprocessing OS Process, 4. Real Time OS – time interval to process and Memory, and, respond to inputs is very small. Ex: military software I/O device management. systems, space software systems 5. Distributed OS – use many processors located in OS Components diff machines to provide very fast computation to its 1. File - a set of related information which should be users. defined by its creator. 6. Network OS – runs on a server. It provides the Function of file management in OS: capability to serve to manage data, user, groups, - File and directory creation and deletion. security, application, and other networking functions. - For manipulating files and directories. 7. Mobile OS – especially that are designed to power - Mapping files onto secondary storage. smartphones, tablets. Ex: Android, iOS, Blackberry, - Backup files on stable storage media Web 2. Process Management - is a procedure for managing the many processes that are running The advantage of using Operating System simultaneously on the operating system. 1. Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating Functions of process management in OS: an abstraction (Abstraction is the process of hiding - Process creation and deletion. the details and complexity of a system and presenting - Suspension and resumption. a simplified and consistent view to the users and - Synchronization process applications. - Communication process APIs are sets of functions, protocols, and data 3. I/O Device Management - One of the important structures that define how applications can interact use of an operating system that helps you to hide the with the OS and its services. variations of specific hardware devices from the user. 2. Easy to use with a GUI (Graphical User Interface) Functions of I/O management in OS: 3. Offers an environment in which a user may execute - It offers buffer caching system programs/applications - It provides general device driver code 4. The operating system must make sure that the - It provides drivers for particular hardware computer system convenient to use devices. 5. Operating System acts as an intermediary among - I/O helps you to knows the individualities of a applications and the hardware components specific device. 6. It provides the computer system resources with Buffer Caching System - a portion of memory (RAM) easy-to-use format allocated to temporarily store data retrieved from disk 7. Acts as an intermediary between all hardware's and storage devices such as hard drives or SSDs. software of the system 4. Network Management - the process of administering and managing computer networks. The Dis-advantage of using Operating System 5. Main Memory management - a large array of 1. If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the storage or bytes, which has an address. The memory contents which have been stored in your system management process is conducted by using a 2. Operating system's software is quite expensive for sequence of reads or writes of specific memory small size organizations which adds burden on them. addresses. Example Windows Functions of Memory management in OS: 3. It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at - It helps you to keep track of primary memory. any time - Determine what part of it are in use by whom, what part is not in use.  - In a multiprogramming system, the OS takes a You can consider it as the brain of the process, which decision about which process will get Memory contains all the crucial information related to and how much. processing like: - Allocates the memory when a process Process id, requests Process priority, - It also de-allocates the Memory when a Process state, and, process no longer requires or has been Process contents CPU register, etc terminated 6. Secondary-Storage Management -The most Here are the important properties of the process: important task of a computer system is to execute 1. Creation of each process requires separate programs. These programs, along with the data, helps system calls for each process. you to access, which is in the main memory during 2. It is an isolated execution entity and does not execution. Ex: USB flashdrives, cd/dvd drives share data and information. Functions of Secondary storage management in OS: 3. Processes use the IPC(Inter-Process - Storage allocation - is the process of Communication) mechanism for associating an area of storage with a variable communication that significantly increases the so that the data item(s) represented by the number of system calls. variable can be recorded internally. 4. Process management takes more system - Free space management - The operating calls. system manages the free space in the hard 5. A process has its stack, heap memory with disk. memory, and data map - Disk scheduling - is used to manage input and output requests to the disk. Disk Process management involves various tasks like Scheduling is important as multiple requests creation, scheduling, termination of processes, and a are coming to disk simultaneously and it is dead lock. Process is a program that is under also known as the "Request Scheduling execution, which is an important part of modern-day Algorithm" operating systems. 7. Security Management - The various processes in Process state is a condition of the process at a an operating system need to be secured from each specific instant of time. It also defines the current other's activities. position of the process. There are mainly seven stages of a process: Other Important Activities 1. New - The new process is created when a specific - The user's program can't execute I/O program calls from secondary memory/ hard disk to operations directly. The operating system primary memory/ RAM should provide some medium to perform this. 2. Ready - he process should be loaded into the - OS checks the capability of the program to primary memory, which is ready for execution. read, write, create, and delete files. - OS facilitates an exchange of information 3. Waiting - The process is waiting for the allocation between processes executing on the same or of CPU time and other resources for execution. different systems. 4. Executing: The process is an execution state. Lesson 2. Process 5. Blocked: It is a time interval when a process is Process is the execution of a program that allows you waiting for an event like I/O operations to complete. to perform the appropriate actions specified in a program. It can be defined as an execution unit where 6. Suspended: Suspended state defines the time a program runs. when a process is ready for execution but has not been placed in the ready queue by OS. A process operations can be easily controlled with the 7. Terminated: Terminated state specifies the time help of PCB (Process Control Block). when a process is terminated After completing every step, all the resources are Lesson 3. CPU Scheduling used by a process, and memory becomes free. 1. CPU – Central Processing Unit PCB or Process Control Block - It is a data 2. Burst time, also referred to as “execution time”. structure that is maintained by the Operating System It is the amount of CPU time the process requires to for every process. The PCB should be identified by an complete its execution. integer Process ID (PID). 3. Arrival Time - refers to the moment in time when a process enters the ready queue and is awaiting Important components of PCB: execution by the CPU. Process state: A process can be new, ready, running, waiting, etc. CPU Scheduling - it is a process of determining Program counter: The program counter lets you which process will own CPU for execution while know the address of the next instruction, which should another process is on hold. be executed for that process The main task of CPU scheduling is to make sure that CPU registers: This component includes whenever the CPU remains idle, the OS at least accumulators, index and general-purpose registers, select one of the processes available in the ready and information of condition code. queue for execution. CPU scheduling information: This The selection process will be carried out by the CPU component includes a process priority, pointers for scheduler. It selects one of the processes in memory scheduling queues, and various other scheduling that are ready for execution. parameters Accounting and business information: It includes 2 kinds: the amount of CPU and time utilities like real time Preemptive Scheduling - the tasks are mostly used, job or process numbers, etc. assigned with their priorities. The running process is Memory-management information: This information interrupted in the middle of its execution and placed in includes the value of the base and limit registers, the the ready queue until the high-priority process uses page, or segment tables. This depends on the the resources. memory system, which is used by the operating system. Advantages of Preemptive Scheduling I/O status information: This block includes a list of - It is a more robust method because a process open files, the list of I/O devices that are allocated to may not monopolize the processor. the process, etc. - Each event causes an interruption in the execution of ongoing tasks. OPERATION ON PROCESSES - It improves the average response time. 1. Process Creation - A process may create several - It is more beneficial when you use this method new processes during the course of execution in a multi-programming environment. Parent process- creating process - The operating system ensures that all running Child process- process created by parent processes use the same amount of CPU. The parent continues to execute concurrently with its children. The parent waits until all its children have Dis-advantages of Preemptive Scheduling terminated - It requires the use of limited computational 2. Process Termination - resources. - It takes more time suspending the executing process, switching the context, and dispatching the new incoming process. - If several high-priority processes arrive at the same time, the low-priority process would have to wait longer. Non-Preemptive Scheduling - a method that may be used when a process terminates or switches from a running to a waiting state. When the processor starts First Come First Serve (FCFS) - First Come First the process execution, it must complete it before Serve is the full form of FCFS. It is the easiest and executing the other process, and it may not be most simple CPU scheduling algorithm. interrupted in the middle. Characteristics of FCFS method: Burst Time/Execution Time: It is a time required by - It offers non-preemptive scheduling algorithm. the process to complete execution. It is also called - Jobs are always executed on a first-come, running time. first-serve basis Arrival Time: when a process enters in a ready state - It is easy to implement and use. Finish Time: when process complete and exit from a - However, this method is poor in performance, system and the general wait time is quite high Multiprogramming: Several programs which can be present in memory at the same time. Advantages of FCFS: Jobs: It is a type of program without any kind of user - Here, are pros/benefits of using FCFS interaction. scheduling algorithm: User: It is a kind of program having user interaction. - The simplest form of a CPU scheduling Process: It is the reference that is used for both job algorithm and user. - Easy to program CPU/IO burst cycle: Characterizes process - First come first served execution, which alternates between CPU and I/O Dis-advantages of FCFS: activity. CPU times are usually shorter than the time - It is a Non-Preemptive CPU scheduling of I/O. algorithm, so after the process has been allocated to the CPU, it will never release the CPU Scheduling Criteria CPU until it finishes executing. Maximize: - The Average Waiting Time is high. - CPU utilization: CPU utilization is the main - Short processes that are at the back of the task in which the operating system needs to - have to wait for the long process at the front to make sure that CPU remains as busy as finish. possible. - Not an ideal technique for time-sharing - Throughput: The number of processes that systems. finish their execution per unit time is known a - Because of its simplicity, FCFS is not very throughput. efficient Minimize: Round Robin Scheduling - the oldest, simplest - Waiting time: Waiting time is an amount that scheduling algorithm. The name of this algorithm specific process needs to wait in the ready comes from the round-robin principle, where each queue. person gets an equal share of something in turn. - Response time: It is an amount to time in It is mostly used for scheduling algorithms in which the request was submitted until the first multitasking. response is produced. - Turnaround Time: Turnaround time is an Characteristics of Round-Robin Scheduling amount of time to execute a specific process. - Round robin is a pre-emptive algorithm - The CPU is shifted to the next process after Types of CPU Scheduling Algorithm fixed interval time, which is called time - First Come First Serve (FCFS) quantum/time slice. - Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling - The process that is preempted is added to the - Shortest Remaining Time end of the queue. - Priority Scheduling - Round robin is a hybrid model which is clock- - Round Robin Scheduling driven - Time slice should be minimum, which is assigned for a specific task that needs to be  processed. However, it may vary for different CS ELEC 1 processes. Lesson 1: Introduction to Visual and Graphics - It is a real time algorithm which responds to Computing the event within a specific time limit. - Round robin is one of the oldest, fairest, and Graphics - defined as any sketch or a drawing or a easiest algorithms. special network that pictorially represents some - Widely used scheduling method in traditional meaningful information. OS. Computer Graphics is used where a set of images needs to be manipulated or the creation of the image Advantage of Round-robin Scheduling: in the form of pixels and is drawn on the - It doesn't face the issues of starvation or computer. convoy effect. There are several tools used for the implementation of - All the jobs get a fair allocation of CPU. Computer Graphics. The basic is the - It deals with all process without any priority header file in Turbo-C, Unity for advanced and even - If you know the total number of processes on OpenGL can be used for its Implementation. the run queue, then you can also assume the worst-case response time for the same ‘Computer Graphics’ was coined by Verne Hudson process. and William Fetter from Boeing who were pioneers - This scheduling method does not depend in the field. upon burst time. That's why it is easily implementable on the system. Computer Graphics refers to several things: - Once a process is executed for a specific set - The manipulation and the representation of of the period, the process is preempted, and the image or the data in a graphical manner. another process executes for that given time - Various technology is required for the period. creation and manipulation. - Allows OS to use the Context switching - Digital synthesis and its manipulation. method to save states of preempted processes. Types of Computer Graphics - It gives the best performance in terms of - Raster Graphics: In raster, graphics pixels are average response time used for an image to be drawn. It is also known as a bitmap image in which a sequence of images is into Dis-advantage of Round-robin Scheduling: smaller pixels. - If slicing time of OS is low, the processor - Vector Graphics: In vector graphics, mathematical output will be reduced. formulae are used to draw different types of shapes, - This method spends more time on context lines, objects, and so on. switching - Its performance heavily depends on time Applications of Computer Graphics quantum. 1. Aided Design For Engineering And - Priorities cannot be set for the processes. Architectural System - These are used in electrical - Round-robin scheduling doesn't give special automobiles, electro-mechanical, mechanical, priority to more important tasks electronic devices. For example, gears and bolts. - Decreases comprehension 2. Computer Art – MS Paint. - Lower time quantum results in higher the 3. Presentation Graphics – It is used to summarize context switching overhead in the system. financial statistical scientific or economic data. - Finding a correct time quantum is a quite 4. Entertainment- It is used in motion pictures, music difficult task in this system videos, television, gaming. 5. Education and Training- It is used to understand the operations of complex systems. 6. Visualization- To study trends and patterns. For example-Analyzing satellite photo of earth. Visual Computing road signs or traffic lights), create 3D maps or motion - Refers to the field of computer science and estimation. technology that focuses on