MCT 403 Lecture Note PDF

**What is CAM used for?** In today's world, you'd be better off to ask what CAM can't be used for. CAM is used -- and can be used -- to produce almost any item created by a machine or tool. It can be used to create models from metal, plastic and even wood. **COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING** Compute...

**What is CAM used for?** In today's world, you'd be better off to ask what CAM can't be used for. CAM is used -- and can be used -- to produce almost any item created by a machine or tool. It can be used to create models from metal, plastic and even wood. **COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING** Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is defined as the effective use of computer technology in manufacturing planning and control. CAM is most closely associated with functions in manufacturing engineering, such as process planning and numerical control (NC) part programming. The applications of CAM can be divided into two broad categories: 1. Manufacturing planning 2. Manufacturing control. CAM applications for manufacturing planning are those in which the computer is used indirectly to support the production function, but there is no direct connection between the computer and the process. The computer is used \"offline\" to provide information for the effective planning and management of production activities. The following list surveys the important applications of CAM in this category: Computer-aided process planning (CAPP). Process planning is concerned with the preparation of route sheets that list the sequence of operations and work centers required 10 produce the product and its components. CAPP systems are available today to prepare these route sheets. - Computer-assisted NC part programming or complex part geometries, computer assisted part programming represents a much more efficient method of generating the control Instructions for the machine tool than manual part programming is. - Computerized machinability data systems: One of the problems in operating a metal cutting machine tool is determining the speeds and feeds that should be used to machine a given work part. Computer programs have been written to recommend the appropriate cutting conditions to use for different materials. The calculations are based on data that have been obtained either in the factory or laboratory that relate tool life to cutting conditions. - Development of work standards: The time study department has the responsibility for setting time standards on direct labor jobs performed in the factory. Establishing standards have direct time study can be a tedious and time-consuming task. There are several commercially available computer packages for setting work standards. These computer programs \'use standard time data that have been developed for basic work elements that comprise any manual task. By summing the limes for the individual element, required to perform a new Job, the program calculates the standard lime for the job. - Cost estimating: The task of estimating the cost of a new product has been simplified in most industries by computerizing several of the key steps required to prepare the estimate. The computer is programmed to apply the appropriate labor and overhead rates to the sequence of planned operations for the components of new products. the program then sums the individual component costs from the engineering bill of materials to determine the overall product cost. - Production and inventory planning: The computer has found widespread use in many of the functions in production and inventory planning. These functions include: maintenance of inventory records, automatic reordering of stock items when inventory is depicted. Production scheduling, maintaining current priorities for the different production orders, material requirements planning, and capacity planning. - Computer-aided line balancing: Finding the best allocation of work elements among stations on an assembly line is a large and difficult problem if the line is of significant size. Computer programs have been developed to assist in the solution of this problem - The second category of CAM application is concerned with developing computer systems to implement the manufacturing control function. Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and controlling the physical operations in the factory. These management and control areas include: **PROCESS MONITORING AND CONTROL** Process monitoring and control is concerned with observing and regulating the production equipment and manufacturing processes in the plant. The applications of computer process control arc pervasive today in automated production systems. They include transfer lines, assembly systems. NC, robotics. Material handling and flexible manufacturing systems. Quality control: Qua1ity control includes a variety of approaches to ensure the highest possible quality levels in the manufactured product. Shop floor control. Shop floor control refers to production management techniques for collecting data from factory operations and using the data to help control production and inventory in the factory. Inventory control. Inventory control is concerned with maintaining the most appropriate levels of inventory in the face of two opposing objectives: minimizing the investment and storage costs of holding inventory and maximizing service to customers Just-in-time production systems. The term just-in-time refers to a production system that is organized to deliver exactly the right number of each component to downstream workstations in the manufacturing sequence just at the lime when that component is needed. The term applies not only to production operations but 10 supplier delivery operations as well. Determined by design decisions, with production decisions (such as process planning or machine tool selection) responsible for only 20%. The heart of any design for manufacturing system is a group of design principles or guidelines that are structured to help the designer reduce the cost and difficulty of manufacturing an item. **ITS MAIN ROLES ARE:** - Tool path designs create computer models of new designs - Machining equipment in manufacturing that rely on numerical controls for precision cutting, shaping and packaging - Management of overall production process to drive efficiency - Fabrication and engineering design which relies on the integration and synchronization of various pieces of machinery with CAM software - Equipment safety. CAM is highly reliable -- able to reproduce identical processes without deviation. This can also result in cost savings as manufacturing facilities can then maintain OSHA compliance. **Industries** As well as many of the consumer products we have in our homes, CAM is used in aerospace and defense, shipbuilding, the automobile and train industries and the machine tool industry. **Aerospace** CAM's strength, safety, flexibility, versatility and precision means that it is invaluable to the aerospace industry as it can create complex workpieces including free-form surfaces and deep cavities in materials such as titanium and super-alloys. **Automotive** The automotive industry makes great use of CAM, its precision being essential for an industry where aesthetics can play as important a role as structure and strength. CAM can deliver circles, regular cubes and subtle curves on the surfaces as part of large assemblies with robust manufacturing capabilities and product data management (PDM) capabilities. Many of [our own automotive foam solutions](https://www.technicalfoamservices.co.uk/category/automotive/) enter a complex manufacturing process that involves a combination of traditional and computer-aided manufacturing steps. **Chemicals** In chemical and OTC pharmaceutical manufacturing companies, CAM is used in turnkey manufacturing to speed up the whole production process. For example, CAM will specify the volume of raw and secondary materials used in the chemical process. **Medical technology** This industry has made great use of CAD and CAM to deliver absolute precision where it's needed in biomedical engineering: clinical medicine, customized medical implants, tissue engineering, dentistry, artificial joints and robotic surgery. For example, 3D printing is used to create models of injuries and other health issues, CAM creates flexible endoscopic systems and dentists can now provide precision in chair side milling, orthodontics and implant workflows. **Examples of CAM** **Textiles** Designers and manufacturers already use virtual 3D prototype systems to visualise 2D patterns into 3D virtual prototyping as in the case of software such as Modaris 3D fit or Marvellous Designer. Other software such as Accumark V-stitcher and Optitex 3D runway, present the viewer with a 3D simulation, which seeks to demonstrate to the viewer, the fit of the garment and the drape of the fabric. **Aerospace and astronomy** Telescope lenses need the highest degree of precision and CAM is delivering it for the 18 hexagonal beryllium segments in the James Webb Space Telescope. The primary mirror measures 1.3 metres from edge to edge and machining and etching will reduce the mirror mass by 92% from 250 kilograms to 21 kilograms. **Military** CAM has proven invaluable to The Royal Navy in the production of their dreadnought-class submarines. The task is unsurprisingly complex and requires the integration of more than 200 ship systems and CAM and CAD is detailed enough to pick up design issues, such as overlapping parts as well as allowing disparate teams to stay closely involved in the design process. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CAM? ------------------------------------------------- ### Advantages of CAM - Predictable and consistent - Flexible and versatile, CAM systems can maximize utilization of a full range of production equipment (high-speed, 5-axis, multi-function and turning machines, electrical discharge machining (EDM) and CMM inspection equipment) - Ability to create prototypes quickly and without waste - Can aid in optimizing NC programs for optimum machining productivity - Can automate the creation of performance reports - Provides integration of various systems and processes as part of the manufacturing process - Higher productivity - Designs can be altered without the need to manually re-program machines especially with parametric CAD software - Ease of implementation as CAD and CAM systems become standardised - CAD and CAM software continues to evolve offering visual representation and integration of modelling and testing applications - Accuracy. ### Disadvantages of CAM - Computer errors are possible - CAD and CAM software can be expensive - Training is expensive - Computers and controllers to run the software and CNC machinery for manufacturing is expensive. How do we use CAM? ------------------ When it comes to foam, traditional engineering expertise is more important than ever as foam is an especially unpredictable raw material that can easily trip up computer-aided tools. We use a combination of traditional techniques and CAM to offer our customers the best of both worlds -- expertise, speed, efficiency and precision. traditional foam machining In the first instance, our engineer -- of 40 years' experience -- will create a quality working prototype. He will then work with our CAD designers and material-cutting programs to translate the prototype into CAD for CAM for production volumes using our CNC machines, milling machines and knife-cutting table.  **WHAT ARE THE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES FOR ENGINEERING MATERIALS?** Manufacturing processes are used in large-scale [manufacturing](https://engineeringproductdesign.com/knowledge-base/manufacturing/) to create value-added engineering products and components using physical and chemical processes to change a starting material's geometry, characteristics, and appearance. Producing a product from the raw materials involves a number of operations. These all operations come under the manufacturing processes. The knowledge of the **manufacturing** processes is the backbone of **[engineering](https://www.iqsdirectory.com/resources/engineering-theres-much-more-to-it-than-you-think/).** There are different manufacturing processes are available. Manufacturers typically carry out the manufacturing processes as a unit operation, which means it is a single step in a series of steps required to transform a starting material into a finished product. **Processing operations** and **assembly operations** are the two basic types of manufacturing operations. TYPES OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES -------------------------------- **Processing operations** and **assembly operations** are the two basic types of manufacturing operations --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Manufacturing-process-types PROCESSING OPERATIONS --------------------- Processing operations add value by transforming a part from one state to another by changing its shape, property, appearance and surface texture with energy. Energy can take the form of mechanical, thermal, electrical and chemical. For example, milling an Aluminium billet to achieve the required part or Anodising a milled Aluminium part would be a processing operation. Although processing operations are primarily performed on distinct components, sometimes assembled parts, such as welded sheet metal fabrication, need processing like powder coating. Also, near-net shaping processing, such as sand casting or investment casting, would require some machining for features like threads, o-ring grooves, and bearing bores. ii. **ASSEMBLY OPERATIONS** The second primary manufacturing process is assembly operations. Assembly operations involve joining two or more components to create a new entity called an assembly using permanent joining processes like welding and binding and Mechanical fastening using screws and rivets. For example, the assembly could use [self-tapping screws to hold the plastic housings](https://engineeringproductdesign.com/knowledge-base/self-tapping-screws-for-plastics/) together and adhesive to hold the lenses for the VR headset. Assemblies could be either fully mechanical entities such as a gearbox and [mechanical power transmission](https://engineeringproductdesign.com/knowledge-base/mechanical-power-transmission/) units or electro-mechanical assemblies such as a VR (Virtual Reality) headset. **TRENDS IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES EMPHASIS THE FOLLOWING** Increasing the no of variants of products Increase in product complexity Decrease in product lifetime before obsolescence Decrease in delivery time Product development by Rapid Prototyping by enabling better communication **WORKED EXAMPLE** 1. The worktable of an NC machine is driven by a closed-loop positioning system which consists of a servomotor, lead screw, and optical encoder. The lead screw pitch is 4 mm and is coupled directly to the motor shaft (gear ratio 1:1). The optical encoder generates 225 pulses per lead screw revolution. The table has been programmed to move a distance of 200 mm at a feed rate of 450 mm/min. a. How many pulses are received by the control system to verify that the table has moved the programmed distance? b. What are the pulse rate c. What are the motor speed that correspond to the specified feed rate **SOLUTION** To calculate the number of pulses received by the control system, the pulse rate, and the motor speed, we can follow these steps: a. Number of pulses to move the programmed distance: The table is programmed to move a distance of 200 mm The lead screw has a pitch of 4 mm/rev. Therefore, to move 200 mm, the lead screw must make: Number of revolutions = 200 mm / 4 mm/revolution = 50 revolutions Now, since the optical encoder generates 225 pulses/lead screw revolution The total number of pulses received by the control system to move 200 mm is: Total pulses = Number of revolutions x Pulses/rev Total pulses = 50 revolutions x 225 pulses/revolution Total pulses = 11,250 pulses So, the control system will receive 11,250 pulses to verify that the table has moved the programmed distance. b. Pulse rate: The pulse rate is the rate at which the pulses are generated. Given that the table is programmed to move at a feed rate of 450 mm/min, we need to calculate the corresponding pulse rate. We can use the following formula: *Pulse rate (pulses per minute) = (Feed rate (mm/min)) / (Lead screw pitch (mm/revolution) x Pulses per revolution)* Pulse rate = (450 mm/min) / (4 mm/revolution x 225 pulses/revolution) Pulse rate = (450 mm/min) / (900 pulses/min) Pulse rate = 0.5 pulses/min So, the pulse rate is 0.5 pulses per minute. c. Motor speed: The motor speed can be calculated by considering the gear ratio. Since the gear ratio is 1:1, the motor speed is the same as the feed rate. Motor speed = Feed rate = 450 mm/min Therefore, the motor speed that corresponds to the specified feed rate is 450 mm/min. **INTRODUCTION TO RAPID PROTOTYPING** Rapid prototyping (RP) is a new manufacturing technique that allows for fast fabrication of computer models designed with three-dimension (3D) computer aided design (CAD) software. RP is used in a wide variety of industries, from shoe to car manufacturers. This technique allows for fast realizations of ideas into functioning prototypes, shortening the design time, leading towards successful final products. RP technique comprise of two general types: additive and subtractive, each of which has its own pros and cons. Subtractive type RP or traditional tooling manufacturing process is a technique in which material is removed from a solid piece of material until the desired design remains. Examples of this type of RP includes traditional milling, turning/lathing or drilling to more advanced versions - computer numerical control (CNC), electric discharge machining (EDM). Additive type RP is the opposite of subtractive type RP. Instead of removing material, material is added layer upon layer to build up the desired design such as stereo lithography, fused deposition modeling (FDM), and 3D printing.  The RP cycle begins with the CAD design, and may be repeated inexpensively several times until a model of the desired characteristics is produced. Rapid Prototyping has also been referred to as solid free-form manufacturing, computer automated manufacturing, and layered manufacturing. RP has obvious use as a vehicle for visualization. In addition, RP models can be used for testing, such as when an air foil shape is put into a wind tunnel. RP models can be used to create male models for tooling, such as silicone rubber molds and investment casts. In some cases, the RP part can be the final part, but typically the RP material is not strong or accurate enough. When the RP material is suitable, highly convoluted shapes (including parts nested within parts) can be produced because of the nature of RP **Definition** Rapid Prototyping is basically a additive manufacturing process used to quickly fabricate a model of a part using 3-D CAM data. It can be defined as layer by layer fabrication of 3D physical models directly from CAD. What is Rapid Prototyping? Rapid Prototyping is the \"process of quickly building and evaluating a series of prototypes\" early and often throughout the design process. Prototypes are usually incomplete examples of what a final product may look like. Each time a prototype is used, a formative evaluation gathers information for the next, revised prototype. This cycle continues to refine the product until the final needs and objectives are met. The following diagram demonstrates the non-linear nature of Rapid Prototyping. **Why Rapid Prototyping? The reasons of Rapid Prototyping are** To increase effective communication. To decrease development time. To decrease costly mistakes. To minimize sustaining engineering changes. To extend product lifetime by adding necessary features and eliminating redundant features early in the design. Rapid Prototyping decreases development time by allowing corrections to a product to be made early in the process. By giving engineering, manufacturing, marketing, and purchasing a look at the product early in the design process, mistakes can be corrected and changes can be made while they are still inexpensive. The trends in manufacturing industries continue to emphasize the following: Increasing number of variants of products. Increasing product complexity. Decreasing product lifetime before obsolescence. Decreasing delivery time. Rapid Prototyping improves product development by enabling better communication in a concurrent engineering environment. How does Rapid Prototyping Work? Rapid Prototyping, also known as 3D printing, is an additive manufacturing technology. The process begins with taking a virtual design from modeling or computer aided design (CAD) software. The 3D printing machine reads the data from the CAD drawing and lays down successive layers of liquid, powder, or sheet material --- building up the physical model from a series of cross sections. These layers, which correspond to the virtual cross section from the CAD model, are automatically joined together to create the final shape. Rapid Prototyping uses a standard data interface, implemented as the STL file format, to translate from the CAD software to the 3D prototyping machine. The STL file approximates the shape of a part or assembly using triangular facets. Typically, Rapid Prototyping systems can produce 3D models within a few hours. Yet, this can vary widely, depending on the type of machine being used and the size and number of models being produced. **HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT** The development of Rapid Prototyping is closely tied in with the development of applications of computers in the industry. The declining cost of computers, especially of personal and mini computers, has changed the way a factory works. The increase in the use of computers has spurred the advancement in many computer-related areas including Computer-Aided Design (CAD), Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) and Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools. In particular, the emergence of RP systems could not have been possible without the existence of CAD. However, from careful examinations of the numerous RP systems in existence today, it can be easily deduced that other than CAD, many other technologies and advancements in other fields such as manufacturing systems and materials have also been crucial in the development of RP systems. Table below traces the historical development of relevant technologies related to RP from the estimated date of inception. Historical development of Rapid Prototyping and related technologies Year of Inception Technology **Year of Inception** **Technology** ----------------------- ------------------------------------------- 1770 Mechanization 1946 First Computer 1952 First Numerical Control (NC) Machine Tool 1960 First commercial Laser 1961 First commercial Robot 1963 First Interactive Graphics System 1988 Top of Form First commercial Rapid Prototyping System **Advantage of Rapid Prototyping** Fast and inexpensive method of prototyping design ideas Multiple design iterations Physical validation of design Reduced product development time It encourages and requires active student participation the design process. Iteration and change are natural consequences of instructional systems development. Clients tend to change their minds. Clients don\'t know their requirements until they see them implemented. An approved prototype is the equivalent of a paper specification & dash with one exception. Errors can be detected earlier. Prototyping can increase creativity through quicker user feedback. Prototyping accelerates the development cycle. **Disadvantages of Rapid Prototyping** The main disadvantage of prototyping can be summed up in one complaint that is easy to imagine: it has a tendency to encourage informal design methods which may introduce more problems than they eliminate. Resolution not as fine as traditional machining (millimeter to sub-millimeter resolution) Surface flatness is rough (dependant of material and type of RP) This failure can be avoided if the following issues are kept in mind: (Tripp and Bichelmeyer) Prototyping can lead to a design-by-repair philosophy, which is only an excuse for lack of discipline. Prototyping does not eliminate the need for front-end analysis. It cannot help if the situation is not amenable to instructional design. A prototype cannot substitute completely for a paper analysis. There may be many instructional design problems which are not addressed by prototyping. Prototyping may lead to premature commitment to a design if it is not remembered that a design is only a hypothesis. When prototyping an instructional package, creeping featurism (the adding of bells and whistles) may lead to designs that get out of control. **FUNDAMENTALS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING** a. A model or component is modelled on a Computer-Aided Design/Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) system. The model which represents the physical part to be built must be represented as closed surfaces which unambiguously define an enclosed volume. This mean that the data must specify the inside, outside and boundary of the model. This requirement will become redundant if the modelling technique used is solid modelling. This is by virtue of the technique used, as a valid solid model will automatically be enclosed volume. This requirement ensures that all horizontal cross sections that are essential to RP are enclosed curves to create the solid object. b. The solid or surface model to be built is next converted into a format dubbed the "STL" (Stereolithography) file format which originates from 3D systems. The STL file format approximates the surfaces of ten model by polygons. Highly curved surfaces must employ many polygons, which means that STL files for curved parts can be very large. However, these are some rapid prototyping systems which also accept IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specifications) data, provided it is of the correct "flavour". c. A computer program analyzes a STL file that defines the model to be fabricated and "slices" the model into cross sections. The cross sections are systematically recreated through the solidification of either liquids or powders and then combined to form a 3D model. Another possibility is that the cross sections are already thin, solid laminations and these thin laminations are glued together with adhesives to form a 3D model. Other similar methods may also be employed to build the model. Fundamentally, the development of RP can be seen in four primary areas. The Rapid Prototyping Wheel depicts these four key aspects of Rapid Prototyping. They are: *Input, Method, Material and Applications*. i. INPUT ii. METHOD iii. MATERIAL iv. APPLICATION a. Design b. Engineering, Analysis, and planning c. Tooling and Manufacturing. **APPLICATIONS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING** i. RAPID TOOLING Patterns for Sand Casting Patterns for Investment Casting Pattern for Injection mouldings ii. RAPID MANUFACTURING Short productions run Custom made parts On-Demand Manufacturing Manufacturing of very complex shapes iii. AEROSPACE & MARINE Wind tunnel models Functional prototypes Boeing's On-Demand-Manufacturing iv. AUTOMOTIVE RP SERVICES Needed from concept to production level Reduced time to market Dies & Moulds v. BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS Prosthetic parts Use of data from MRI and CT scan to build 3D parts 3D visualization for education and training Customized surgical implants Mechanical bone replicas Anthropology Forensics vi. ARCHITECTURE 3D visualization of design space Iterations of shape Sectioned models vii. FASHION & JEWELRY Jewelry Pattern for lost wax Other castings Classification of Rapid Prototyping Systems Design and Development of Bottle Washer Machine for Small Scale Beverage Industry Design and Development of Bottle Washer Machine for Small Scale Beverage Industry 2015 International Conference on Advances in Computer Engineering and Applications (ICACEA) IMS Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India 325 Design and Development of Bottle Washer Machine for Small Scale Beverage Industry **AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS (AMS)** The AMS program courses synopsis 1. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM). Mass customization implications on automated manufacturing systems. Engineering agility impacts on the manufacturing facilities. 2. Design processing and material aspects of Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies. Current and potential applications of AM technology in industrial sectors. 3. Commercial and Experimental systems. Material requirements. Design for Additive Manufacturing. Software and systems. Case studies of AM in industries and society. Three types of automation in [production](https://www.britannica.com/technology/production-process) can be distinguished: \(1) Fixed automation, (2) Programmable automation, and (3) Flexible automation. 1. FIXED AUTOMATION: Fixed automation, also known as "hard automation," refers to an automated production facility in which the sequence of processing operations is fixed by the equipment configuration. In effect, the programmed commands are contained in the machines in the form of cams, gears, wiring, and other hardware that is not easily changed over from one product style to another. This form of automation is characterized by high initial investment and high production rates. It is therefore suitable for products that are made in large volumes. Examples of fixed automation include machining transfer lines found in the [automotive industry](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automotive-industry), automatic assembly machines, and certain chemical processes. 2. PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION: Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in batches. The products are made in batch quantities ranging from several dozen to several thousand units at a time. For each new batch, the production equipment must be reprogrammed and changed over to accommodate the new product style. This reprogramming and changeover take time to accomplish, and there is a period of nonproductive time followed by a production run for each new batch. Production rates in programmable automation are generally lower than in fixed automation, because the equipment is designed to [facilitate](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/facilitate) product changeover rather than for product specialization. A numerical-control [machine tool](https://www.britannica.com/technology/machine-tool) is a good example of programmable automation. The program is coded in [computer memory](https://www.britannica.com/technology/computer-memory) for each different product style, and the machine tool is controlled by the [computer program](https://www.britannica.com/technology/computer-program). Industrial robots are another example. 3. FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION: Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. The disadvantage with programmable automation is the time required to reprogram and change over the production equipment for each batch of new product. This is lost production time, which is expensive. In flexible automation, the variety of products is sufficiently limited so that the changeover of the equipment can be done very quickly and automatically. The reprogramming of the equipment in flexible automation is done off-line; that is, the programming is accomplished at a computer terminal without using the production equipment itself. Accordingly, there is no need to group identical products into batches; instead, a mixture of different products can be produced one right after another. AUTOMATED [PRODUCTION LINES](https://www.britannica.com/technology/assembly-line) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- An automated [production line](https://www.britannica.com/technology/assembly-line) consists of a series of workstations connected by a transfer system to move parts between the stations. This is an example of fixed automation, since these lines are typically set up for long production runs, perhaps making millions of product units and running for several years between changeovers. Each station is designed to perform a specific processing operation, so that the part or product is constructed stepwise as it progresses along the line. A raw [work](https://www.britannica.com/topic/work-economics) part enters at one end of the line, proceeds through each workstation, and emerges at the other end as a completed product. In the normal operation of the line, there is a work part being processed at each station, so that many parts are being processed simultaneously and a finished part is produced with each cycle of the line. The various operations, part transfers, and other activities taking place on an automated [transfer line](https://www.britannica.com/technology/transfer-machine) must all be sequenced and coordinated properly for the line to operate efficiently. Modern automated lines are controlled by programmable logic controllers, which are special computers that facilitate connections with industrial equipment (such as automated production lines) and can perform the kinds of timing and sequencing functions required to operate such equipment. Automated production lines are utilized in many industries, most notably [automotive](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automotive-industry), where they are used for processes such as [machining](https://www.britannica.com/technology/machining) and press-working. Machining is a manufacturing process in which metal is removed by a cutting or shaping tool, so that the remaining work part is the desired shape. Machinery and motor components are usually made by this process. In many cases, multiple operations are required to completely shape the part. If the part is mass-produced, an automated transfer line is often the most economical method of production. The many separate operations are divided among the workstations. Transfer lines date back to about 1924. Press-working operations involve the cutting and forming of parts from sheet metal. Examples of such parts include automobile body panels, outer shells of major appliances (e.g., laundry machines and ranges), and metal furniture (e.g., desks and file cabinets). More than one processing step is often required to complete a complicated part. Several presses are connected together in sequence by handling mechanisms that transfer the partially completed parts from one press to the next, thus creating an automated press-working line. **Applications**: Aircraft flight control; assembly line; automotive industry; brick and tile production; camera focusing; composite materials; elevator operation. [Manufacturing applications of automation and robotics](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automation/Manufacturing-applications-of-automation-and-robotics) 1. [Automated production lines](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automation/Manufacturing-applications-of-automation-and-robotics#ref24850) 2. [Numerical control](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automation/Numerical-control) 3. [Automated assembly](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automation/Numerical-control#ref24852) 4. [Robots in manufacturing](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automation/Robots-in-manufacturing) 5. [Flexible manufacturing systems](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automation/Robots-in-manufacturing#ref24854) 6. [Computer process control](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automation/Computer-process-control) 7. [Computer-integrated manufacturing](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automation/Computer-integrated-manufacturing) **Top of Form** **AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM** ====================================================== Top of Form Bottom of Form - Build robotic systems - Control automated machines - Learn hands-on how to program and assemble machines - Build fully automated machines - Learn to solve problems to keep production going - Work with professional engineers on robotics solutions - Gain the skills for a high-demand job in manufacturing or other highly automated industries Process automation: Manufacture of sensors and customized analyzers for process measurement applications in resource-based industries, including: mining, marine, waste incineration, power, steel and cement, oil and gas, as well as chemical and hydrocarbon processing (HPI) plants. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ###### Intelligent solutions for process automation: - Gas measurement systems - Dust measurement - Gas flow metering - Fluid sensors Logistics automation: Applications include automating material flow processes; optimizing sorting, picking and warehousing processes; and control and information technology for airports, roads and factories. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ###### Intelligent solutions for logistics automation: - Traffic sensors - Detection and ranging solutions - Distance measurement systems - Encoders - Identification solutions - Photoelectric sensors - Safety and switching systems Factory automation: The manufacture of sensors and systems for industrial automation technology in manufacturing- and production-based industries to control manufacturing, packaging and assembly processes and to ensure machine and operator safety. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Applications** include automotive; food and beverage; electronics drives and controls; rubber plastics and packaging; handling and assembly; pharmaceutics; and wind energy. ###### Intelligent solutions for factory automation: - Non-contact sensors - Camera systems - Encoders - Distance measurement systems - Safety and switching systems - Proximity and photoelectric sensors Intelligent sensors tailored to your application: ------------------------------------------------- SICK Automation has the one of the world's largest technology portfolios of over 40 000 sensor systems and solutions. SICK Automation Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd is able to customize these intelligent systems for local application-specific requirements. Tailored for sub-Saharan Africa: -------------------------------- The SICK Automation Southern African subsidiary was established in 2010. We have a wide network of Sales Distributors and value-added resellers throughout Southern Africa. SICK not only offers a wide range of cutting-edge, intelligent sensor solutions, but offers customers a comprehensive package of vital know-how, service and support. **Current trends Automated Manufacturing Systems** Current trends in business and industry toward high-tech control systems and automated machinery provide many opportunities, including industrial electronics service, industrial controls programming, manufacturing equipment repair, machinery installation and robotics service. Job prospects also exist in related fields such as commercial equipment service, consumer electronics, sales and technical management. The AMS program is designed for students interested in pursuing a career in automated manufacturing systems technology. Courses in general electronics and industrial systems are combined with general education courses to provide students with a firm technical foundation as well as skills in communication, critical thinking and teamwork. Technical classroom theory is enhanced with practical application provided in state-of-the-art laboratories. [Manufacturing](https://www.britannica.com/technology/manufacturing) applications of automation and robotics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ One of the most important application areas for automation [technology](https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology) is manufacturing. To many people, automation means manufacturing automation. In this section, the types of automation are defined, and examples of automated systems used in manufacturing are described. mechatronics; engineering; robot **Mechatronics; Engineering; Robot:** Learn how the discipline of mechatronics combines knowledge and skills from mechanical, electrical, and computer engineering to create high-tech products such as industrial robots. *The University of Newcastle, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment with thanks to Jeremy Ley and Nick Parker from Light Creative* Automated [production lines](https://www.britannica.com/technology/assembly-line) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- An automated [production line](https://www.britannica.com/technology/assembly-line) consists of a series of workstations connected by a transfer system to move parts between the stations. This is an example of fixed automation, since these lines are typically set up for long production runs, perhaps making millions of product units and running for several years between changeovers. Each station is designed to perform a specific processing operation, so that the part or product is constructed stepwise as it progresses along the line. A raw [work](https://www.britannica.com/topic/work-economics) part enters at one end of the line, proceeds through each workstation, and emerges at the other end as a completed product. In the normal operation of the line, there is a work part being processed at each station, so that many parts are being processed simultaneously and a finished part is produced with each cycle of the line. The various operations, part transfers, and other activities taking place on an automated [transfer line](https://www.britannica.com/technology/transfer-machine) must all be sequenced and coordinated properly for the line to operate efficiently. Modern automated lines are controlled by programmable logic controllers, which are special computers that facilitate connections with industrial equipment (such as automated production lines) and can perform the kinds of timing and sequencing functions required to operate such equipment. Automated production lines are utilized in many industries, most notably [automotive](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automotive-industry), where they are used for processes such as [machining](https://www.britannica.com/technology/machining) and press-working. Machining is a manufacturing process in which metal is removed by a cutting or shaping tool, so that the remaining work part is the desired shape. Machinery and motor components are usually made by this process. In many cases, multiple operations are required to completely shape the part. If the part is mass-produced, an automated transfer line is often the most economical method of production. The many separate operations are divided among the workstations. Transfer lines date back to about 1924. Press-working operations involve the cutting and forming of parts from sheet metal. Examples of such parts include automobile body panels, outer shells of major appliances (e.g., laundry machines and ranges), and metal furniture (e.g., desks and file cabinets). More than one processing step is often required to complete a complicated part. Several presses are connected together in sequence by handling mechanisms that transfer the partially completed parts from one press to the next, thus creating an automated press-working line. [**Automation and the computer**Computer science is the study of computers, including their design (architecture) and their uses for computations, data processing, and systems control. The field of computer science includes engineering activities such as the design of computers and of the hardware and software that make up computer systems. It also encompasses theoretical, mathematical Both old and new materials were used increasingly in the engineering industry, which was transformed since the end of World War II by the introduction of control engineering, automation, and computerized techniques. The vital piece of equipment has been the computer.](https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology/The-20th-century#ref368121) [**[Technology of Photography: Autofocus Systems]**Such focusing automation makes the camera even simpler to use. Alternative automatic ranging systems used in amateur cameras depend on triangulation with infrared rays or pulses sent out by a small light-emitting diode (LED), or on measurement of the time an ultrasonic signal takes to be reflected.](https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology-of-photography#ref416145) [**Radiation measurement: Track-etch detectors**Automated methods have been developed to measure the etch pit density using microscope stages coupled to computers with appropriate optical-analysis software. These systems are capable of some degree of discrimination against "artifacts" such as scratches on the sample surface and can provide a reasonably accurate measurement.](https://www.britannica.com/technology/radiation-measurement/Passive-detectors#ref620743) **Applications** - **aircraft flight control** - In [airplane: Instrumentation](https://www.britannica.com/technology/airplane#ref528030) - **assembly line** - In [assembly line](https://www.britannica.com/technology/assembly-line#ref60450) - **automotive industry** - In [automotive industry: Manufacturing processes](https://www.britannica.com/technology/automotive-industry/The-modern-industry#ref534532) - **brick and tile production** - In [brick and tile: Automation](https://www.britannica.com/technology/brick-building-material#ref609116) - **camera focusing** - In [technology of photography: Autofocus systems](https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology-of-photography#ref416145) - **composite materials** - In [materials science: Polymer-matrix composites](https://www.britannica.com/technology/materials-science/Materials-for-ground-transportation#ref406208) - **elevator operation** - In [elevator](https://www.britannica.com/technology/elevator-vertical-transport#ref90010)