MEDA 131 Reviewer - Introduction

MEDA 131 REVIEWER CHAPTER I What is The Media? The media are communication channels through which news, entertainment, education, data, or any information are disseminated. This includes broadcasting and narrowcasting media like newspapers, magaz...

MEDA 131 REVIEWER CHAPTER I What is The Media? The media are communication channels through which news, entertainment, education, data, or any information are disseminated. This includes broadcasting and narrowcasting media like newspapers, magazines, television, radio, billboards, and the internet. Broadcasting involves delivering information to the mass public, Narrowcasting is a term that describes delivering information or media to a specific or narrow group of people. Media as the Sword Arm of Democracy The media’s aim, therefore, should be to facilitate people’s understanding of issues relevant to their lives so they can participate in their community and the country as a whole. The Media has a Vast Reach They can communicate to a large number of people all at once and influence how they view issues of the day, and how they want issues to be addressed. How Does the Media Affect its Consumers? Framing Priming Agenda Setting Framing Is the process by which the media shapes how an audience understands an issue by emphasizing certain details, perspectives, or interpretations over others. It involves specific words, images, and contexts to present a story, thereby influencing how people perceive and interpret the information. Focus: How information is presented and interpreted Purpose: Shapes the audience’s perception and understanding of an issue. Example: Describing a protest as a “fight for justice” vs. a “public disturbance” Priming Refers to the media’s ability to affect the criteria people use when making judgments and decisions. By repeatedly highlighting certain issues or topics, the media makes these topics more prominent in the audience’s mind, influencing how they evaluate related matters, such as political candidates or policies. Focus: The criteria used to make judgments or decisions. Purpose: Influences what issues are considered important when evaluating leaders or policies.  MEDA 131 REVIEWER Example: Extensive media coverage of economic issues before an election makes voters prioritize economic performance. Agenda Setting Is the ability of the media to influence the importance placed on the topics of public discourse. By giving more coverage to certain issues, the media shapes what people think is important, directing public attention and political action toward those issues. Focus: The prominence given to different issues in the media. Purpose: Determines which topics are deemed important and receive public attention. Example: Continuous media coverage of climate change makes it a major topic of public discussion and policy focus. MEDIA AND AUDIENCE How are Stories Selected? The media report on an event that happens. The decision to report depends on the target group of the media house and very often this is also influenced by new values. TIMELINESS PROXIMITY PROMINENCE IMPACT CURRENCY CONFLICT ODDITY Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge (1965) published the article that led to the emergence of the concept of news values. The 1965 research identified 12 themes and grouped them into three categories: 1. Impact 2. Audience of Identification 3. Pragmatics of Coverage Impact Threshold Frequency Negativity Unexpectedness Unambiguity or Simplification Threshold Stories that involve an event that affects a larger number of people will have a larger chance of getting published or aired than those events that involve fewer people.  MEDA 131 REVIEWER Frequency Stories that unfold within the news production cycle, whether they be daytime breaking news or a previously scheduled public hearing or press conference, will have a greater chance of getting published and aired. Negativity Stories that are negative in nature– death, damage, disaster, and the like. Unexpectedness Stories involving events that are out of the ordinary and/or unexpected. Unambiguity or Simplification Outside of specialized publications, stories that are simple to write and easy to understand, like an open-and-shut murder case. Audience of Identification Personalization Meaningfulness Elite Countries Elite People Personalization Stories that involve people and their attributes. For example, a personality sketch of a scientist who recently won an award will not be complete if it does not involve personal detail or two to humanize the presentation Meaningfulness Stories that are more relatable to audiences. Elite Countries In foreign news, stories involving first-world countries and those that are culturally proximate to us have a greater chance of being aired or published than stories involving third-world countries and global south countries. Elite People Stories that involve people with high status–ranking politicians and other officials, as well as the rich and the famous– are more likely to see publication and airtime than those involving ordinary people.  MEDA 131 REVIEWER Pragmatics of Coverage Consonance Continuity Composition Consonance Stories that conform better to what the news gatekeepers think the audience would like to read, watch, or hear. Continuity Stories that build upon what audiences already know. Composition Editors like to mix things up on pages assigned to them. A light story might be aired or seen in print in place of a lesser-degree serious report if all other stories on the page are deathly serious. Pressure to the Practice In some countries, journalism guilds or groups are established to ensure that Journalists are insulated from unwarranted impositions by media powder on how stories should be framed, how audiences should be primed, and which agenda should be set. Journalists are also made to keep themselves in check. They take a licensure examination before they can work in a media house. Journalists work directly under the authority and influence of media owners who make business decisions. There is no leverage for quality, ethical, and responsible journalism; media owners can fire journalists who, on ethical grounds, refuse to angle stories in a particular way, and, because of the absence of licensing, hire anybody to do media work. Chomsky and Herman detailed five influences/filters that Impact Media Operations: 1. Ownership, Size, and Profit Orientation The size and profitability imperative of dominant media corporations creates bias. 2. Funding The fierce competition throughout to attract advertisers makes the media vulnerable to marketing pressures, such as promoting adviser interest.  MEDA 131 REVIEWER 3. Sourcing The mass media are drawn into a symbiotic relationship with powerful sources of information by economic necessity and reciprocity of interest. 4. Flak The media fear being discredited because it means losing audiences and advertisers. Thus, they are not likely to disagree or cast doubt on prevailing assumptions that are favorable to established elite powers. 5. Ideology of Fear The media promotes fear not only because it increases a public’s dependence on the media, thereby increasing market share, and ultimately, advertising interest, but also because “if people are frightened, they will accept authority.” CHAPTER II Understanding Conflict What is Conflict? Conflict, in the context of Conflict-Sensitive Journalism, is a situation where two or more people have or think they have incompatible goals and undermine each other’s goal-seeking potential. (Byrne & Senehi, 2009) Conflict is normal and is an agent of Change Scholars and practitioners of conflict resolution tend to recognize that not all forms of conflict can be considered negative interactions. (Rothman and Olson, 2001) Conflict can be quite constructive in stimulating inter-party communication and problem-solving in a collaborative manner. What is Violence? Violence is a strategy characterized by the use of force, employed to resolve conflict. Violence is the product of choice. Sometimes, it is the result of the official policy of the state and the values it propagates (Harry Anastasiou, 2009, p.37) Violence is the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation.  MEDA 131 REVIEWER Employing force or violence in the name of the nation has been historically manifested in a variety of ways. In most contexts, conflict will predictably arise when: Resources are scarce and not shared fairly, as in food, housing, jobs, or land. There is little or no communication between groups. The groups have incorrect ideas and beliefs about each other. Unresolved grievances exist from the past. Power/influence is unevenly distributed. Three Types of Conflict Surface Conflict Latent Conflict Open Conflict Surface Conflict Is an episodic and not deeply rooted type of conflict, but it is being directly expressed, hopefully by non-violent means. This is a disagreement or tension that is visible and evident. The causes and parties involved in the conflict are known, and the conflict is usually expressed openly. It tends to focus on specific issues rather than underlying causes and is often easier to address because the problem is out in the open. Latent Conflict An unexpressed frustration that continues to develop over time. Latent conflict exists when there are underlying tensions, incompatibilities, or opposing interests between parties that have not yet surfaced or openly acknowledged. This type of conflict is hidden, often due to the suppression or lack of communication, and may manifest later in overt disagreements or open conflict. Open Conflict This is a deeply rooted frustration that is currently being expressed. This occurs when latent conflict is fully expressed, and the parties involved directly confront each other over the disagreement. This is characterized by direct communication of grievances, actions, or behaviors that clearly demonstrate the presence of a dispute. This can be intense and is often accompanied by emotional reactions or actions like protests, strikes, or arguments.  MEDA 131 REVIEWER Labeling Issues in Conflict There is a tendency to categorize conflicts using broad and often superficial terms such as ethnic, religious, or cultural. While these labels might describe visible aspects of a conflict, they often obscure the deeper, underlying causes. The superficial labels are symptoms of deeper issues rather than the root causes. For instance, an ethnic conflict may appear to be about ethnic differences, but underlying causes might include competition for resources, historical grievances, or power imbalances. Ethnic Labels Conflicts are often described as ethnic when they involve different ethnic groups. For example, a conflict between two groups may be labeled as an ethnic conflict if it involves people from distinct ethnic backgrounds. Religious Labels Conflicts may be termed religious if they involve differing religious beliefs or practices. For example, disputes between religious groups over places of worship or religious practices are often labeled as religious conflicts. Cultural Labels Conflicts can also be categorized as cultural when they involve disputes over cultural practices, traditions, or values. For instance, disagreements over cultural heritage sites or traditional practices might be labeled as cultural conflicts. Impact of Labeling Issues a. Misunderstanding Simplifying conflicts into labels can lead to misunderstandings about the nature of the conflict. This can hinder effective conflict resolution because it focuses on the superficial aspects rather than addressing the underlying problems. b. Perpetuation of Conflict Labels can perpetuate conflict by framing them in terms of identity rather than addressing real issues. For example, framing a conflict as an ethnic issue might lead to further entrenchment of ethnic divisions rather than finding common grounds.  MEDA 131 REVIEWER c. Strategic Manipulation Political leaders or groups might use labels to manipulate perceptions and mobilize support. By framing a conflict in ethnic or religious terms, leaders can rally their base and justify actions, even if the underlying issues are different. Example: The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Common Causes of Conflict 1. Scarce Resources Conflict often arises when resources such as land, water, or jobs, are limited and groups or individuals compete for them. When people feel that resources are distributed unfairly, it can lead to tensions and conflict. 2. Power Imbalances Conflicts can occur when there is an uneven distribution of power and control over resources. This often stems from historical grievances and structural inequalities one group or faction has disproportionate control or privilege. 3. Human Needs Conflicts are often driven by unmet human needs, such as the need for identity, security, and self-expression. These needs are fundamental and non-negotiable, making them powerful motivators for conflict when they are not fulfilled. 4. Information and Communication Gaps Misunderstandings and poor communication between conflicting parties can escalate tensions. When people lack accurate information or have incorrect perceptions about each other, conflicts can worsen. 5. Interpersonal Relations Conflicts can sometimes start from personal rivalries or disputes between influential individuals. These personal conflicts can escalate and extend to broader group-level disputes, affecting entire communities or societies. 6. Uncertainty Times of transition or change, such as after a war or during political upheaval, can trigger conflicts. Unresolved issues and uncertainties during these periods can reignite old tensions and create new conflicts.  MEDA 131 REVIEWER 7. Goal Incompatibility Conflicts often arise when parties perceive their goals are mutually exclusive, even if they are not. The perceptions of incompatible goals can lead to disputes and conflicts, regardless of whether the goals are genuinely irreconcilable.