MGT111 Introduction to Public Administration Handouts PDF

MGT-111 – Introduction to Public Administration Lesson TOPICS Page 01 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….. 01 02 Evolution of Public Administration………………………………………………... 05 03 Classical School of Thoughts – I …………………………………………………. 09 04 Classical School of Thoughts – II …………………………………………………. 14 05 Human Relations Schools…………………………………………………………. 17 06 Power And Politics……………………………………………………………….. 22 07 History of Public Administration – I …………………………………………........ 25 08 History of Public Administration – II…………………………………………… 28 09 Civil Service……………………………………………………………………….. 30 10 Civil Service Reforms……………………………………………………………... 33 11 1973 Constitution of Pakistan…………………………………………………….. 37 12 Structure of Government…………………………………………………………. 42 13 Public and Private Administration………………………………………………..... 47 14 Organization……………………………………………………………………..... 50 15 Departmentalization……………………………………………………………...... 53 16 Power and Authority……………………………………………………………..... 59 17 Delegation of Authority …………………………………………………………... 63 18 Planning – I ……………………………………………………………………..... 65 19 Planning – II……………………………………………………………………... 69 20 Planning Commission and Planning Development……………………………........ 73 21 Decision Making…………………………………………………………………... 76 22 Human Resource Management (HRM) …………………………………………… 80 23 Selection Process and Training……………………………………………………. 83 24 Performance Appraisal…………………………………………………………...... 87 25 Selection and Training and Public Organizations……………………………............ 91 26 Public Finance…………………………………………………………………….. 94 27 Budget…………………………………………………………………………….. 97 28 Public Budget……………………………………………………………………... 101 29 National Finance Commission…………………………………………………….. 105 30 Administrative Control……………………………………………………….......... 108 31 Audit……………………………………………………………………………… 111 32 Motivation………………………………………………………………………..... 114 33 Motivation and Leadership………………………………………………………... 118 34 Leadership………………………………………………………………………..... 122 35 Team – I…………………………………………………………………………... 126 36 Team – II………………………………………………………………………….. 129 37 Communication – I………………………………………………………………... 132 38 Communication – II……………………………………………………………...... 135 39 District Administration……………………………………………………………. 139 40 Devolution Plan – I……………………………………………………………….. 142 41 Devolution Plan – II……………………………………………………………..... 145 42 Political Reforms…………………………………………………………………... 148 43 New Public Management (NPM) …………………………………………………. 153 44 Managerial Programme Agenda – I ……………………………………………….. 156 45 Managerial Programme Agenda – II……………………………………………...... 159 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 01 INTRODUCTION The course on Public Administration/Management has following objectives: 1. Understand the concept of public administration/ management/organization 2. Understand the evolution of the concept of public administration and its importance 3. Understand the role of government 4. Understand the role and core functions of public manager 5. Understand the structure of government /organizations 6. Create understanding about the skills required by the public manager in imparting duties 7. Understand the changing role of government and role of public managers. Importance of Course: The course on public administration/management is important as every citizen must understand the functioning of government. Besides, whether one works in private or public organization, or one is doing ones own business or whatever the profession, this course is useful as it helps understand organizations and their functioning. It also helps us understand the environment in which we are working. Introduction: definitions, concepts & setting At the end of lecture the students should be able to understanding: The meaning of PA The practice of public administration (PA) Public administration as a subject of study Definition of Public administration Public administration, democracy and rights of citizens The Meaning The word ‘administration’ has been derived from Latin words ‘ad’ = to and ‘ministiare’ = serve and ‘Public’ =people or citizens Thus the word administration means to execute the policy of government to serve public. Management is also defined as Cooperative human endeavour to achieve given goals. Traditionally management is also defined as Management = POSDCORB which stands for Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordination, Reporting, Budgeting. In general administration and management are used interchangeably. Public Administration A public administration as a practice is as old as the human civilization. When human beings started living in society in an organized way they started the practice of administration, because they started to live cooperatively in society. It is said that when a man tried to left a stone and was unable to do so alone and was helped by another man, the practice of ‘management/administration began. Egyptian Pyramids (1491 BC) You must have seen Egyptian pyramids and must have thought how such huge structure was built. The construction of Egyptian pyramids in 1491 is an example of practice of administration, as it involved cooperative effort of thousands of people. Mohenjodaro and Harrapa In Pakistan Mohenjodaro and Harrapa civilizations are a magnificent example of practice of administration. The two cities had well planned roads, granary, wells and walls around the city to protect it. Such planning of city shows that the rulers managed the city well. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 1 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU So we can say that public administration as a practice is old as civilization But Public Administration as a discipline to be taught in formal educational institution, started after World War I (1914), in USA and then in Europe. The emergence of public administration as discipline in USA and Europe was due to the changing role of government. The Great Depression in USA and Europe brought large scale unemployment and low wages, and falling demand for goods. It was felt that in these circumstances the government should invest to provide jobs. Thus, the role of government was seen as prime mover in economy. Why Public Administration Received Impetus as A Subject? Following were the reasons for the emergence of public administration as a subject:- 1. Expanding welfare role (distributive) of the government 2. The emergence of private sector and regulatory role, of government 3. The need for increased efficiency in the Organization 4. Development of Science and Technology 5. Better management of public matters through training in USA Definition of Public Administration Now we will look at various definitions of public administration to better comprehend the concept: “Public administration…. is the action part of government, the means by which the purposes and goals of government are realized”. ‘Public administration as a field is mainly concerned with the means for implementing political values…” “The process of public administration consists of the actions involved in effecting the intent or desire of a government. It is thus the continuously active, ‘business’ part of government, concerned with carrying out the law, as made by legislative bodies (or other authoritative agents) and interpreted by the courts, through the processes of organization and management.” It is a cooperative group effort in a public setting; It covers all the three branches --- executive, legislative, and judicial -- and their interrelationships; All these definitions explain us different dimension of the subjects. These definitions might confuse us and we might say that there is really no such subject as “public administration,” but rather that public administration means different things to different observers and lacks a significant common theoretical or applied meaning, or we might say that public administration is everywhere:- But two things definitely emerge from the above definition. These are:- 1. The study of public administration overlaps a number of other disciplines, including political science, sociology, economics, psychology, and business administration. and 2. Public administration is the use of managerial, political, and legal theories and processes to fulfill the goals of government (welfare of public). (Institutions) (Government) (Citizens) © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 2 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Now before we further proceed to understand public administration we need to understand certain concepts like and state and government. The diagram shows that citizens of any country are user of services and provider of services. Institutions of State The institutions of state are as follows:- Legislature: Parliament (National and Provincial Assemblies) makes laws for the organization Judiciary: (Supreme Court & Provincial Courts) - and Session Courts) interpret laws Executive ( National, Provincial) implements laws The Ministries, Division, Departments /Directorates are the organizations that function under the executive to implement law. For example the police department has the responsibility to maintain peace & order Government Government is process of governing. It is the use of power derived from the law that is made/approve by the legislature. It is means, methods, manner, or system of governing society and organization. The government of Islamic Republic of Pakistan derives its systems and methods from the Constitution (1973). Article 90-99 of the Constitution gives provision for Rules of Business. The Rules of Business 1973 provide. The roles, responsibilities and function of government organizations (ministries, departments etc) What is Democracy When we talk of state and government it is important to mention that what form of government Pakistan has. Pakistan is a parliamentary Democracy. The word democracy is a Greek word where “demos” mean people and “Krates” means authority. Values of Democracy Democracies have certain values and these are:- Individualism Equality Liberty Individualism Individualism means that the dignity and integrity of individual is of supreme importance. It suggests that achieving the fullest potential of each individual is the best measure of the success of political system and government Equality All normal individuals are equal in their talents but also each individual has an equal claim to life, liberty and the pursuit to happiness Liberty Citizens should have the right to the maximum opportunity to select own purpose in life and choose means to accomplish these. The citizen should be facilitated rather than hindered in their pursuit to a meaningful life. Concepts The students must understand the following concepts:- Organization: The structure and framework created to perform certain functions to achieve goals. Management: Cooperative human effort to achieve goals Process: a systematic mechanism to complete an activity © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 3 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Efficiency: Efficiency = Output: Efficiency relates to maximization of goals Input example: 10 → output = 2 = efficient 4 → input 10 = 1.66 = less efficient. 6 Government: A government is the process of governing, it comprise organization, system, rules etc. State: As State has territorial jurisdiction, it has people and institutions. Democracy: Democracy is a form of government in which people has authority and right to elect their representative. Democratic values: Democratic values are life, liberty & individualism. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 4 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 02 EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION At the end of the lecture students should be able to understand: Relationship between public administration, democracy and rights (Constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan 1973) Evolution of Public administration/ management and The work of the contributors of the Classical School In the last lecture we talked about democracy and democratic values. Why did we mention these two concepts in the context of public administration/management? The mention was made because we would like to know about the rights of citizens and the response of government toward democratic values. These values and how people should respond to the work of public organizations is important. But we know people differ over the degree to which they influence day-to-day operation of public agencies because they do not know their rights and the procedures of government agencies. The 1973 Constitution contains Fundamental Rights and Principles of Policies which give basic rights to citizens. Some of the articles pertaining to human dignity and respect given in constitution are as follows:- (1) Security of persons: No person shall be deprived of life or liberty saves in accordance with law. (2) Safeguards as to arrest and detention: No person who is arrested shall be detained in custody without being informed, as soon as many are not, of the grounds for such arrest, nor shall he be denied the right to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of his choice. (3) Slavery, forced labor, etc., prohibited: slavery is non-existent and forbidden and no law shall permit or facilitate its introduction into Pakistan in any form. (4) Inviolability of dignity of man, etc.: The dignity of man and, subject to law, the privacy of home, shall be inviolable. (5) Freedom of movement, etc.: Every citizen shall have the right to remain in, and subject to any reasonable restriction imposed by law in the public interest, enter and move freely throughout Pakistan and to reside and settle in any part thereof. (6) Freedom of assembly: Every citizen shall have the right to assemble peacefully and without arms, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of public order. (7) Freedom of association: Every citizen shall have the right to form associations or unions, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of (sovereignty or integrity of Pakistan, public order or morality.) (8) Freedom of trade, business or profession: Subject to such qualifications, if any, as may be prescribed by law, every citizen shall have the right to enter upon any lawful profession or occupation, and to conduct any lawful trade or business: (9) Freedom of speech, etc Every citizen shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression, and there shall be freedom to the Press, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of the glory of Islam or the integrity, security or defense or Pakistan or any part thereof, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of Court, (commission of) or incitement to an offence. (10) Freedom to profess religion and to manage religious institution: Subject to law, public order and morality:- (a) every citizen shall have the right to profess, practice and propagate his religion; and (b) Every religious denomination and every sect thereof shall have the right to establish, maintain and manage its religious institutions. (11) Safeguard against taxation for purposes of any particular religion: No. person shall be compelled to pay any special tax the proceeds of which are to be spent on the propagation or maintenance of any religion other than his own. (12) Safeguard as to educational institution in respect of religion, etc.: No person attending any educational institution shall be required to receive religious instruction, or take part in any religious ceremony, or attend religious worship, if such instruction, ceremony of worship relates to a religion other than his own. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 5 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU (13) Equality of citizens: (1) All citizens are equal before law and are entitled to equal protection of law. (2) There shall be no discrimination based on sex alone. (3) Nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the protection of women and children. (14) Non-discrimination in respect of access to public places: (1) In respect of access to places of public entertainment or resort, not intended for religious purposes only, there shall be no discrimination against any citizen on the ground only of race, religion, caste, sex, residence or place of birth. The way democracy functions in the political tradition of a country have important influence on the working of public organization. This is illustrated in Figure which shows the international, social, economic, political system influence on public administration. The figure shows public administration in the centre and all other systems influencing it. Thus public administration exists and functions under these influences and is driven by these systems. Factors Affecting Public Agencies Public administration Political System Social Economic International Evolution of Public Administration One of the definitions of Public Administration is that public administration is about management of public programmes. As we have learnt that during the period of Indus Valley civilization cities were well constructed and planned and that the practice of public administration is old. But as a subject it is new. We would now see the development of this practice as a subject. The evolution of public administration/ management is discussed in following paragraphs. The study of public administration is divided in following Schools: 1. The Classical School 2. Human Relations School 3. Behavioural School 4. System School 5. Management Science School 6. Power and Politics School Classical School We will examine the work of Classical School and see the theory presented by this school. We will review the work of the main contributors of this school. The main contributors of this school are: Woodrow Wilson Leonard D. White W. F. Willoughby © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 6 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Fredrick Winslow Taylor Henry L. Gantt Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Max Weber Henri Fayol The growth of public administration has to do with the growth of markets and the fall out of market imperfection. Example of market imperfection is pollution, i.e., markets produce goods and the markets would not care if in the production of goods, they pollute environment. For example a manufacturer who emits smoke will pollute the environment. Environment if gets polluted will effect the health of people. Who is responsible for this situation? Governments intervene to correct market imperfection and may tax the polluter. The institutions of government therefore should be effective to control market imperfections. Similarly if private schools charge more fees then government should open schools for those who cannot pay high fee. How to make government institutions effective? To answer this question we need to look at the works of those who contributed to the efficient working of organizations. Those studying work in the organization developed theories and concepts for increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of organization In USA the study of government began in late 19th century. The first Essay was on ‘The Study of ‘Administration’ 1887 written by Woodrow Wilson (American Scholar and late President of USA) His essay was of very practical nature. In his essay he pointed out following things:- It addressed the inefficiency and corruption in USA government in late 1880’s He said that political scientist had given little attention to how government operates He was impressed by the business, industry and technology He believed that the work of government should be accomplished with the efficiency of private sector. He believed that there should be separation of politics from administration Another article that appeared was on ‘Introduction to the Study of Public Administration’ (1926) by Leonard D. White. In his paper: He commented that government should function in the context of democratic values (role of states in human affairs). According to him there are 2 concerns in public administration: 1. Efficiency: to improve the functioning of organization. 2. Democratic values: that the organizations should keep in view the democratic values when providing services. W. F Willoughby in his article ‘Principles of Public Administration’ (1927) emphasized the idea of ‘value free’ science of management. By value free service he meant that those executing public programmes should be neutral unbiased and provide services without discrimination. F. W Taylor Fredrick Winslow Taylor is called the ‘father of scientific management’. He worked as machine operator in Midvale Steel Company in USA. He observed the workers using shovels for unloading coal and iron ore what he observed was that when workers shovel rice coal they can lift 3.75 lbs. And when they shoveled iron ore they could lift 38 lbs. His question was which is the right load? In order to find the answer he thought that he should inquire and he thought should ask people. But then he thought he should conduct experiment to find the right answer. He thought the experiment will give the right output. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 7 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU The Shovelling Experiment In order to conduct the experiment he selected 2 best shovelers and told them that they will be paid double wages if they did what was told to them. The two selected men were the best in the company. They had reputation of working hard and honestly. The two men shovelled the whole day, in two different places until they were tired but not over-tired (a good day’s work). Their supervisor noted down the following: 1. What was the number of shovelful in a day by each worker? 2. Weight of load in shovel (38-39 lbs) by each worker His experiment gave him results that if different kinds of shovels were used, the shoveller can lift load between 21.5 lbs to 38 lbs. But this was possible if the worker was well trained and worked consistently. Results of the Experiment o There is scientific way of doing things and he called it ‘one best way’ o Replace rule of thumb with science o Obtain harmony in group action rather than discord o Achieving cooperation of human beings rather than chaotic individualism o Working for maximum output rather than restricted output (productivity) o Developing all workers to the fullest extent for their own and company’s prosperity o Workers should be carefully selected We must remember that the time period of Taylor was mid 19th century, and the impact of industrial revolution on organizations were imminent. The organizations were demanding more output from labour. This demand led to dissatisfaction in the labour because the labour thought that if they gave more output more will be expected. Concepts Classical School of Management: They believe the efficiency of organizations can be increased by following standards (scientific management). Value free: without bias. Theory: set of assumptions based on observation or experiment which explain phenomenon or situation. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 8 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 03 CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS – I At the end of the lecture the students will be able to understand:- The work of Classical school Scientific management concepts like efficiency The concept of Weber’s bureaucracy Henri Fayol’s General Principles of Management The concepts in Human Relation Approach As mentioned early the main contributors to the classical thought are:- Woodrow Wilson Leonard D. White W. F. Willoughby Fredrick Winslow Taylor Henry L. Gantt Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Max Weber Henri Fayol The work of Max Weber, Henry L. Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and Henry Fayol will be discussed. In the last lecture we made effort to understand Taylor's scientific management and the underlying assumptions. We also tried to see the Results of his experiment. Henry L GANTT Gantt also belongs to the classical school, because he was also trying to focus on efficiency and maximization of output. He emphasized the need for developing mutuality of interests between management and labour, which mean a “harmonious cooperation,” between both. He asserted: That in all problems of management the human element is the most important.” The importance of time, as well as cost, in planning and controlling work This led eventually to the famous Gantt chart, (Figure below) which is basis of such modern techniques as the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT). This chart enables managers to break work in task and then determine to how much time and resources will be required to complete each task. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 9 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Gantt chart GANTT CHART - 3 MONTH TIME LINE January Fe bruary March Tas ks Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 W e e k 1 Week 2 We ek 3 Week 4 Week Week 2 Wee k 3 Week 4 1 Form BPM team Identify problem Map process Identify causes Analyze causes Develop improvement plan Set budget Get approval Collect data Analyze data Develop improved process Get approval Implement process Document improved process Train staff Key Dates KE Y 1/7 Form team 2/14 All data collected 1/9 Identify problem 2/21 All data analyzed Milestone marker - start 1/14 Map process 3/7 Mapped improved process 1/20 Identify causes 3/12 New process map approved Milestone marker - end 1/27 Develop improvement plant 3/21 New process implemented 1/29 Set budget 3/28 Staff trained Gantt bar 1/30 Budget and plan approved Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Frank and Lillian Gilbreth strongly supported the ideas of Taylor. (Frank and Lillian were husband and wife). Gilbreth became interested in wasted motions in work. He observed the work of bricklayers and said that it can be reduced from 18 to 5 movements. He met Taylor in 1907 and combined his ideas with Taylor to improve productivity of workers. Frank and Lillian Gilberth emphasized the following:- Application of scientific-management principles (time and motion study) The need to understand workers personalities and needs Theory of Bureaucracy Max Weber (1864-1920) Max Weber was a lawyer who got interested in the social aspects of organizations. During his time markets were booming and his life long work on the study of organizations led to believe that specific kind of organizations called “bureau” (desk), will help in the growth of markets. He gave following main characteristics of the bureaucracy. General Characteristics Hierarchy of authority Impersonality Written rules and documents Promotion based on achievement Middle Specialized division of labor Efficiency Bottom Figure © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 10 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Hierarchy of Authority Hierarchy is the various levels in the Organization. Authority Authority is the ability to exercise influence over a group of people. As shown in the figure a hierarchical organization looks like Pyramid. Weber distinguished three main types of authority: 1. Traditional Authority: The authority that one inherits, e.g. the son of king will be the future king. In traditional societies the authority is transmitted. 2. Charismatic: It is the authority that one possesses because of one’s personal traits and abilities. E.g. TV artist, sports stars. 3. Rational-legal Authority: It is the authority that is acquired as a result of a position. E.g. Policeman has authority because of the position. One may posses a mix of these above authorities. Impersonality The official is provided all equipment to carry out his duties; he does not own the "means of administration." Activities are completed impersonally, which means that the ‘self’ of individual is not involved in the work. Written Rules and Documents Bureaucracy demands that the written rules of the organization be strictly followed and that the officials remain loyal. All the work in organization is written. Compliance is to the written instructions. Promotion Based on Achievement Bureaucracy requires the tasks assigned to an official performed and completed in an efficient and effective manner, and promotion is based on the level of skill and ability of the official. Specialization/ Division of Labour Each person should perform a given and assigned task Example: 1. A person assigned the task of typing should only perform that task. He should not be asked to do other task. If he/she continues to perform the task he/she will develop competence in that area. 2. Pin making: Another example is of pin making given by Adam Smith. If the pin is made by one person he will take longer. But if the wire is straightened by one person, the other person cuts the wire and the third person rounds the head of the pin, then the output can be increased due to specialization. Henri Fayol Henri Fayol is called the father of modern management theory. He was a French Industrialist. His book on ‘General Administration’ appeared in 1916. It was written in French. Fayol found that activities of industrial undertaking could be grouped in 6 parts 1. Production 2. Commercial 3. Financial 4. Security (protection of property) 5. Accounting 6. Managerial General Principles of Management He gave following 14 general principles of management: 1. Division of work 2. Authority & Responsibility 3. Discipline: respect for agreement 4. Unity of command: receive order from one superior only © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 11 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU The figure below shows senior manager supervising the work of 3 Assistants. All 3 receive order from one superior. Senior Manager Assistant Assistant Assistant Unity of direction: each group of activities with same objectives must have one head and one plan. 5. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest: The mangers should work in the interests of organization. 6. Remuneration: methods of payment should be fair and give maximum satisfaction to employee and employer 7. Centralization: The extent to which the authority is concentrated in one person or dispersed in the organization 8. Scalar chain (line of authority) or chain of command 9. Order: a place for everything and every thing in its place 10. Equity: justice and fairness on the part of managers 11. Stability of tenure of personnel 12. Initiative: keenness to work 13. Esprit de corps: union is strength (teamwork) Main Feature of Classical School The main focus of the classical school was as follows:- 1. The task of administration is not political but technical, i.e. only carry out the will of the political authority. 2. Its emphasizes is on material and methods instead of human element in the organization 3. It treated people as ‘cogs in the machines’ people in the organization were like other machines and tools. 4. Focus was to increase productivity. It improves organizational efficiency and ensures high productivity due to economic incentives to workers. Human Relation Approach This approach started as a reaction to the classical approach. It was initiated in 1930’s with the “Human Relation Movement”. Research and Theory development in the 1950s and 1960s provided further conceptual grounding to this school of thought. Research and Theory development in the 1950s and 1960s provided further conceptual grounding to this school of thought. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 12 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Concepts Productivity: increasing output per worker Division of work/specialization: assign work clearly to one person so that he improves the skills Authority: ability to influence others Impersonality: “self” on individual is not involved in the work. Hierarchy: various levels or tiers in the organization Time & motion study: to study the movements of workers and eliminate unnecessary and inefficient movements © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 13 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 04 CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS – II Lecture 4 is continuation of the evolution of public administration & management. At the end of the lecture students will be able to understand:- 1. Human relations school and the work of the main contributors Contributors of This Approach The main contributors to human relation schools were Elton Mayo, Chester I. Barnard and Herbert Simon. The Human Relations School was the response to Classical School. Those who believed in the assumptions of classical school ignored the human element in the organizations. They looked at human beings as mechanical devises. Initially the methods of Classical Schools worked, and then gradually these stopped giving intended results. Human relations theory has diverse tradition of models, techniques, research findings, and ideas that often trace their roots back to the Hawthorne Experiments. Hawthorne studies Elton Mayo, Roethlisberger and other undertook the famous experiment at Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company at Cicero, Illinois, USA, between1927–1932. Before that from 1924 to 1927, the National Research Council (USA) did study in collaboration with Western Electric Company to determine the effect of illumination and other conditions on workers and their productivity Researchers conducting the experiments at the Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric Company placed two groups of employees doing the same work into separate rooms. One group was treated as the control, and the second was test group. The control group is one for which the variables like light, temperature and working conditions are not changed. The test group is one for which the variables like light temperature etc., are changed. The test group in the Hawthorne Experiment was exposed to various experimental changes such as increased lighting, decreased lighting, rest, pauses, and so on. For the test group the light was gradually decreased. It was decreased to the extent that it was as little as moonlight. The researchers of Western Electric Company expected the experiments to lead to different levels of performance for the experimental (control) group, and for the test group. To the amazement of the researchers, both groups increased their performance. The Researchers concluded that the experimental design was problematic, which allowed extraneous factors to enter the design that led to these unanticipated results. What Mayo and his colleagues found that employees in the groups were treated as special. They were given attention by management, separated from other employees, and encouraged to perform. They found in general that improvements in productivity were due to social factors as morale, good relations with managers and members of group. Employees who are given attention by management, who are treated as special, and who perceive their work as significant can become highly motivated and thus become more productive. This phenomenon arising basically from people being “noticed” is called Hawthorne effect. What the Hawthorne studies emphasized that organizations are not just machines & tools but are also social systems. Chester I. Barnard Chester I Bernard wrote the most influential book entitled “The Function of the Executive”. He was the president of Bell Telephone Company in New Jersey, USA from 1927 to 1948. Barnard was much influenced by Mayo and others of Human Relation Schools. His analysis of the manager was that the manager has to understand the behaviour of people in organization and maintain a system of cooperative effort in formal organizations. In his book he emphasized the following: © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 14 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU He focused on the social implications (aspects) of organization. In response to Scientific Management Theory, Barnard added the human component to the work situation. He argued that the manager's role included gaining cooperation, defining purposes, and providing a system of communication. He believed that the subordinate was the ultimate source of authority; he or she chooses whether to accept or reject orders given by the manager. According to him subordinates had three zones or range of orders that workers will operate under: The zone of rejection, The zone of acceptance, The zone of indifference The Three Zones of Employees According to Bernard If employees are managed property, the zone of acceptance can extend into the zone of indifference, thereby increasing the worker's tolerance for the manager's orders. If managed inappropriately the zone of indifference will turn into the zone of rejection, thereby decreasing the worker's tolerance for the manager's orders. Barnard believed that organizations could be improved by the adoption of: A cooperative attitude between functional units (worker & managers) Interdepartmental instruction (coordination among departments) The cross training of personnel (training of employee from different departments of the organization) Herbert Simon (1916 – 2001) Herbert Simon was influenced by Bernard’s work and his focus in the organization was human behaviour particularly focusing on decision making. He pointed out that Classical School focused on rational processes of increasing output, ignoring that human beings have limited cognition and knowledge of complex problems. According to him group behavior requires not only the adoption of correct decisions, but also the adoption by all members of the group of the same decisions. According to Herbert Alexander Simon organizations are important because it:- It provides the environments and structure that mold and develop personal qualities and habits Provides those in responsible positions with the means for exercising authority and influence over others Structures communications, determines the environments of information in which decisions are taken The major contribution of Simon was to the understanding of decision making in organization and artificial intelligence. Simon got Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978. (For his work see: http://citiseer.ist.psu.edu/correct/15784) © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 15 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Concepts Illumination experiment: the experiment conducted at Hawthorne Electric Plant to study the group behaviour on performance. Hawthorne effect: when group receives attention from supervisor Productivity: output per worker Human Relations School: the view that human behaviour (group) has important influence on productivity and performance of organization © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 16 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 05 HUMAN RELATIONS SCHOOLS Text Books Khan, Sultan, Public Administration with Special Reference to Pakistan, Urdu Bazar, Lahore (latest edition) Nigro and Nigro, Modern Public Administration, Harper & Row, NY (latest edition) At the end of the lecture the students will be able to understand the following:- 1. Main features of Human Relations Schools 2. The concept of behaviour and the common features of behavioural School and Human Relations 3. Theory X and Theory Y 4. Maslow hierarchy of need i.e. the concepts in need theory 5. Concepts and main features of System school We will now conclude Hebert Simons work. But before we do that we attempt to see how Simon classified administrative behaviour. He has classified the administrative behaviour as follows:- 1. The study of bureaucracy: In order to understand decision making, it is better to understand the structure of organization, because the structure determines behaviour. 2. Human relations pertaining to motivation and increasing job satisfaction: The study of human relations and motivation determines the performance in organization. 3. Decision-making studies emphasizing cognitive processes and the rational components of administrative behaviour: The decision making behaviour in organization is based on cognitive process as well as rational In his view, all behaviour involves conscious or unconscious selection of particular actions. For example: If a manager has to decide to fire Mr. X., the conscious considerations would be like the employee was undisciplined, and continuously performed unsatisfactorily. His unconscious consideration might be that the manager did not like his him personally. Main Features of Human of Relation Approach This is a brief snapshot of the human relations theories. The Human Relations School focused on the:- Individuals behaviour, cognitive decision-making process and nature of authority in organization Informal, interpersonal relationship, group dynamics and communication pattern Behavioural School The Behavioural School looked at human motivation and social environment in which the organizations work. They studied the behaviour of individuals in the organization and the affect of behaviour on organizational performance. The main contributors to Behavioural School were Psychologists and Sociologists. What is behaviour? Behaviour is defined in general sense as actions of people that are seen. As you can see in the figure the behaviour that can be seen is really the tip of the ice being. Below this tip is the unseen attitudes, thoughts, feelings, perception, motive etc. The unseen attitudes etc. drive certain behaviour which is seen. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 17 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU For example we can see the behaviour of a person who violates traffic signal or who litters around. From this behaviour we can infer his perceptions and attitudes towards rules and cleanliness respectively. Figure Behaviour Seen Behaviour Attitudes Thoughts Motives Not Seen Feelings The Human Relation School and Behavioural School have many things in common. These are: 1. Both focus on motivation of people 2. Both emphases Clarity of communication 3. They emphasize interpersonal relationship: How people relate with each other 4. Both look at individual and group behaviour: Behaviour of people in the group and individual behaviour Main Contributors of Behavioural The main contributors whose work is analyzed are:- 1. Douglas McGregor 2. Abraham Maslow Douglas McGregor: Douglas McGregor presented a theory called Theory X and Theory Y. His Theory X and Y are the negative and positive assumption about human behaviour. Theory X Theory X has negative assumptions, which are as follows:- 1. Dislike work: It is assumed that human beings are lazy and docile, therefore, they avoid work. 2. Avoid responsibility: Because human beings are lazy, they do not want to take any responsibility. 3. They need to be supervised: From the above two assumption it follow that they need to be supervised. As human beings are lazy, therefore, in order to get work out of them they need to be closely supervised. Theory Y Theory Y is a positive assumption about human behaviour, and its assumptions are just the opposite of Theory X. These assumptions are: 1. People accept responsibility: Because they are willing to work and agile and active. They want to achieve goals for the organization and accept responsibility. 2. Can exercise control: Because they are responsible, therefore, they want to have control over things 3. Have capacity to be creative: People want to be creative and look for challenge. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 18 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU 4. Can work as natural as rest or play: For people work and rest are equal, i.e. people want to work and rest which is natural they cannot rest all the time because it becomes boring and they cannot work all the time because it becomes dull as well Maslow’s Need Hierarchy This theory was developed by Abraham Maslow. This theory has received more attention from managers. Maslow viewed human motivation as a hierarchy of five needs (see figure) ranging from the most basic physiological or basic needs to the highest level of need for “self actualization”. According to Maslow, individuals will be motivated to fulfill the most pressing need at a time. The importance of need depends on the deprivation of the need and current situation. If the individual is deprived of basic need he will be at that level of need. For example the basic needs are food, clothing and shelter. If one is hungry and is starving one will not be able to think of higher level of need i.e. safety. The needs at the lower level must be satisfied before one moves to higher level of needs. Figure Self Actualization Ego-Status Belongingness Safety Basic Needs System Schools The main contributors of system schools are:- 1. Fermont E. Kast 2. James E. Rosenzweig 3. William Scott The word ‘system’ is borrowed from biological sciences to social science. It attempts to see organizations as other systems, like irrigation system, Ecosystem, circulatory system, digestive system, solar system, etc. Some of these are mechanistic system, some are organic system. The mechanistic system is static e.g. these do not change with changes outside the system. Organic systems are not static. Organic System responds to external environment. There are two basic components of system Theory. These are:- System School views organization as “unified, purposeful system composed of interrelated parts” This theory provides opportunity to look at organization as a whole and as part of larger external environment © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 19 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Parts of Organization An organization comprise of many parts or sub-system. The figure shows an organization structure of a university. Three sub-system i.e. Examination, Registration and Human Resource management are shown. These sub-systems or parts of organization constitute one big organization. Since organizations are compared to organic system, these are changeable. The organization as a whole responds to external system. Figure Rector Examination Registration Human Resource Management Key Concepts in System School Following are some key concepts in System Theory:- Subsystem: The part that make up the whole Synergy: whole is greater than the sum of its part The combine effect of system System boundary: Boundary separates system from the external environment Open & closed system: system that interacts with its environment is open system Feedback: return of information to the organization. The figure below shows the feed back mechanism. Figure Inputs Transformation Products Human Use of processes to Financial change resources into Good and Services Physical goods and services Feedback The theories or schools of thoughts that we have tried to understand explain us one aspect of organization. Therefore, we cannot say that one theory is better than other. In fact all theories if studied are helpful in explaining organizational behaviour, and explain us different aspects of organization. The classical theories help us understand the mechanical aspects like line of command, unity of direction hierarchy etc. While Human and Behavioural Schools help us understand the human side of organizations. Concepts Theory X: The negative assumptions about human behaviour Theory Y: The positive assumptions about human behaviour Behaviour: Actions of Individual that can be observed © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 20 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Need Hierarchy: Human needs are placed in different levels, from the basic level to the highest level. Sub-System: The part that make up the whole Feed back: Return of information to the organization © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 21 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 06 POWER AND POLITICS At the end of the lecture the students will be able to understand the following:- 1. concept of power and politics 2. types of power and conflict 3. the importance of power in organization The main contributors of power and politics school are:- Harold Laswell Robert Dhal Antony Jay (reintroduced Machiavelli’s concept of power) This school attempts to understand the concept of power in organization. It defines power as personal characteristics by which one person can influence or dominate another person. In organizations, power is the ability of one person or department, to influence other people or departments, in order to bring about the desired results. Without power, organizations will not be able to achieve their goals, because managers exert influence to force people to do things that they want. Another element in organization is politics. Politics is about controlling resources (material, human, financial, information etc.). It is also about distribution of resources. Who gets what, how, when and where (Harold Laswell 1936). Politics is often understood as undesirable, because it is perceived as “maneuvering” and manipulation” by people. Power is synonymously defined with authority. Authority comes with the job that one is holding, and power and authority are perceived as one, although power subsumes authority. “Power and Politics School” views authority as only one of the available sources of organizational power. It may be mentioned that power is aimed at in all directions in the organizations, i.e. the top managements power would be felt from top to bottom sideway as well. It can be understood as the presence of an individual being felt. Figure Top Middle Bottom There are various types of power that managers use in the organization. These are: Legitimate Power Reward/Punish Power Expert Power Referent Power © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 22 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Legitimate Power It is the authority given by the organization to the formal management position a manager holds. For example: Power of DCO, Nazim, and Policeperson. These personnel have power because they hold certain position. Reward / Punish Power The power which stems from the ability to bestow rewards which include benefits like food allowance, overtime cash allowance and other fringe benefits. Example: Adults can reward or punish children; managers give cash awards to their sub-ordinates for good performance. Expert Power It is the power possessed by an individual based on experience, or some skills and ability. Example: computer expert, specialist doctor Referent Power Organizations are always finding ways of using the effective and suitable way of utilizing the experience and knowledge of reputable managers as far as employee referrals are concerned. Conflict Conflict is a natural outcome of the close interaction of people. It is defined as difference, disagreement and dissension. When there is disagreement and dissension people will have a view point and suggestion that is different. In order to have their views prevail people will try to find means by which give and take will occur. Therefore, individuals and groups will use power and political activity to handle their differences and manage conflict. Conflict- as Positive and Negative Conflict can have positive or negative affect on the organization. The positive affect is when manager agree to some new view points of the disagreeing group/individual. Conflict can be a positive force because it challenges the status quo, encourages new ideas and approaches, and leads to change. However, too much conflict can be harmful to any organization. Because too much conflict can lead to dead lock and things may not move. Some degree of conflict always occurs in all human relationships. Reactions of Managers Most managers have a negative view toward politics and believe that politics will more often hurt than help an organization in achieving its goals. Politics is also seen as a negative element. But some kind of politics is always there in organization and if that is understood managers can use it in a positive way. Political behaviour is common to practically all public or private organizations, and should be used positively by involving people in decision making. Most managers think political behaviour occurs more often at upper rather than lower levels in organization. But political behaviour is common to people in organization, therefore, it occurs at all levels, but it is more at the top. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 23 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Political behaviour arises in certain decision domain, such as structural change, but is absent from other decisions, such as handling employee grievances. Organizational decision-making and problem-solving, is also a political process. Organizational actors seek to satisfy not only organizational interests, but also their own wants and needs; driven by self- interest. Three Dimensional Typology For the purposes of understanding organizational political behaviour, Farrell and Peterson (1982) proposed a three-dimensional typology. The dimensions are: 1. Where the political activity takes place -- inside or outside the organization 2. The direction of the attempted influence -- vertically or laterally in the organization 3. The legitimacy of the political action: The purpose of three dimensional typology is to identify if the political activity is within the organization or outside and where is the influence of politics and are the actions legitimate. This helps in controlling and managing political behaviour in organization. Concepts Power: ability to influence people using any type of power Politics: who gets what, how and when using the power that one possesses. Organizational behaviours: the interaction and behaviour of employees in the organization © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 24 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 07 HISTORY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION – I At the end of the lecture the students will be able to understand:- 1. The Management Science School 2. Understand the practice of public administration in the following periods:- - Indus Valley Civilization - Moghul Period - British Period The Management Science School At the beginning of World War II, Great Britain desperately needed to solve complex problem in warfare. The British formed a team of mathematician, physicists and other scientist. The British were able to achieve technological breakthrough. When the war was over the applicability of Operations Research (OR) to problems in industry became apparent. Over the years OR (the use of mathematic, statistics) procedure came to called the management science. It is the application of mathematics, statistics & economic models to the problems of organization. It also involves determining relationship between two or more variables. For example: age and learning, income and expenditure, training and efficiency etc. Public Administration in the Sub-Continent Today’s administrative systems and procedures in Pakistan have its roots in particular to the British period. Two hundred years of British rule still have its vestiges and remnants on the structure, rules, procedures and organizational behaviours. But the British changed the structure to the extent of what their goals were in the sub-continent. The retained the structure at the district level which they inherited from Moguls. Sub-continent to a bedrock of many civilizations as it stood at the cross roads of Central Asia, Middle East and South East of sea, as such is influenced by Greeks, Arabs and Central Asians. Administrative process in Pakistan is the result of years of assimilation of the cultural and administrative practices of Indus Valley Civilizations including Aryans, Greeks, Persian, Maurya, Moghuls and British. Traditional Functions of Government Before we discuss what administrative structure existed in this part of the world, we must understand the traditional function of the government. These functions are as follow:- 1. Maintain law and order (peace and security). For any government to rule it must maintain internal peace and security. Without peace and security government will not be able to perform its other functions. 2. Tax collection: It is the second but important functions governments taxes are collected to provide for defence i.e. external threat. Also governments have to provide for welfare and public goods like roads etc. 3. Defence: The government has to protect country from external threat and has to maintain army. 4. Maintenance of mint: Governments have to supply currency and coins. This is government’s responsibility to maintain mints & printing of notes. Indus Valley Civilization In the sub-continent two civilizations of ancient time i.e. Mohenjodaro and Harrapa were very developed cities between 3250- 2750 BC. The ruins of these cities tell us that the rulers maintained a good sewage and water supply system. The city had granary and bricks were used in the construction of houses. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 25 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU Gordon Childe writes: The remains of many well planned streets and municipal system of drains, regularly cleaned, reflect the vigilance of some regular municipal government. Its authority was strong enough to secure observance of town planning bye-laws’. “Granaries at Harrapa were constructed in planned and coordinated manner. Grain was source of wealth and collected as taxes.” The Maurya Empire in early 4th century BC had government official who looked after agriculture improvement, measured land and inspected irrigation system. During this period government employees were divided into three categories: 1. District Officials were responsible for irrigation, land measurement, hunting, agriculture, roads and distance stones. 2. Officials who dealt with military: Army was maintained to defend the borders and it was well looked after. 3. Capital Management: There were 6 boards, each managing i) supervision of factories, ii) care of foreigners, iii) births & deaths, iv) trade & commerce, v) inspection of manufactured articles and vi) collection of sales tax. (Taken from Kautilya, Arthasastra, Book II, Ch. XXXVI) The book by Kautilya is one of the oldest books on Public Administration written during Maurya period. This book was written for the officials who were responsible for running the government, so that they understand their duties and responsibilities. Moghul Period Moghul administrative system has clear imprints on the present day public management in Pakistan. Moghul period lasted over two centuries (16th – 18th), during which many rulers including Sher Shah Suri and Akber, reigned. Though Suri was not Moghul ruler but his administrative system was adopted by succeeding rulers. Suri, developed a centralized system of administration, divided the empire into 47 divisions, with several sub-divisions under each division. He organized survey of land under cultivation, effective tax system, criminal justice system, Road network: for defence and postal service: He constructed the present Grand Trunk (GT) road, which runs from Peshawar to Calcutta. He established gardens and hospitals and promoted public welfare. He was guided by the principle that ‘no one should be deprived of state benefaction and no one should have superfluity of the same’. Many Moghul Rulers followed Sher Shah Suri. But Akber's period is longest and many developments took place. Akber ruled the sub-continent for nearly 50 years. He developed the administrative system mainly borrowed from Sher Shah Suri. The empire was divided into, provinces, divisions, districts and villages. These terms are used even now. Village was the lowest unit and it was governed by headman, accountant and watchman. The British did not change this system and existed up to the partition of sub-continent and later. During the time of Akbar human resource management was done. Career civil service system with hierarchical structure existed. Entry to civil service was not restricted based on religion or geographic origin. Akber further improved the system: 1. Revenue collection system: During Akber period revenue collection system was improved. It was based on survey and classification of soil. The land was classified as agriculture and non-agriculture. Within the agriculture the land was graded State tax was then fixed and charged according to the type of soil. 2. Judicial system: Judicial Officers were appointed at the district, town and village levels. 3. Law enforcement: Kotwal (chief police officer), with only civil authority was appointed in important towns. In rural areas faujdar (army chief) was appointed to control crime. After Akber, for over hundred years no real administrative system could develop, mainly because the disarray of the empire began with Jahangir, who first allowed the East India Company to set up a factory in 1642 at Balasore for medical service provided by the Surgeon of the company on the ship. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 26 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU The East India Company, which was a trading Company and had its Board of Governors, was granted charter on 31 Dec., 1600 to trade freely into and from East Indies, by the British Parliament. British Period The beginning of British Rule in the sub-continent started and the East India Company gradually expanded its operations. In 1609 - the authority to trade was further extended. In 1661 - the Company was empowered to declare war on and have peace with any ruler. The Regulating Act 1773 was passed by British parliament granting the British government powers to regulate the affairs of the Company in India. By this time the British government was not ruling directly India. All matters and powers were given to the company to rule. In 1757 the victory at Plassey paved the way for the British rule. There were innumerable battles and conflict before the British government’s direct rule which really started after 1857 (war of independence). Concepts Traditional functions of government: maintain law & order, tax collection, defence and maintenance of mint Tax system: a system that collects revenue for the government Judicial system: a system that interprets law and provides justice to citizens East India Company: It was a company (like the multinational company of today) that came to trade goods, especially spices. But in the process of trade they found goods other than spice like cotton. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 27 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 08 HISTORY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION – II At the end of the lecture the students will be able: To know the history of public administration during British period. The 1857 war of Independence is a turning point in the history of subcontinent from many perspectives. From the perspective of public administration it can be said that events that led to 1857 war of Independence were that the British had tried to divide the two religions of the sub-continent. But it is also said that British had become laxed in administration and they did not expect the locals to rise up-against them. When the war erupted and spread, it was realized that things should not be left to the company to be managed. Therefore, the government in London stepped in to rule directly. In 1858 a constitutional document “Government of India Act 1858” was passed by the British Parliament. Now the Secretary of State was to exercise powers previously given to the Company. These powers were to suppress all local up rising and use force against any up rising. A Council of 15 members was created under the Act. It was to conduct all business relating to Government of India in UK. The Act was a comprehensive written constitution for the subcontinent. The Constitution was unitary and the provincial governments derived their powers by devolution from the central government under the control and direction of Governor General. This meant that the control of administration of the subcontinent was in London. Even the Governor General for the sub-continent was appointed by the British government and the ultimate control was of Secretary of State sitting in London who was answerable to the British Parliament. The initial structure of civil service in the sub-continent was laid by the East India Company (EIC). The employees of EIC initially belonged to Mercantile Service (1601 – 1858) and then the Imperial Service 1858 -1947. During this period of British rule in sub-continent, the civil service of EIC under went changes according to the requirement of colonial rule. The employees of EIC were divided into ‘covenanted’ (higher employees) and ‘un-covenanted’ employees (lower level of service). The covenanted civil servants signed agreement with the Company regarding terms and conditions of the service. The un-covenanted did not sign any agreement and these could be removed any time without giving any benefits. Atchison Commission (1886-87) recommended that distinction between covenanted and un- covenanted service should be abolished and ‘Imperial Civil Service’ should be established. This nomenclature was later on changed to ‘Indian Civil Service’. The Commission also recommended the creation of Provincial Civil Service The India Civil Service was organized on the principle that ‘it would be characterized by integrity and ability’ (Philip Woodruff, The Men who Ruled India). It developed standards of honesty and conduct and the system grew where power was combined with confidence and bust. To train man for career in Indian Civil Service (ICS) in the sub-continent, East India College was established in 1806 at Hailey bury England. Entry to the College and service was open to natural-born British. The Government of India Act 1853 provided young men of sub-continent to compete for the entry to the College, irrespective of religion, place of birth, descant colour or race. The College offered residential course of two years where young men were taught by eminent scholars of the time. The College imbibed a sense of pride in the young men at the College. The civil servants were paid salaries and wages which allowed them a proper standard of living according to the responsibilities, which meant that their salaries should not be meager and that they should not resort to unfair means of earning. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 28 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU The Indian Civil Service Act 1861 freed the service from the rule of seniority and seniority was not the only criteria of promotion. With some safeguards the Act allowed appointment from outside. Public Service Commission was established in 1926, as a recruiting agency. The Government of India Act 1935 provided security of tenure: i.e. no officer could be dismissed until heard in his defence and was given the right to appeal up to the Secretary State. The British left noteworthy administrative heritage in such areas as law, finance, education, railways, public works and public health. The foundation of modern Police was laid in 1861. The Police Act 1861 introduced a uniform system of police. In each district Superintendent of Police was appointed with hierarchy of Deputy Superintendent and inspectors. The police system that British has set-up functioned efficiently for a long time. The British made several noteworthy contributions in the area of public financial management. Great stress was laid upon land a revenue collection procedure which was greatly improved. These were important as land revenue provided 15% of total revenue. The British reconstituted a system of committees of revenue as Boards of control over districts administered by collectors who assessed and received land revenue. By creating compact revenue system in fact they revived part of Akbar’s system. Treasury functions were reorganized and placed under Auditor General. Income tax procedure was also introduced. Various financial functions were given to the provinces. Under the Act of 1935 the federal budget was to be presented to the legislature and was to show separate estimates of expenditure of votable and non-votable were shown. The British gave the system of law administration. They codified the law and introduced the system of judicial and expanded the court system. Three levels for both civil and criminal courts came into being, small courts, district or city courts and provincial courts. The Charter of 1833 provided for Indian Law Commission (1833) which inquired into the powers and rules of all courts and police establishment, al forms of judicial procedures and the nature and operation of all laws. As a result of the work of Commission the first Indian Penal Code was enacted. The Indian Universities Act 1904 brought improvements in the education system. As a result of the Act the education system was improved and better teachers were employed, cramming for examination was reduced, closer inspection of College was done. The British gave to the sub-continent institutions like post and telegraph, railways, irrigation system, public works department etc. But Pakistan came into existence under condition which caused strain for public administration, as public administration was confronted with grave challenges. At the time of independence professional non- Muslims out numbered Muslims and there was large exodus of non-Muslims from the part that constitutes Pakistan. Non Muslims were more educated and were more in important position. The public administration of the new country faces following problem: Dearth of trained labor (civil servants economists, doctors, engineers): There was grave vacuum of trained and professional civil servants. At the time of independence, there were around 100 civil servants. Refugees: Millions of dislocated and displaced people moved from Pakistan to India and vice versa. Inadequate physical infrastructure: The part which became Pakistan had no industry, roads were inadequate, there were few. Constitution making: The major task was of constitution making. Pakistan faced leadership crisis after the death of Quaid-i-Azam. The leadership and political crisis shelved the process of Constitution making. It was in 1973 that Pakistan got the Constitution – which could provide framework for government. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 29 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 09 CIVIL SERVICE At the end of the lecture the students will be able to understand: 1. The concept of civil service 2. The structure of civil service in Pakistan at the time of independence. What is Civil Service? Civil service has he defined in the Civil Servant Act 1973. But this word also has general meaning as well, which are that civil means “public” and public are the citizens of a country. By this connotation it means that civil servants are a group of people who serve public and in that sense civil service is different from military service. Words like Public, Civil, and Government are used interchangeably. Officers and officials working in government organization are all public servants because they draw their salaries from public exchequer. Recruitment of Public Servants: The recruitment of civil servants takes place by the following two methods: 1. Public Service Commissions (Federal & Provincial) are constitutionally Grade 15 and above 2. The autonomous organization recruit people directly (test & interview by the organization) The structure of Federal and provincial Government is as under:- Federal Government Provincial Government Ministries Department Division/s Directorate Attached Department Autonomous Bodies Autonomous Bodies Example: Development Authorities Public Enterprises District/Tehsil Office At the federal level the apex organization is ‘ministry’, for example Ministry of Health and Population. The ministry is headed by Minister each ministry may have two or more than two divisions. Divisions are usually also located in Islamabad. Below Division is “attached department”. The administrative control of the department is with the Division which is controlling it. Autonomous bodies are much independent because, these have their Board of Governors who makes policy decision for the organization. In this way these are independent administratively. What are the Functions Performed by the Government? The government performs these functions: Maintains Peace Provides Defence It collects Revenues and It Maintains currency How does it perform these functions? It performs these functions through its representatives i.e. public servants or civil servant who are paid salary from the government treasury (exchequer). In addition to these traditional functions modern governments perform many additional functions. These are: - It provides Utilities (electricity, telephone, gas) - It maintain Government Accounts - It maintains Foreign Relations - It maintains Cantonments © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 30 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU - It regulates, distributes and allocates goods and services in the society. The functions of today’s government have increased because of following reasons:- - Population that is provided services has increased manifold and hence the nature of problems social, economic, political and global problems have changed. In fact these have become complex. - The territory of the government has increased in size - Technological improvement and advancement - Because of technological improvement the nature specialization/division of labour has changed and become more complex Therefore, in order to perform new functions the governments changed the structure and added more functions. At the time of independence Pakistan inherited the civil service structure which was laid out by the East India Company and subsequently modified by the British government to its own requirement. The structure of the services existing in Pre-partition sub-continent was adopted in Pakistan with little modifications. The following two categories of the services were maintained. 1. All-Pakistan Services 2. Central Services All Pakistan Services Civil Service of Pakistan Police Service of Pakistan (IPS) (Descendent of ICS) 1. The All Pakistan Services: The all Pakistan Service was descendent of All-India Services. The All Pakistan Service was created in Pakistan. It comprised Civil Service of Pakistan (CSP) and the Police Service of Pakistan (PSP). Officers of these services served under central as well as the provincial governments. Officers when served under the Provincial Government were controlled by Provincial Government concerned but the basic control remained with centre. 2. Civil Services of Pakistan (CSP): The CSP in Pakistan was the descendent of the Indian Civil Service (ICS) in India. At the time of independence It consisted of: Former ICS officers, Officers who served in World War 2, and Finance service officers and Officers selected by Competitive Examination held in 1949 & 1950 3. Police Service of Pakistan (PSP): The PSP in Pakistan was the same as Indian Police Service (IPS) in sub-continent. At the time of partition it consisted of those officers who opted for Pakistan. The posts held by PSP officers included Inspectors-Generals, Superintendents, Deputy Superintendents, Assistant Superintendents etc. Most of the PSP officers served under Provincial Government. 4. Central Services: Like the Central Services before partition the Central Services in Pakistan were controlled by Central government. Before the Administrative Reforms (1973), there were 13 Central Services which are discussed below:- i. Pakistan Foreign Services (PFS): The PFS offices are officers working diplomatic missions abroad. In the beginning, specialized duties were also performed by PFS officers. But separate services were constituted which met the requirements for specialized jobs in foreign missions. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 31 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU ii. Accounts Services: These services included the Pakistan Audit and Accounts Service (PAAS), Pakistan Military Accounts Service (PMAS) and Pakistan Railway Accounts Service (PRAS). The officers belonging to the services held post pertaining to finance and accounts ministries. The offices included ministries, attached departments, subordinate offices, corporations etc. As financial advisors, accountant-general, auditors-general etc iii. Pakistan Customs and Excise Services (PCES): These were formally formed in 1959. It was the combination of Sea Customs Service and Central Land Customs and Excise Services. The posts included Assistant Collector, Deputy Collector and the posts with corresponding status in CBR. iv. Pakistan Taxation Service: It consisted of junior officers promoted from provincial and class II services on ad-hoc basis. In 1957, it was upgraded to class I status. It held posts of commissioner of income tax, deputy commissioner of income tax, income tax officer etc. v. Pakistan Military & Land Cantonment Service: Officers of this service were appointed as cantonment Executive offices and were in-charge of maintenance and control of lands within the cantonment areas as well as the local governments. vi. Pakistan Postal Service: It was constituted by combining: Pakistan Postal Service and Telegraph Traffic Service. Telegraph Engineering Service. In 1965, the Telegraph Service was separated. vii. Trade Service of Pakistan: It was created to meet the requirements in commercial fields in Pakistan and in missions abroad. This cadre was formally constituted in 1970. viii. Information Service of Pakistan (ISP): It was formed in 1963 for posts requiring journalistic qualifications for appointments in Pakistan and in foreign missions. ix. Economic Pool: In 1950, an economic pool was constituted. Its officers were drawn from CSP and from accounts and finance services. However, it was not made a regularly constituted service. The other services were: x. Central Secretariat Services. xi. General Administrative Service. Conclusions What we conclude is that the service structure of the colonial period was adopted. The political situation of the country did not permit to review the structure. The structure that was inherited more biased towards maintaining law and order, the structure was not geared towards the development of the new country. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 32 Introduction To Public Administration–MGT111 VU LESSON 10 CIVIL SERVICE REFORMS At the end of lecture the students will be able to understand: 1. The need for reforms in civil service 2. Understand the structure of civil service and the need for training in civil service Reforms of the Civil Service Soon after the independence, the government decided to review the system of administration and some foreign experts were invited to study and make recommendation in this connection. The famous among those expert reports were the two Reports on administrative reforms. These were: 1. Egger Report 1953 2. Gladieux Report In 1953 Rowland Egger of USA made following observations about the civil service of Pakistan: 1. It is oriented towards academic notion of intelligence and ability. It is obsessed with interests of those already in service. 2. Recruitment standards are out-dated and recruitment techniques are far removed from currently accepted good practices. 3. The selection system is self-perpetuating and tends to repeat its own type, as though civil service drew most of its inspiration from looking in the mirror. 4. Members of civil service are supposed to be like a box of interchangeable part in assembly line. Rowland Egger recommended the following to improve civil service working: a. Unification of the entire group of employees into Civil Service of Pakistan with internal grouping for administrative purpose e.g. Administration, Foreign Service, Accounts etc. b. Standardized pay scales based on comprehensive job analysis c. The generalists should not dominate other services. d. There is need to have specialization in the civil service. In 1955 Mr. Bernard Gladieux also from USA was engaged by government as consultant on Public Admi

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