Microbiology and Parasitology PDF

MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN INTRODUCTION PROKARYOTES MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY...

MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN INTRODUCTION PROKARYOTES MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY Structures external to cell wall Cell Wall itself Designed to assist students in the study of important Structures internal to cell wall microorganisms and parasites. It explains the physiology DNA in a prokaryote is not membrane bound. In and pathogenic properties of bacteria, fungi and viruses other words, there is no nucleus. as an introduction to causation, their biology, the Unlike eukaryotes, which generally have multiple infections they cause, host response to these infections linear chromosomes, prokaryotes have one and their mode of transmission, prevention, treatment circular chromosome and nursing responsibilities. The laboratory experiences Prokaryotes do not have membrane-bound provide specimen collection, handling and processing of organelles specimens for isolation and identification of The cell walls of prokaryotes almost always microorganisms and parasites involved in the infectious contain a structure called peptidoglycan. processes. Prokaryotes divide by binary fission. MICROBIOLOGY STRUCTURES EXTERNAL TO CELL WALL Micro-very small, minute Prokaryotes have three different types of appendages: Biology- Study of life 1. Flagella for motility 2. Fimbriae for attachment The study of the biology of microscopic organisms. 3. Pili for DNA transfer (viruses, bacteria, algae. fungi, slime molds, and protozoa.) Prokaryotes use only flagella for motility. However, keep in mind that not all prokaryotes are motile. PROKARYOTE VS. EUKARYOTE The term prokaryote comes from the Greek (pro), meaning "before" and (karyon) meaning "nut" or “kernel" which means "pre-nucleus" or "before nucleus". The word eukaryote comes from the Greek eu, well and karyon "nut or kernel," which is a common scientific word forming element that's used to talk about the nurse cells. This means "true nucleus” Flagella can be arranged 4 different ways in Prokaryotes: PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTE 1. Peritrichous, meaning the flagella are distributed Unicellular Multi-cellular over the entire cell, much like cilia would be on a Binary Fission, Mitosis, Meiosis eukaryotic cell. budding fragmentation 2. Monotrichous, meaning single polar flagellum. DNA storage in DNA storage in 3. Lophotrichous, meaning two or more flagella at Cytoplasm nucleus one pole (or end of the cell) No nucleus With nucleus 4. Amphitrichous, meaning tuft of flagella at each No organelles With organelles end of cell Size of cell is small Size of cell is large (0.2 um x 2-8 um) (10 to 100 pan in diameter) MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN Fimbriae are hair-like appendages used for attachment. There are generally many of them that surround the cell. Again, not all prokaryotes have fimbriae. Neisseria gonorrhoeae uses fimbriae to colonize mucous membranes. It is the organism responsible for gonorrhoea. Pili sometimes fimbriae and pili used Flagella is located outside of cell wall interchangeably in some textbooks Filament made of chains of flagellin usually longer than fimbriae and number only 1 Attached to a protein hook or 2 per cell. Anchored to the wall and membrane by the long hollow tubes that can attach one cell to basal body. another for a brief period of time Flagella proteins are H antigens. join bacterial cells in preparation to transfer DNA from one cell to another (also referred to as sex Flagella pili) prokaryotes move in a circular motion like a the Pilus is the actual tube through which the propeller instead of the whip- like motion used by DNA is transferred eukaryotic flagella. Like in eukaryotes, prokaryotes can have a glycocalyx. Motility Prokaryotes consists of “runs” and “tumbles”, Again the glycocalyx is a sticky substance that surrounds swims, swarms, glides, twitch or floats. the cells and is used for attachment. Motility enables the microbe to move towards The glycocalyx is a fuzzy, gel-like, sticky layer favorable conditions or away from unfavorable made up mainly of proteins and sugars. It conditions. surrounds the outermost cellular membrane of Don’t be fooled though. Microbes are not cells. “thinking” entities. They move as a result of chemical messages that the cell receives from There are two forms the glycocalyx can take: the environment. Capsule- is a sugar coat that is thick and gummy that surrounds the cell. A capsule is generally an indicator of virulence in bacteria and aids in attachment and colonization of the host Slime layer- a loose shield around the bacteria that helps prevent water and nutrient loss. Slime layers also help form biofilms (layers of bacteria that are impenetrable by antibiotics and other chemicals) Cell Wall Almost all organisms have cell walls: - (Mycobacteria is an exception) MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN The function of the cell wall in prokaryotes is to Next is a thin layer of peptidoglycan that is prevent the cell from rupturing when the pressure loosely attached to the inside of the outer inside cells is greater than pressure outside the membrane. cell. Surrounding the peptidoglycan on the top and bottom is the periplasmic space The cell wall is composed of 2 main molecules: Forms the periplasm between the outer 1. N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) membrane and the plasma membrane. 2. N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)- also known as Protection from Phagocytes, complement, peptidoglycan antibiotics. O polysaccharide antigen. (e.g. E. Coli O157:H7) Many disease causing bacteria can be grouped into one Lipid A is endotoxin of two categories based on their cell wall structure: Porins (proteins) form channels through the 1. Gram positive (G+) membrane. 2. Gram negative (G-). Gram-negative bacteria have cell walls with thin layers of peptidoglycan (10% of the cell wall) Gram Positive Cell Wall and high lipid (fatty acid) content. This causes them to appear red to pink under a Gram stain G + bacteria have a very thick and rigid cell wall; it is composed of a very thick layer of Gram-negative organisms include: peptidoglycan. Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Neisseria meningitidis Peptidoglycan (90%) is made up of repeating Gonorrhea units of NAG and NAM bound together and Moraxella species: layered on top of each other. - Escherichia coli (E. coli)- UTIs and food Teichoic acids poisoning ○ Lipoteichoic acid links to plasma - Pseudomonas species membrane - Proteus species- UTIs ○ Wall teichoic acid links to peptidoglycan - Klebsiella species- pneumonia bloodstream infections, wound or May regulate movement of cations. surgical site infections and bacterial Polysaccharides provide antigenic variation. meningitis Gram-Positive Organisms Includes: GRAM STAINING Streptococcus species- bacterial pneumonia Corynebacterium species Gram stain (Gram staining or Gram's method), is a Clostridium species- Food poisoning method of staining used to classify bacterial species into Listeria species- Food poisoning two large groups: gram-positive bacteria and Staphylococcus species- bacterial pneumonia gram-negative bacteria. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and It may also be used to diagnose a fungal toxic shock syndrome. infection. The name comes from the Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who Gram Negative CELL WALL developed the technique in 1884. It differentiates bacteria by the chemical and G- bacteria have a more complex cell wall physical properties of their cell walls. structure. It is composed of an outer membrane Gram-positive cells have a thick layer of (lipid bilayer) that contains LPS peptidoglycan in the cell wall that retains the (lipopolysaccharide) on the outside of the outer primary stain, crystal violet. membrane and phospholipids on the inside of Gram-negative cells have a thinner the outer membrane. peptidoglycan layer that allows the crystal violet to wash out in addition to ethanol. They are stained pink or red by the counterstain, MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN commonly safranin or fuchsine. Lugol's iodine membrane fluidity, permeability, and membrane solution is always added after addition of crystal protein functions. violet to strengthen the bonds of the stain with the cell membrane Archaea GRAM STAINING MECHANISM Wall-less, or Walls of pseudomurein (lack NAM and D amino Crystal violet-iodine crystals form in a cell. acids). N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid Gram-positive Pseudopeptidoglycan (also known as Alcohol dehydrates pseudomurein) is a major cell wall component of peptidoglycan some archaea that differs from bacterial CV-I crystals do not peptidoglycan in chemical structure, but leave. resembles eubacterial peptidoglycan in morphology, function, and physical structure. Gram-negative Alcohol dissolves N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid outer membranes acid is a uronic acid and leaves hales in component of pseudopeptidoglycan, a peptidoglycan. structural polymer found in the cell walls in some CV-I crystals washes types of Archaea out DAMAGE TO CELL WALLS Lysozyme is a protein that plays an important role in the innate immunity, providing protection against bacteria, viruses, and fung It attacks the protective cell walls of bacteria. I digests disaccharide in peptidoglycan. Penicillin inhibits peptide bridges in peptidoglycan. Penicillin kills bacteria through binding of the ATYPICAL BACTERIA beta- lactam ring to DD-transpeptidase, inhibiting its cross-linking activity and preventing Are bacteria that do not get colored by gram-staining new cell wall formation. Without a cell wall, a but rather remain colorless: they are neither bacterial cell is vulnerable to outside water and Gram-positive nor Gram-negative. molecular pressures, which causes the cell to quickly die Mycoplasmas Lack cell walls Protoplasts Sterols in plasma membrane is a wall-less gram-positive cell bacterial cells lacking a cell wall without an outer Sterols membrane. are isoprenoid-derived lipids with essential roles in cell structure, function, and physiology. As Spheroplasts important components of biological membranes, is a wall-less gram-negative cell. Bacterial cells sterols interact with phospholipids and proteins lacking a cell wall with an outer membrane and within the membrane. thereby regulating a plasma membrane. MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN L forms 3. Osmosis- movement of water across a selectively bacterial variants that lack a cell wall and divide permeable membrane from an area of high by a variety of processes involving membrane water concentration to an area of low water blebbing, tubulation, vesiculation and fission. concentration. are wall-less cells that swell into irregular shapes. 4. Osmotic Pressure- The pressure needed to stop Protoplasts and Spheroplasts are susceptible to the movement of water across the membrane.\ osmotic lysis. 5. Active Transport – of substances requires a transporter protein and ATP. PLASMA MEMBRANE 6. Group Translocation – requires a transporter protein and the structure of protein is altered., “Cell Membrane (cytoplasmic membrane)/ Plasma energy is supplied by phosphoenolpyruvic acid, Membrane” addition of phosphate to internalize glucose to Encloses the cytoplasm of the cell. Like form phosphorylated glucose. eukaryotes, the cytoplasm contains a lot of water, unlike eukaryotes it does not have microtubules or microfilaments It is a typical phospholipid bilayer Phospholipid bilayer is a two-layered arrangement of phosphate and lipid molecules that form a cell membrane. The hydrophobic lipid ends facing inward and the hydrophilic phosphate ends facing outward. Also called: lipid bilayer. STRUCTURES INTERNAL TO CELL WALL The function of the cell membrane is to selectively allow Cytoplasm: substance w/in cell membrane (selective permeability) materials such as It is 80% water. nutrients and wastes to enter and exit. It contains the nuclear area/nucleoids This is also the cite of Cellular Respiration (ATP (remember there are no membrane bound production). organelles inside a prokaryotic cell). Alcohols, quaternary ammonium (detergents), It contains ribosomes. and polymyxin antibiotics damage the It contains inclusions. membrane and cause leakage of cell contents. contains proteins, CHO, lipids, inorganic ions. FLUID MOSAIC MODEL Nuclear area (Nucleoids) The nuclear area contains the single circular Used to describe cell membranes chromosome found in prokaryotes. It states that the membrane is viscous as an olive Single, long, continuous, circular oil or fluid. It allows the proteins within the 20% volume of bacteria membrane to move throughout the Carry antibiotic resistance genes phospholipids freely. Can be transferred from one to another Proteins move to function. bacterium. Phospholipids rotate and move laterally. Sometimes plasmids are also found in the nuclear area. MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANES Plasmids 1. Simple diffusion- movement of a solute from an are small, circular pieces of DNA that contain area of high concentration to an area of low extra genes that the cell can use. concentration. Sometimes they carry genes for antibiotic 2. Facilitated diffusion- solute combines with a resistance or for toxins transporter protein in the membrane. MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN They are also used very frequently for genetic engineering because they are easily manipulated and can be easily moved into a cell. Ribosomes Ribosomes in prokaryotes are free. Like ribosomes in eukaryotes, they are the site for protein synthesis. There is a difference in the structure and mass of the ribosomes in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. This is important to know because it helps to treat bacterial infections. Inclusions Storage for reserve nutrients Polysaccharide granules: store glycogen and starch SHAPE AND ARRANGEMENT OF BACTERIAL CELLS Lipid inclusions - energy reserves Sulfur granules – energy reserves Carboxysomes: store enzymes for carbon fixation Bacterial cells come in all kinds of shapes and sizes and from carbon dioxide arrangements. Gas vacuoles: control buoyancy to receive sufficient oxygen, light and nutrients Coccus, single ball shaped cell (cocci, many ball Magnetosomes: store iron oxide, act like magnet shaped cells) to reach attachment sites - Diplococci, two ball shaped cells connected together. ENDOSPORES - Streptococci, chains of ball shaped cells. - Tetrads, four ball shaped cells bound together. - Sarcinae, groups of eight ball shaped cells Some bacteria, such as Bacillus and Clostridium, connected together form resting cells called endospores upon - Staphylococci, balled shaped bacteria depletion of nutrients in the environment. connected together in what look like grape Endospores are essentially highly durable clusters dehydrated cells, similar to a plant seed. It contains all the genetic information of the Bacillus (bacilli) is rod shaped bacteria original cell and will form a living cell again once - Diplobacilli, two rods connected together. the environmental conditions are right. - streptobacilli, chains of rods connected end to Endospores are formed inside the cell and then end. released into the environment when the cell dies. - Coccobacilli, short fat rods that look similar to Upon release, endospores can survive extreme cocci. heat, lack of water, exposure to many toxic - (Bacillus has to meanings. Bacillus, the genus chemicals, and radiation name of bacteria and bacillus, the cellular shape Sporulation is the process of endospore of a bacterium.) formation. Germination is the process where the endospores Other shapes returns to its vegetative state (living cell). - Vibrio, comma shape. Sporulation does not increase the number of cells - Spirilla, spirochetes and others but rather preserves the genetic information of the parent cell until conditions are right for it to EUKARYOTIC CELLS grow again MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma FLAGELLA OVERVIEW membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. However, unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have: Flagella are hair-like structures emerging through the cell a membrane-bound nucleus surface. They help in locomotion in prokaryotic and numerous membrane-bound organelles eukaryotic cells. (including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, and mitochondria) Flagella are of three types: several rod-shaped chromosomes Bacterial flagella Archaeal flagella Eukaryotic flagella- they beat back and forth to bring movement. E.g., sperm cells. The structure is similar to motile cilia, but length and functions differ. The core of eukaryotic flagella is called an axoneme, which comprises microtubules with a 9+2 arrangement. The nine doublets surround the 2 central singlets. EUKARYOTIC CELL WALL A cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant cell. It is, however, absent in animal cells. It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell-to-cell interaction. It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any injury or pathogen attacks It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, etc. Plant and algae- cellulose Fungi- chitin (NAG) Yeast – glucan, mannan Glycocalyx The glycocalyx is a system of protein -linked ( glycoproteins) and lipid -linked carbohydrates CILIA OVERVIEW that span the plasma membrane of a eukaryotic cell forming a slimy layer. Cilia are short hair-like structures present in large numbers in eukaryotic cells. PLASMA MEMBRANE Cilia are of two types: The plasma membrane separates the cell from non-motile the outside environment. motile It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the exchange of substances in and out of The motile cilia are found in the respiratory tract and the cell. fallopian tubes of the human body. where they sweep ○ Selective permeability mucus in the airways and facilitate the movement of ova ○ Simple diffusion from the ovary to the uterus, respectively. ○ Facilitated diffusion Non-motile cilia are also known as sensory cilia or primary ○ Osmosis cilia. They act as sensory organelles. They receive signals ○ Active Transport from nearby cells and act as antennae for the cells. E.g. cilia present on olfactory neurons and hair cells. MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN Endocytosis- a cellular process in which substances are Endoplasmic Reticulum - It is a transport network of small, brought into the cell. The material to be internalized is tubular structures that divides the cell surface into two surrounded by an area of cell membrane, which then parts: luminal and extraluminal. buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested material. Endoplasmic Reticulum is of two types: Phagocytosis (from φαγεῖν 'to eat', and κύτος Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – associated with 'cell') is the process by which a cell uses its ribosomes; makes secretory and membrane plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ proteins. 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – makes lipids called the phagosome. “to eat” Pinocytosis is the method by which a cell absorbs Golgi Complex – Golgi apparatus or Golgi Body, is small particles outside the cell and brings them the packaging of materials for secretion. The Golgi inside. A process by which liquid droplets are apparatus is the major collection and dispatch station of ingested by living cells. “To drink”. protein products received from the ER. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in lipid transport and lysosome Cytoplasmic membrane - is a biological membrane that formation. separates and protects the interior of a cell from the outside environment (the extracellular space). Lysosomes - is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes. Lysosomes are involved with Cytosol – is the liquid found inside the cells. It is the various cell processes. They break down excess or water-based solution in which organelles, proteins, and worn-out cell parts. They may be used to destroy invading other cell structures float. viruses and bacteria. Cytoskeleton - is present inside the cytoplasm, which Vacuole - helps in storage of salts, minerals, pigments and consists of microfilaments, microtubules, and fibers to proteins within the cell. It isolates metabolic waste that provide perfect shape to the cell, anchor the organelles, might be harmful to the cell. It maintains turgor pressure. It and stimulate the cell movement. facilitates endocytosis and exocytosis. Mitochondria- Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell Cytoplasmic streaming – also called protoplasmic organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most streaming and cyclosis. Is the flow of cytoplasm inside the of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's cell, driven by forces from the cytoskeleton. biochemical reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called ORGANELLES adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Nucleus - nucleus houses the cell's DNA and directs the Chloroplast - is a type of plastid (a saclike organelle with synthesis of proteins and ribosomes, the cellular a double membrane) that serves as the site of organelles responsible for protein synthesis. photosynthesis, the process by which energy from the Sun is converted into chemical energy for growth. The nucleus stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a Chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll to absorb gel-like substance called the nucleoplasm. The nucleolus light energy. is a condensed region of chromatin where ribosome synthesis occurs.The boundary of the nucleus is called the DEVELOPMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY nuclear envelope. It consists of two phospholipid bilayers: an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The ROBERT HOOKE nuclear membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. Robert Hooke FRS was an English polymath Nuclear pores allow substances to enter and exit the active as a scientist, natural philosopher and nucleus. architect, who is credited to be one of the first two scientists to discover microorganisms in 1665 using a compound microscope that he built himself. It was believed that Hooke observed MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN strands of fungi among the specimens he LOUIS PASTEUR viewed. Germ Theory ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK states that microorganisms are the causes of infectious diseases. He made careful observations of microscopic organisms, which he called animalcules. Louis Pasteur performed numerous experiments in the Leeuwenhoek is universally acknowledged as the middle and late 1800's to discover that; father of microbiology. He discovered both protists and bacteria. More than being the first 1. Bacteria are the cause of why wine and dairy to see this unimagined world of ‘animalcules', he products become sour. was the first even to think of looking—certainly, 2. He emphasized the importance of the first with the power to see. microorganisms in everyday life and forwarded the notion that if bacteria could make the wine SPONTANEOUS GENERATION THEORY "sick", then, perhaps they could cause human illnesses. Spontaneous generation theory is an archaic scientific 3. Pasteur disproved Spontaneous Generation theory which stated that living organisms could arise from Theory by showing the presence of nonliving matter and that such a process was regular in microorganisms on the neck of a swan-necked nature. flask filled with broth but not on the broth itself Examples: dust creates fleas, maggots arise from rotting meat, and bread or wheat left in a dark corner produces ROBERT KOCH mice. Koch's postulates are a set of observations and SPONTANEOUS GENERATION DEBATE experimental requirements proposed by Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch in the late 1800s, intended Spontaneous generation theory: to prove that a particular organism causes a particular infectious disease. FRANCISCO REDI He showed that fly maggots do not arise from KOCH'S POSTULATES decaying meat (as others believed) if the meat is 1.. The specific organism should be shown to be covered to prevent the entry of flies. present in all cases of animals suffering from a specific disease, but should not be found in JOHN NEEDHAM healthy animals; briefly boiling a broth mixture and then cooling 2. The specific microorganisms should be isolated the mixture in an open container to room from the diseased animal and grown in pure temperature. Later, the flasks would be sealed, culture on artificial laboratory media; and microbes would grow a few days later. 3. The freshly isolated microorganism, when Those experiments seemed to show that there inoculated into a healthy non-immune laboratory was a life force that produced spontaneous animal should cause the same disease seen in generation. the original animal; and 4. The microorganism should be re-isolated in pure Lazzaro Spallanzani culture from the experimental infection Heated but sealed flasks remained clear, without any signs of spontaneous growth, unless the flasks GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY were subsequently opened to the air. This suggested that microbes were introduced into The late 1800's and early decade of 1900's saw these flasks from the air. great strides in the further development of Germ Theory of disease enunciated by Pasteur and proved by Koch. MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN Many etiologic agents of infectious diseases were VIRUSES identified and discovered, leading to the ability to halt epidemics by interrupting the spread of Ultramicroscopic bits of genetic material (DNA or microorganisms. RNA) enclosed in a protein shell and, sometimes, After World War II, antibiotics were discovered. membranous envelope. Used as a therapy for diseases like pneumonia, Multiply using their hosts. tuberculosis, meningitis, syphilis and many more. No metabolism, therefore, it is difficult to use In 1940's, electron microscope was developed drugs to interfere with their structures and and perfected. activities. Cultivation methods of viruses were introduced Destroy cells by replicating and the knowledge of viruses developed rapidly. Vaccines were developed in the 1950's and 1960's, controlling viral diseases like polio, measles, mumps and rubella MICROORGANISMS AND DIVISIONS OF MICROBIOLOGY MICROORGANISMS Microorganisms are a collection of organisms that share the characteristic of being visible only with a microscope. Bacteria Cyanobacteria Rickettsiae Chlamydae Fungi PROTOZOA Algae Protozoa Protozoa are eukaryotic, unicellular organisms. Viruses examples are Paramecia, Euglena, Amoeba. CONTRIBUTION OF MICROORGANISMS TO HUMAN LIFE Can be classified according to how they move. flagella- tryconympha 1. Maintaining the balance of chemical elements in cilia- paramecium the natural environment. pseudopodia- amoeba 2. Breaking down the remains of all that dies. Non-motile- plasmodium vivax 3. By recycling carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and other elements. Exists in a variety of shapes because they don’t have cell walls. BACTERIA Can cause human diseases like malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery and toxoplasmosis. Relatively simple, prokaryotic organisms whose cells lack nucleus and nuclear membranes. Shapes may be rods (bacilli), spheres (cocci), spirals (spirilla or spirochetes). Reproduce by Binary Fission Have unique constituents in their cell walls. Exists in most environments on Earth. MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN FUNGI PROTOZOOLOGY Protozoology is the study of protozoa, the Are eukaryotic microorganisms that include "animal-like" (i.e., motile and heterotrophic) multicellular molds and unicellular (single-celled) protists. yeast. Prefer acidic environments and most live in room SIGNIFICANCE AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF temperature under oxygen-rich conditions. MICROBIOLOGY ○ Example is the common mushroom Yeasts are slightly larger than bacteria and are Microbes have a profound impact on every facet of used in alcoholic fermentations and bread human life and everything around us. Pathogens harm us, making. yet other microbes protect us. Some microbes are pivotal ○ Candida albicans is a pathogenic yeast. in the growth of food crops, but others can kill the plants or spoil the produce. Bacteria and fungi eliminate the Molds are filamentous branched fungi that use wastes produced in the environment, but also degrade spores for reproduction. things we would rather preserve. Clearly they affect many things we find important as humans. ALGAE 1. Human Health Variety of plant-like organisms. Plant-like protists are The discipline of microbiology emerged from the called algae. They include single-celled diatoms and study of diseases caused by microorganisms, and multicellular seaweed. Like plants, algae contain most advances in treating various ailments had chlorophyll and make food by photosynthesis. Types of their roots in this relatively young science. algae include red and green algae, euglenids, diatoms, Understanding both familiar killers and new and dinoflagellate that inhabit the oceans and re found Pathogens will require an understanding of their at the bases of marine food chains. microbiology, and thus an understanding of the field of microbiology. Dinoflagellates- tiny organisms that can swim, glow, and live in symbiosis with other creatures. 2. Agriculture Soil fertility - exploited in two important ways, DIVISIONS OF MICROBIOLOGY bio-fertilizers, and creating new nitrogen-fixing organisms. BACTERIOLOGY Nitrogen-Fixer - through recombinant DNA the branch and specialty of biology that studies technology efforts have been made to introduce the morphology, ecology, genetics and Nitrogen-fixing genes (nif genes) into wheat, biochemistry of bacteria as well as many other corn, and rice, among others. aspects related to them. Biopesticides - several microbes ( viruses, bacteria, and fungi) are being developed VIROLOGY biopesticides for management of insects and the scientific discipline concerned with the study nematodes pests. of the biology of viruses and viral diseases Bionematicides - some fungi have good potential for their use as nematicides to control MYCOLOGY nematodes pests of vegetables, fruits, and cereal the study of fungi, a group that includes the crops to control diseases of roots and shoots of mushrooms and yeasts. plants. Bioweedicides - several fungi have been found PHYCOLOGY very useful in the control of troublesome weeds phycology, also called algology, the study of of crop fields. algae, a large heterogeneous group of chiefly aquatic plants ranging in size from microscopic 3. Industrial application forms to species as large as shrubs or trees. Development of Pharmaceutical products. Use of quality-control methods in food and dairy product production MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN Production of vitamins, amino acids, enzymes, individual impacted the efforts of another studying a and growth supplements. completely different problem. Manufacture of many foods, including fermented dairy products INVENTION OF MICROSCOPE (sour cream, yogurt, and buttermilk), as well as other fermented foods such as pickles, ROBERT HOOKE - 1664 sauerkraut, breads, and alcohol beverages. Devised a compound microscope and used it to 4. Environmental Conservation and Protection. observed fleas sponges, bird feathers, plants and Bioremediation - inexpensive and increasingly molds, among other items. effective way of cleaning up pollution such as those environments contaminated with crude oil, ANTON VAN LEEWENHOEK polychlorinated biphenyls, and many other industrial waste. Developed a microscope that was able to magnify Treatment and recycling of large-volume sewage samples greater than 200-fold. By peering through his and waste - water in metropolitan cities. microscope, Leewenhoek observed tiny organisms or Valuable source of alternative energy from “wee animacules” was he called. methane-producing bacteria. Necessary for the fermentation of biomass into FERDINAND JULIUS COHN biofuels. Environment monitoring and biomonitoring - Was the first to carefully examine the world of microbes. environmental pollutants can be detected by published papers on the cycling of elements use of appropriate strains of microbes as microbial classification scheme including biosensors. Biosensors is a biophysical device descriptions of Bacillus. used to detect the presence and quantify the popularized microscope specific substances (sugar, protein, hormones, Encourage Robert Coch too began the field of pollutants) in the specific environments medical technology. 5. Biotechnology Application DEVELOPMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY TECHNIQUES Advances in Biotechnology where microorganisms are used as living factories to produce pharmaceuticals that otherwise could not be manufactured. ○ Human hormone insulin ○ Human growth factor ○ Antiviral substance interferon ○ Numerous blood-clotting factors clot-dissolving enzymes. ○ Vaccines. EVOLUTION OF MICROBIOLOGY HISTORY DISEASES DUE TO MICROBES The History of microbiology is an interweaving of the careers of bright individuals and their insights. Each new Titus Lucrecius Carus- 50 B.C. discovery relied on the previous one and in turn spawned Volume 6, De Rerum Natural (On the Nature of further inquiry. A web of interdependence evolved the Universe)- invisible atoms causing disease. overtime through the work of scientists in many related disciplines and nations. Often the research of one MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY MCC-4 bY: STEPHANIE E. MASIADO, SN Ignaz Semmelweise Lady Mary Wortly Montgue Asepsis in obstetrical wards could prevent the The wife of the ambassador of the Ottoman transmission of childbirth fever from patient to Empire, introduced variolation in England in 1721. patient. ○ Serious skin lesions Established a policy for all attending physicians to ○ Generalized rash wash their hands with chloride of lime, calcium ○ Full case of smallpox. hypochlorite, and calcium chloride. Edward Jenner Louis Pastuer He hypothesized that cowpox was related to “Yeast” strains performed the process of smallpox and contraction of the former would converting sugar into alcohol which made him protect against the latter. conclude that wine was turning bad because a Jenner was responsible for creating a safer contaminating microbe was generating lactic method of protection against smallpox. acid instead of alcohol from the sugar. The contamination was solved by heating the Louis Pasteur wine and killing the contaminant, the heating Pasteur developed a method for creating process of which was later named cultures that would confer immunity but not “pasteurization”. disease. This involved multiple passes through a Germ Theory susceptible host where the microorganism will spontaneously loose their virulence. Joseph Lister Attenuation is Pasteur’s technique of weakening First to greatly reduce the number of a strain by a damaging treatment or passing it microorganisms on surgical wounds and incisions through a susceptible host. by using bandages treated with phenic acid. DEVELOPMENT OF ANTIMICROBIALS Robert Koch Provided a definite proof of the germ theory by Paul Ehrlich isolating the cause of anthrax and showing it to Believed that chemicals may exist that will kill be a bacterium. microbes but not the patients. Pioneered in the isolation and characterization of Salvarsan is the first effective chemotherapeutic bacterial diseases to help identify the causes of agent against Treponema pallidum, the many of the maladies plaguing the community. causative agent of syphilis. IDENTIFICATION OF VIRUSES THAT PARASITIZE OTHER Alexander Fleming MICROORGANISMS In September 1928, Fleming cultures a fungus, a Penicillium mold, and eventually isolated a soluble extract that could kill bacteria and treat a localized infection. He called the new compound penicillin, after the mold from which it came. VACCINATION AS EFFECTIVE MEANS OF PROTECTION