Mass Society 202 PDF

The Meaning of Mass Media The mass media are vehicles or the means by which information or messages are conveyed from source to receivers -the heterogeneous, large and anonymous audience. The mass media are 'organizations' that distribute cultural products or messages that affect and reflect the c...

The Meaning of Mass Media The mass media are vehicles or the means by which information or messages are conveyed from source to receivers -the heterogeneous, large and anonymous audience. The mass media are 'organizations' that distribute cultural products or messages that affect and reflect the culture of society. They provide information simultaneously to large, heterogeneous audiences. Mass media are the various means or channels by which information or messages are disseminated to heterogeneous public. Mass media are classified into print form the political, cultural and economic part of any society. and electronic media. They therefore The term mass media according to McQuail (2000) is shortened to describe means of communication that operates on a large scale, reaching and involving virtually everyone in a society to a greater or lesser degree. Media is plural of medium, which means a channel or vehicle through which something is carried or transmitted. In other words, mass media are channels of communication in a modern society, primarily the print and the electronic media. McQuail further describes the mass media as the organized means for communicating openly and at a distance to many receivers within a short space of time. The mass media are impersonal communication sources that reach large audiences. The primary function of the mass media is to provide information to several millions of people. The mass media are extremely influential. Each of the media is presumed to affect perceptions and behaviour in a distinctive way. They can affect the society and vice versa. The mass media are the uniquely modern means of public communication and much of their importance lies in the fact that they are a major cause of whatever modes of perception, thought, public discourse, and political action. Because of their size and the large number of people they reach, the mass media have tremendous impact on society. Murphy (1977) sums up societal impacts of the media in different ways as oil, glue and dynamite. As oil, Murphy asserts that media of communication keep the world running smoothly by helping individuals adjust to the reality of lives. They keep society on and healthy by suggesting solutions that are socially acceptable. As glue, social cohesion is maintained by communication. Murphy contends that the media gives all of us including strangers something to talk about by setting agenda of discussion. And that over the years, communication builds up and reinforces the fabrics that hold a society together. Murphy also describes the mass media as dynamites that can tear the society apart. A good example of this is the propaganda campaigns that preceded the Russian Revolution in 1917 and Hitler's rise to the German Chancellorship in 1933. Similarly, the mass media particularly the newspapers and magazines played a tremendous role in the struggle for Nigeria's independence in 1960. Classification of the Mass Media The mass media can be broadly classified into two-the print media and the electronic media. The classification is carried out according to the mechanism involved in the process of conveying messages. The Print Media The print media have a mechanism that depends on printing items of information. These include newspapers, magazines, books and pamphlets that carry messages to the populace by appealing to their sense of sight. One common thing about the print media is that they involve the pressing of ink on paper using plates and blocks, and special machines. The print media includes books, newspapers and magazines. Books are the oldest medium of mass communication whereas the newspapers are the first popular mass medium. For the purpose of this course, more emphasis would be placed on newspapers and magazines. The Electronic Media The electronic media uses devices that can transform or change sound or light waves into electrical signals, which are reconverted to things that can be heard or seen on radio or television. The electronic media technique can be divided into production, transmission and reception. The electronic media according to Daramola (2003) include: i. Radio and audio recordings that appeal to the sense of sound ii. Television, motion pictures and video recordings that appeal to both sense of sound and that of sight. There is a marked difference in the technologies of radio and television particularly with reference to receiver-transmitter relationships or both. While the radio receiver is built to detect and amplify signals, television receiver goes beyond that. It must also carry out the precisely timed scanning sequence in exact management with the camera. The transmitter and receiver of the television must operate on the same line and field frequencies (Daramola, 2003). The broadcast media are the most powerful in the world today for affecting the minds, emotions and even the actions of mankind. No wonder, a one-time American critic, William Rivers once described the broadcast media as great "mentioners" (Akpede, 1994). This means they have the power to build and destroy an individual or an institution as the case may be. Differences Between Print and Electronic Media According to Daramola (2003:99), broadcast media differ from print media in the following ways i. Print media appeal to the eye while broadcast appeal to both the eye and ear. ii. Print is always in written form, while broadcast is always in oral form. iii. Broadcast news is forgotten easily and cannot be kept as reference work while the print media serve that purpose. iv. Print media is more detailed than broadcast media. v. Print media is more permanent than broadcast media which is very transient Characteristics of the Mass Media Weaver (1973), cited in Daramola (2000) identified five major characteristics of the mass media. They are: 1. The first characteristic derives from the name, mass media which implies that media is designed for, distributed to and consumed by mass audiences. The mass audiences are very large, either in terms of number or proportion of total population and the audience exist in large, heterogeneous societies either industrial or transitional societies. 2. The second characteristic of the mass media is that they are big businesses, employing millions of people and making billions of naira as the case may be as profit. 3. One other characteristic of the mass media is that they are sole disseminators of news (defined as factual, current and verifiable information about recent events). The mass media also disseminate other sorts of information-fictional stories, political advocacy, and strictly utilitarian information like recipes. 4. The mass media are also characterized by speed with which they gather information and frequency with which they distribute it. Media producing organizations are continuously gathering information and are in instantaneous communication with their sources of information. The speed and rhythm of this ongoing process of gathering and distributing information, especially news, sharply differentiate mass media from other media and exert enormous influence on the character of their messages. 5. The fifth characteristic of the mass media is that they are all twentieth-century phenomena. In other words, they all developed and attained maturity during roughly the same period, in response to the same circumstances and in pursuit of the same purposes. Traditional/Conventional Functions of the Mass Media The mass media perform some traditional or conventional functions which include: 1. Information is the first and of the peopletion of the ass media. Information dissemination is creating awareness on the part of the people. Communication experts believe that people could be informed what is happening or what has happened. The role of information as the pivot in the growth and development of societies cannot be wonder that information has been Systematically studied by sociologists, anthropologists and political scientists. Their study proves that information can indeed lead to social change in the society. The mass media provide information to the entire society on daily basis. Such information comes through news on radio, television, newspaper and magazines. The news raises the awareness of listeners as in the case of radio, viewers (television) and readers (newspapers and magazines). 2. Education The education function of the mass media is meant to teach the people by imparting knowledge with a view to broaden the horizon of members of the society. Through different programmes like "Who wants to be a millionaire?", "Super story", etc, members of the public can develop themselves mentally and morally. Through the education via the mass media, people can discover themselves and the potentials in their environment and harness such potentials for the holistic development of the society. It can be said therefore, that the mass media is a school of its own. Through it, a lot of people have been delivered from the bondage of ignorance and illiteracy and it has the power to introduce light in the life of the audience. 3. Entertainment Another important function of the mass media is entertainment. The media can make the people laugh and forget their sorrows. Entertainment through the media can come in different forms sports, drama, motion pictures, short stories, crosswords, puzzles and cartoons. All these forms of entertainment are by-product of the mass media. Other Functions of the Mass Media Apart from the traditional or conventional functions of the mass media, ie, to inform, educate and entertain, the mass media also perform other numerous functions. Harrold Lasswell in Sambe (2004) and other scholars of communication identify the following functions of the mass media thus: 1. Surveillance This means keeping close watch over someone or something. In the context of mass communication, surveillance means that the mass media is to inform and provide information to the society by keeping watch on the activities of government and correcting uncomplimentary occurrences. Lasswell describe the surveillance role of the media as the "watchman function". The surveillance function often corresponds to what is generally called news handling. This includes the collection and distribution of information about events in the environment, both outside and within any particular society. 2. Transmission of Cultural Heritage This function of the mass media focuses on the transmission of knowledge, values and social norms from one generation to another or from members of a group to newcomers. The existence of a community depends on the ability of its members to share common values and to agree on what constitute acceptable behaviours. Also, the continued existence of the society depends on the ability of its members to transmit the values and norms of the society from one generation to another. This can be done through songs and preservation of certain artifacts. People's way of life in terms of dressing can also be preserved by the mass media. The same thing is applicable to certain cultural festivals which can be preserved for the sake of posterity by the mass media. 3. Status Conferral Another function of the mass media is the bestowal of prestige on people who attempt to remain well informed about events in their community. In Nigeria, for instance, being well informed about what is going on in government and society generally is a source of prestige. People who are well connected are looked upon as opinion leaders. The function of status conferral comes from being the subject of news reports. The mass media have the power to make instant celebrities of yet unknown persons either for good or bad. The electronic media, most especially, have conferral effect on the audience. People or organizations that are featured in the media tend to acquire some level of importance above the ordinary (Sambe, 2004). 4. Interpretation and Prescription of News The chief function of interpretation and prescription is to prevent such undesirable consequences of the mass communication of news. The selection, evaluation and interpretation of news focusing on what is most important in the environment, according to Sambe (2004) tend to prevent over stimulation and over mobilization of the population. Like surveillance, he observed that the activities of news interpretation and presentation for behaviour, when performed as mass communication can also be dysfunctional both at the societal and individual level. On the societal level, experts believe that some activities can impede social change and enhance social disorder in a society. At the individual level, the dysfunctional role of the mass media is believed to create panic among individual members of the society. 5. Agenda Setting Function (McComb & Shaw, 1972) Another important function of the mass media in modern society is the agenda setting function. The agenda setting function of the mass media presupposes the fact that the media can lead members of the public in taking very sensitive decisions on issues of public significance be it politics, economic and social standings. The agenda setting function of the media is predicated on the fact that the mass media can influence a thinking of members of the public through public opinion. Thus, it is an established fact that the role of the media cannot be underestimated in any society. The media keeps the fabrics that hold the society together and links all the agents of socialization through its diverse functions. This justified the desirability and inevitability of the mass media in the society. The Nigerian Society and Social Structure The term society can be defined as the network of social interaction. Daramola (2005, p.1) sees society as the "web of social relationship." It is the "whole complex scheme" or "whole tissue" of social relationships. A sociologist, George Simmel in Daramola (2005, p.2) defines society as "a number of individuals connected by interactions." Equally, an anthropologist, Ralph Linton in Daramola (2005) sees society as any group of people who have lived and worked together long enough to think of themselves as a social unit with well-defined limits. Nigeria has up to 250 tribes and there is diversity in terms of culture in the country. The economic, social, political and religious activities in the country among different tribes or sub-groups reflect the diversity of the Nigerian society. Every society, according to Okolocha (1999, p.201), has "a system of ranking people either as 'high' or 'low' or as 'superior' or 'inferior. They observed that those who are ranked high or superior enjoy special privileges which elude those who are ranked as either low or inferior. On a general note, social structure of a society enables us to identify people at the upper class, middle class and lower class. Social Structure Social structure or social stratification has to do with the study of inequality in society, that is, the unequal distribution of goods and services, rights and obligations, power and prestige among members of the society (Littlejohn, 1972, p.9). It also has to do with the rankings of people either from high to low depending on their access to the means of production (Littlejohn, 1972; Okolocha, 1999). As a social engineer of the society, the mass communicator is expected to be conversant with the social structure of his/her country and that of other countries. This development would place the communicator in a better to the and patterns of interaction between the upper and the lower class in the society. The importance of social structure can be appreciated from different perspectives. To a journalist, the study of social structure would enable him/her to effectively know and perform his conferral role to the society. To policy makers, such understanding would enable them to plan and initiate policies for different categories in the society. Meaning of Social Institutions Social institutions are establishments that tackle some basic problems or needs in the society. Establishment of social organizations is geared towards guaranteeing an ordered social life. Social institutions according to Obeta (2003, p.77) are: "The basic social organizations that regulate and organize most of the activities of individuals in society into definite organizational pattern in order to achieve the fundamental goals of societal life". Types of Social Institutions 1. The Family and Kinship Institutions This institution regulates behaviour patterns in the area of procreations, biological relations between individuals in society and the initial socialization of the new members of society. 2. Educational Institutions Educational institutions deal with the socialization of the young into adults as well as the differential transmission of knowledge, values, attitudes skills and other aspects of cultural heritage of society from one generation to another. 3. Economic Institution The economic institution is central to the survival of society. It deals primarily with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. 4. Political Institution The political institution ensures that man is organized into political units. It deals with the control and the use of force within the society, and the maintenance of internal and external peace, as well as the mobilization of resources for the implementation of various goals etc. 5. Legal Institution This institution articulates and sets-up just laws that will guarantee justice, fairness and equity in order to ensure that there is order and peace in society. Laws, may not change the 'heart', but they restrain the 'heartless'. 6. Religious Institution Religious institutions deal with man's relationship with his creator. 7. Health Institution Health institutions performed a variety of health related functions that are aimed at satisfying the health needs of the members of the society. Social Institutions and the Mass Media There are different agents of socialization in any given society. According to Daramola (2005, p.81), "man is not genetically programmed to live in the society. Rather, he has to learn the rules and codes necessary to make him function in a society." He defines socialization as a process whereby the culture of a society in general or a social institutions in particular is transmitted to individuals. The agents of socialization are the family, school, peer group, church/mosque and the mass media, An individual learns much from the family and other social forces that make acquisition of social knowledge and skills necessary for interactions of members of the society. In this regard, our major concern is on the mass media which makes social engineering possible for members of the society. The mass media are connecting tissues to other agents of socialization or social institutions. The media as an institution serves as a social interface between the society and other agents of socialization. While the family, peer group, the school, church/mosque prepare norms, values, attitudes etc for the consumption of the society, the mass media as an institution assist in serving the tantalizing dishes to the tables of members of the society in a powerful manner. In Nigeria, for instance, the Nigerian Television Authority, NTA, has been linking or connecting families or friends to one another through its News Line programme. The newspapers, through their letters to the editor column, have also been connecting members of different agents of socialization together. Daramola (2005, p.95-96) analyses the role of the mass media as a potent social force in the socialization business. He observes that the mass media are very powerful socializing agents as they reach large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed audiences. He contended that the mass media do not only teach the individual or public the norms and values of society, but also reinforce such norms and values. As political instruments of socialization, Daramola (2005) noted that the mass media can influence political beliefs and education of individuals. Theories of Media Environment/Society For a scientific analysis of the mass media in the social environment, it is important understand the theories of the mass media that operate in such environment. To a large extent, the theories of the mass media define the operation of the media in the society. Normative Theories The basic assumption of Normative theories is that the media tend to assume the form and coloration of the society in which it operates. The well known four theories are, Authoritarian, Libertarian (or free press), Soviet Communist and Social Responsibility theories. McQuail (2000) also draws attention to two other emergent normative theories, namely, Democratic- Participant Media Theory and Development Media Theory, thus bringing the number of Normative theories recognized in the literature to six. These will be perused as follows: 1. Authoritarian Media Theory Dates from the 16th century, the theory describes a situation in which the mass media are subordinated to state power. Whether the media ownership is private or public, they are expected to service the government or its functionaries and are forbidden to criticize government or its functionaries. The instruments of authoritarian control of the media are many and varied. They include heavy taxation, repressive legislation and direct or subtle state control of staffing. Others are suspension of publication, and rough treatment of journalists which were the hallmark of Babangida and Abacha regimes in Nigeria. 2. Libertarian Theory (Free Press) The Libertarian theory or free press theory believes that an individual should be free to publish what he or she likes and to hold and express opinions freely. It is based on the concept of "free market place of ideas" which held that good ideas would inevitably drive out bad ones if both were guaranteed free expression. The theory does not however obliterate the laws of defamation, sedition, obscenity and invasion of privacy. It believes that human beings including journalists are rational and have the ability to differentiate between right and wrong. The theory exists mainly to check on governments or its functionaries and therefore must ideally be free from government control. The clearest expression of the libertarian principle can be found in the first amendment to the American Constitution, which upholds on freedom of speech or of the press. This is a good example of the theory at work. 3. Soviet Communist Theory The theory is built on the premised that government undertakes or controls the total media and communication to serve working classes and their interest. It proposes that the state have absolute power to control any media for the benefits of people. They put end to the private ownership of the press and other media. The government media provide positive thoughts to create a strong socialized society as well as providing information, education, entertainment, motivation and mobilization. The theory describe the whole purpose of the mass media is to educate the greater masses of working class or workers. Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback which would able to create interests towards the media. 4. Social Responsibility Theory The social responsibility theory can be aptly described as a child of the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution and the emerging multimedia society provided the conducive environment for the development of a theory that is based on the assumption that while the press should be free, it must nonetheless be responsible. This theory places emphasis on the moral and social responsibilities of people, who, and institutions which operate the mass media. The main theme of the message therefore is "In Public Interest". It holds the position that one has the right to print. but he does not have the right to libel, It admits no censorship, but depends solely on the maturity -of proprietors, editors and reporters. The main difference to the libertarian theory of the mass media lies in the demand for social responsibility which, if need be, can be enforced on the media by other institutions when it acts contrary ary to the laid down principles of social responsibility. 5. Democratic Participant Theory The main thrust of this theory as enunciated by McQuail lies on the claim that the existing bureaucracy and professional hegemony in media system should be done away with so as to ensure easy access to the media by allowing potential users and consumers. Conclusively, it insists that previous media theories have failed to deliver the expected results and therefore calls for grassroots participation in the control of the mass media. 6. Development Media Theory Development media theory was put forward as a means of paying for the imbalance in development and information flow of the Third World Countries and a solution to the technological problems facing them. The Third World Countries are bedeviled by problems that make the development of mass media system difficult. Some of these problems are the absence of communication infrastructure, the professional skill, the production and cultural resources and the available audience. The major tenets of Development Media Theory as enunciated by McQuail are: a. Media must accept and carry out positive development tasks in line with naturally established policy b. Freedom of the media should be open to economic priorities and development needs of the society c. Media should give priority in the content to the national culture and language d. Journalists and other media workers have responsibilities as well as freedom in their information gathering and dissemination tasks. In the interest of development, the state has a right to intervene or restrict media operation. Thus, it is necessary to state here that in practical term, it is difficult to see a country operating one theory to the exclusion of others. For example, you have elements of social responsibility theory which can be seen in countries where libertarian theory operates. In Nigeria for instance, we have elements of social responsibility and authoritarian media theories in our mass media atmosphere. This is what Folarin (1998) described as a little bit to the left and a little bit to the right. Media Ownership and Control Media ownership has remained a topical issue in media discourse. This is because a popular aphorism has it that "he who pays the piper dictates the tune". Again, the type of media ownership determines the level of freedom and efficiency of the organisation. Media are public service organisation and as such, come under several controls. One of such controls is ownership control. It is often said that "Who pays the piper dictates the tune". Literary, this means that a piper must play the tune to satisfy the person who has hired him. Every news medium belongs to either an individual or group of individuals or an organisation or a government. Owners control their newspapers through the editorial policy. The editorial policy of a new medium is a broad based set of ideas normally or usually formulated before the take off of the medium especially the print medium and articulated on the first day of appearance under what is called mission statement. The editorial policy states the angle or point of view that will guide the newspaper news and features including its editorials, and ideas, desires, and interests it would protect and project. Patterns of Media Ownership i. Government Ownership This refers to public ownership of the mass media (both print and electronic). Government for political reasons, owns the media especially radio and television. This kind of ownership could be operational in both civilian and military regimes. Media are set up, staffed and controlled by government because of the fear that such media houses could be used to cause trouble if left in the hands of private businessmen. This is a common scenario in Africa with the exception of Nigeria which liberalized the broadcast industry in 1992 by allowing private individuals to own radio and television stations. Prior to 1992, only state and federal governments own broadcasting stations. This type of ownership is common in Nigeria and in some African countries. ii. Private Ownership This refers to the private ownership of the media (both print and electronic). This type of ownership is common in the Europe, America and Nigeria. iii. Joint Government and Private Ownership This is a rather joint venture between the government and private businessmen. This is very common in Canada. iv. Public Ownership This refers to media operated on behalf of the public by charter and is supposedly "autonomous" or independent to a great extent. The British Broadcasting Corporation is a typical example of public media. Many media organizations in various countries bear the title public corporation; but they are so only in name and not in fact, considering their obvious subservience to government, v. User Ownership This is the initiative of the audience e.g. fan clubs coming with their radio and television stations. This type of ownership is not common in this part of the world but it can be found in America. Methods of Exercising Control over the Media There are several ways by which those who wield political power control mass media in any society. This can be through the way of authoritarian control such as repressive legislation, heavy taxation, direct or indirect control of essential production inputs, rough treatment of media workers, issuing of death threat and in some extreme cases assassination of media workers (e.g Dele Giwa), censorship and closure of media houses (e.g The Punch, Daily Concord, OGBC, Abeokuta during the Abacha regime). Another method of exercising control over the broadcast media is through the indirect control of the media structures. These structures include: i. Management Structure: It is the ownership structure that determines management of any media organization. In a situation of government ownership, the government is usually structured to reflect government's thinking and interest. ii. Finance: The financing of the media is dependent on the ownership. In developing countries like Nigeria, government sends subvention to its media houses, even when such media establishment still source funds from other sources. Therefore, in a situation of government ownership, government can exercise the power at its disposal to put financial pressure on such media organizations with a view to forcing them to conform to the policies and philosophy of the proprietor. iii. Production: The production structure refers to the technological equipment used for production. They are very expensive but African countries do not have the capacity to produce their own technology. They can only acquire the media equipment from developed countries. The exercise of political power can affect a country's media structure if such a country breach international laws and is subsequently ostracized. Such ostracism could lead to refusal of the developed countries to trade with the offending country. During the regime of General Sanni Abacha, Nigeria was given a pariah status with an indefinite suspension by the Commonwealth of Nations after the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other Ogonis. Definition of Press Freedom There is a general notion that press freedom is hard to define. While others look at it as "the right to communicate ideas, opinions and information through the printed word without governmental restraint," the difficulty actually lies in defining the word "press" itself. Is the word, "press" made up of newspapers, magazines, journals or does it include broadcasting and other forms of communication yet dreamt of? Another dilemma in demystifying the concept of press freedom is in the degree of freedom sought or implied in the concept. Press freedom is practically the same thing with freedom of expression which many people believe is the mother of all freedoms. Press freedom connotes a free flow of information and the rights to disseminate information. Bamidele (2013) contend that freedom of the press, in its true sense, is the instrument that protects journalists and all other media professionals from all forms of impunity. Their opposing viewpoints are typical of the diversity of opinion on what press freedom actually is. Constitutional Guarantees for Press Freedom The 1960 constitution provided under Section 24 for freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart ideas and information without interference. (Momoh, 2004:62). Section 24 of the 1960 constitution became Section 25 of the Republican Constitution of 1963 and formed the major part of Section 38 of the 1989 Constitution, Section 40 of the 1995 draft constitution, and Section 39 of the 1999 Constitution. To appreciate constitutional guarantees for press freedom in Nigeria, Section 39 of the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria states as follows: (1) Every person shall be entitled to freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart ideas and information without interference. (2) Without prejudice to the generality of subsection (1) of this section, every person shall be entitled to own, establish and operate any medium for the dissemination of information and opinions: Provided that no person, other than the Government of the Federation or of a state or any other person or body authorized by the President on the fulfillment of conditions laid down by an Act of the National Assembly, shall own, establish or operate a television or wireless broadcasting station for any purpose whatsoever. Limits to Press Freedom in Nigeria There is no absolute press freedom anywhere in the world. Nigeria which professes to have one of the freest press in Africa has a lot of limitations to press freedom. Sunday (2006, p.115) argued that press freedom is limited in the overall interest of the society by the constitution, legislature, courts and government. It is therefore contradictory to discover that the same constitution which guarantees press freedom takes away the same freedom it gives to media men. The 1999 constitution for instance, has given conditions for the expression of freedom. According to Section 39(3) of the 1999 constitution. Nothing in this section shall invalidate any law that is reasonably justifiable in a democratic society-- (a) For the purpose of preventing the disclosure, of information received in confidence, maintaining the authority and independence of courts or regulating telephony, wireless broadcasting, television or the exhibition of cinematograph film; or (b) Imposing restrictions upon persons holding office under the Government of the Federation or of a State, members of the armed forces of the Federation or members of the Nigeria Police Force or other Government security services or agencies established by law. Similarly, Section 45(1) of the constitution provides as follows: "Nothing in sections 37,38,39,40 and 41 of the constitution shall invalidate any law that is reasonably justifiable in a democratic society: (a) in the interest of defence, public safety, public order, public morality or public health; or (b) for the purpose of protecting the rights and freedom of other persons." Therefore, the section that affects the media is section 39 which we already know guarantees freedom of expression and freedom to own, establish and operate a medium for imparting information, ideas and opinions to those who are willing to receive them. It is when we look at details of the limitations on the exercise of the freedom under section 39 we discover that media practitioners need to be more serious in investigative journalism. The media must therefore look at the various laws that have been promulgated in the interest of defence, public order, public morality or public health, and for the protection of the reputation of others. We will here look at the Criminal Code to point to the extent which the polity has gone in protecting itself against interests that may be opposed to public good. Factors Impinging Press Freedom in Nigerian Society Legal provision which provides for freedom of the press and at the same time denies it through some superior clauses are: Security bodies/operatives which at times become overzealous to the extent of confiscating publications at will in pretext that such publications constitute threat to national security and interest. Political and economic problems which tend to stifle the operation of non-government media through denial of subsidies and other economic assistance; restriction of scope of distribution (for print media) and reach (for electronic media); hiking news reel and rate of importation. Denial of public right to know by the government agents through over classification of government documents and papers and excessive limitation of mass media access to government information. Self and external censorships through mass media practitioners' deliberate distortion of facts and publication of meaningless government handouts; brazen intimidation, harassment and manhandling of media practitioners; closure of mass media houses and of recent, the bombing of mass media houses by dissidents like the Boko Haram insurgents, The Way Out Draconian military decree like the 1984 Decree No. 4 dubbed "public officers (Protection Against False Accusation) Decree which are still in force are repelled. Public servants should be encouraged to keep accurate records of government transactions and make government information readily available to the press upon application in line with the provision of Freedom of Information Act. Dubious licensing of channels of mass communication by government should be relaxed to encourage mass media pluralism and by extension, encourage the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas with less friction. Journalists should be thorough in verifying their facts and dogged in reporting issues of public interest to respectively avoid abuse of the freedom of expression and self censorship. Governments should adopt legal means in bringing recalcitrant journalists/media organizations to book rather than the usual brazen use of force, intimidation, confiscation of published matters and proscription of media houses without trial. Culture and the Mass Media Culture is simply the totality of people's way of life. Sanderson (1988) defines culture as the total life ways characteristic of members of society including tools, knowledge and patterned ways of thinking and acting that are learned and shared and are not the direct product of biological inheritance". Rodney (1976:41) argues that culture embraces what people ate, and what they wore, the way they talked, the manner in which they treated their dead and greeted the new born. Culture is the way and manner people socialize and go about their businesses. One of the popular definitions of culture endorsed by E.B Taylor and many Anthropologists and Sociologists is that culture is the complex whole of man's acquisitions of knowledge, morals, beliefs, art, custom, technology among others, which are shared and transmitted from generation (Otite and Ogionwo, 1979, p.26). By way of features, culture is symbolic. It is learned, shared and integrated. Mass Media and Cultural promotion One of the functions of the mass media as identified by Harold Laswell in Sambe (1994) is preservation of cultural heritage from one generation to another. Based on that role, the mass media can be described as a preservative institution for all aspects of culture, whether material or non- material. Culture, as earlier noted in this unit from the perspective of characteristics is learned, shared, integrated and symbolic. It is crucial to state that the mass media Radio, TV, newspapers and magazines make the learning, sharing and integration of culture possible among people of diverse backgrounds irrespective of distance, race, sex and other variables. The mass media also convey meanings in form of symbols to the relatively large, heterogeneous and anonymous audience simultaneously. In today's complex and large society, the mass media remains one of the fundamental tools to facilitate cultural and social change. Through the mass media, Africans are conversant with western customs, traditions and values and vice versa: With the use of satellite broadcasting, the entire universe has become a global village and learning of people's way of life is being carried out on a daily basis. In the course of transmitting culture to other parts of the globe, the westerners who had the technology and buoyant economy often super- impose their cultures on developing nations or third world countries. This takes us to a very crucial issue of cultural imperialism by the media. Relationship between Social Change and Mass Media Okolocha (Op cit) looked at social change as the modifications in the mode of interactions of Okolocha (Op cit) looksocial change in the words of Moore al action and in (2007, p.5) is the "significant alteration of social structure (i.e of patterns of social action and interaction including consequences and manifestation of structure embodied in the norms (rules of conducts, values and cultural products and symbols)." Change is ubiquitous. According to Okolocha et al (1999, p.217), "it is often used synonymously with development, progress, evolution or process". Viewed from the above perspective, it is an established fact that the mass media are powerful and potent tools of social change. Through their factual news, features and editorials, the mass media can set agenda for the society that could lead to evolution of any kind. Also through documentaries, the mass media can feature issues that bring transformation in the society. The mass media have the power to build and destroy a person or an institution. They can also be used to prosecute developmental projects of different kinds. The mass media direct members of the public on which direction to follow on public issues. As purveyors of peoples conscience, through their educative, informative and entertaining programmes, the mass media can bring unprecedented changes in the society. Commenting on the effect of community newspapers in respect of social change, Ate (2008) argued that through vernacular newspaper, the village dwellers were wooed and mobilized to participate in development programmes of their communities, thus engendering social change. He argued that the mass media are potent tools for social change and that community journalism if well harnessed and husbanded by the appropriate stakeholders would bring change at the grassroots level. Social change can be appreciated in the sociology of the mass media. Social Effects of the Media The social effect of the media is the subtle influence on the lives of the audience by the mass media One of the basic assumptions about the media is that the mass media have an important influence on peoples' lives and sometimes change their beliefs and opinions. This subtle influence or impact of the mass media on the habits of the audience is what is referred to as social effect of the media. To justify the fact that the mass media exert serious influence on the lives of the audience, there are some theories of media effects namely, Hypodermic Needle Effect theory; Two-Step Flow theory, Uses and Gratification theory; Agenda-Setting theory, Knowledge Gaps theory and "Spiral of Silence" theory which capture the social effects of the media. Acknowledging the social effects of the media, McQuail (2005, p.456) states: "Our minds are full of media-derived information and impressions. We live in a world saturated by media sounds and images, where politics, government and business operate on the assumption that we know what is going on in the wider world. Few of us cannot think of some personal instance of gaining significant information or forming an opinion because of the media. Much money and effort are also spent on directing the media to achieve such effects, especially by way of advertising and public relations, and it is hard to believe that this would happen without a conviction that it works, more or less according to plan. Certainly, the media themselves seem confident on their capacity to achieve intended effects". Daramola (2000, p.33-34) gave examples of social effects of the media thus: i. Arousing Mass Revulsion A whole nation could become revolted and react adversely to some national issues. An example will suffice here. In the year 2000, there was demonstration in Kaduna (Nigeria) over the introduction of Sharía legal system by the state government. This led to riot in which several people died. Media coverage of the riot aroused fear in the minds of people across the country. ii. Re-assurance during Panic During situations of panic created by other sources, the media have been known to play a very key role in reassuring, calming and in specific instances, directing people to areas of safety. For example, in situations of crisis like the Kaduna Sharia riot, which led to exodus of non- indigenes from the North to their states of origin in February and March 2000, the media were subsequently used to assure fleeing residents that all is well. iii. Panic Inducement The media can induce panic especially in periods of insecurity. On the heel of the annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential election, the media induced a lot of panic in the populace with their largely unverified reports that one section of the country was preparing for a secessionist war. Out of panic, a lot of people started moving their families and property back to their home states. This led to motor accidents with so many people losing their lives. iv. Induce Mass Social Action The mass media induce their admirers to social action. Before the cancellation of the national monthly environmental sanitation, the Nigerian media were known for mobilizing the people for the sanitation exercise. Nigerians have been known to respond in large number to appeal for generosity from the media for fellow Nigerians who have serious medical problem. One good example is the case of Yinka Ayefele, a broadcaster with the Radio Nigeria, Ibadan who got his spinal cord broken in automobile accident in the late 90s. Both the print and electronic media appealed for philanthropic assistance for the victim. Good Nigerians assisted him. The same thing repeated itself when Fadeyi Oloro, an artist got burnt in April 2001. The media communication solicited financial assistance for him to carry out necessary surgical operation. v. Language Standardization The media simplify the language they use. As a result of this, the audience tends to follow this pattern as the acceptable standard. This is more so because of the demand of modern living that requires a lot of running around for people before they can make ends meet. This means people are no longer patient to read lengthy articles thereby encouraging economy of language which appears to be the hallmark of the media. vi. vi. Define Social Values Through direct advertising, editorials and articles and implicit suggestions, the media tend to define for the society what constitutes standard social values. In other words, the media shape societal values and write off many as unacceptable, archaic or obscene. Media and Governance The term govern means to officially and legally control a country and make all the decisions about taxes, laws, public services, etc. (Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English). According to MeQuail (2005, p.234), the term governance describe the overall set of laws, regulations, rules, conventions which serve in the general interest including that of media industries. Governance in his view refers not "only to formal and binding rules, but also to numerous informal mechanisms, internal and external to the media by which they are "steered" towards multiple (and often inconsistent) objectives." Government from the above deductions, therefore, concerns itself with leadership in totality for the sake of the people. The importance of the mass media in art of governance cannot be under- estimated. Some people see the fourth estate of the realm as a powerful instrument in governance. In fact, a one time American President, Thomas Jefferson cited in Abati (2007) summed up the indispensability of the mass media in the art and science of governance. Jefferson places the media on a higher pedestal than governance when he observes that "were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter". Purpose of Governance Basically, it is the responsibility of government to provide basic amenities to members of the society. Government also has the mandate of maintaining law and order as well as providing security to members of the society among other functions. The variety of forms of governance that apply to the media, McQuail (2005, p.234) argues, reflects the diversity of purposes served. He outlines the purposes of media governance thus: The protection of the essential interest of the state and of public order, including the prevention of public harm; The safeguarding of individual rights and interests; Meeting the needs of media industry for a stable and supportive operating environment; Promotion of freedom and other communication and cultural variables; Encouraging of technological innovation and economic enterprise; Setting technical and infrastructural standards; meeting international obligations, including observance of human rights; Encouraging media accountability Relationship between Media and Governance The central theme of politics is power-who controls it at the expense of who ? Talking about the relationship of the media and governance, Daramola contends that the political philosophy of the society determines the type of press such a society will have. Ate (2007:2) argues that "the media connects the government to the governed, electorate to the candidates in a democratic setting." The central message about media and governance is that the latter dictates the former in the society and both play complementary roles in servicing the populace. Ate (2007) argued that mass media organisations are educators and key information sources that can be used for promotion of transparent governance. Media Ethics in Nigeria Ethics is the general science of right and wrong. Every profession is governed by certain norms of conduct as ethics or code of conduct. Ethics according to Daramola (1999, p.198) is "the study of human action in respect of being right or wrong or the study of human conduct in the light of moral principles." Ethics are codified rules or codes of conduct. In the case of the mass media, these ethics are also known as canons of journalism which have been defined by Duyile (2005, p.79) as "prescription guiding all journalists in behaving right while carrying out their functions to inform, to educate, to entertain and to lead the public." Ethics are instruments of professional sanity and moral uprightness. Ethics are placed on a higher pedestal than law because what is considered lawful in a society may be unethical. For instance, no law forbids a male lecturer from sleeping and impregnating his female students. However, such an act may be considered unethical. Ethical Issues in the Nigeria Mass Media All journalists would like total freedom and autonomy to publish what they like. But considering the great powers they wield in the shaping of the society, the freedom and the autonomy they want must be tempered by a commensurate sense of responsibility, considering the fact that modern media reach or touches virtually all aspect of life. It is time someone undertook the task to fill the ethical vacuum which is at present occupying the hearts of most media establishments (Egbon, 2001, p.28). Therefore, it is apt to state that ethical issues have become very sensitive issues in modern society. In Nigeria for instance, corruption is one of the nagging issues in the media. A journalist is not supposed to take or accept bribe to suppress a story. Journalists are also not supposed to disclose their sources of information to anybody. Plagiarism and many other ethical issues are addressed by professional bodies in Nigeria. Code of Ethics for Nigerian Journalists Journalism entails a high degree of public trust. To earn and maintain this trust, it is morally imperative for every journalist and every news medium to observe the highest professional and ethical standards. In the exercise of these duties, a journalist should always have a healthy regard for the public interest. Truth is the cornerstone of journalism and every journalist should strive diligently to ascertain the truth of every event. Conscious of the responsibilities and duties of journalists as purveyors of information, we Nigerian journalists, give to ourselves this Code of Ethics. It is the duty of every journalist to observe its provisions. 1. Editorial Independence Decisions concerning the content of news should be the responsibility of a professional journalist. 2. Accuracy and Fairness i. The public has a right to know. Factual, accurate, balanced and fair reporting is the ultimate objective of good journalism and the basis of earning public trust and confidence. ii. A journalist should refrain from publishing inaccurate and misleading information. Where such information has been inadvertently published, prompt correction should be made. A journalist must hold the right of reply as a cardinal rule of practice. iii. In the course of his duties, a journalist should strive to separate facts from conjecture and comment. 3. Privacy As a general rule, a journalist should respect the privacy of individuals and their families unless it affects public interest. A. Information on private life of an individual or his family should only be published if it impinges on public interest. B. Publishing of such information about an individual as mentioned above should be deemed justifiable only if it is directed at: i. Exposing crime or serious misdemeanour; ii. Exposing anti-social conduct; iii. Protecting public health, morality and safety; iv. Preventing the public from being misled by some statement or action of the individual concerned. 4. Privilege / Non - disclosure i. A journalist should observe the universally accepted principle of confidentiality and should not disclose the source of information obtained in confidence. ii. A journalist should not breach an agreement with a source of information obtained as "off-the- record" or as "background information." 5. Decency i. A journalist should dress and comport himself in a manner that conforms with public taste. ii. A journalist should refrain from using offensive, abusive or vulgar language. iii. A journalist should not present lurid details, either in words or picture, of violence, sexual acts, abhorrent or horrid scenes. iv. In cases involving personal grief or shock, enquiries should be carried out and approaches made with sympathy and discretion. v. Unless it is in the furtherance of the public's right to know, a journalist should generally avoid identifying relatives or friends of persons convicted or accused of crime. 6. Discrimination A journalist should refrain from making pejorative reference to a person's ethnic group, religion, sex or to any physical or mental illness or handicap. 7. Reward and Gratification i. A journalist should neither solicit nor accept bribe, gratification or patronage to suppress or publish information. ii. To demand payment for the publication of news is inimical to the notion of news as a fair, accurate, unbiased and factual report of an event. 8. Violence A journalist should not present or report acts of violence, armed robberies, terrorist activities or vulgar display of wealth in a manner that glorifies such acts in the eyes of the public. 9. Children and Minors A journalist should not identify, either by name or picture, or interview children under the age of 16 who are involved in cases concerning sexual offences, crimes and rituals or witchcraft either as victims, witnesses or defendants. 10. Access to Information A journalist should strive to employ open and honest means in the gathering of information. Exceptional methods may be employed only when the public interest is at stake. 11. Public Interest A journalist should strive to enhance national unity and public good. 12. Social Responsibility A journalist should promote universal principle of human rights, democracy, justice, equity, peace and international understanding. 13. Plagiarism A journalist should not copy, wholesale or in part, other people's work without attribution and/or consent. 14. Copyright i. Where a journalist reproduces a work, be it in print, broadcast, art work or design, proper acknowledgement should be accorded the author. ii. A journalist should abide by all rules of copyright, established by national and international laws and conventions. 15. Press Freedom and Responsibility A journalist should strive at all times to enhance press freedom and responsibility. Media/Communication and Development Meaning of Development Development connotes progress or advancement. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, development means: The gradual growth of something so that it becomes bigger or more advanced; a new event or piece of news that is likely to have an effect on the present situation; the act or result of making a product or design better and more advanced; the process of planning or building new houses, offices, etc and a group of new buildings that have all been planned and built together on the same piece of land. Also looking at the subject matter from a multi-dimensional perspective, Walter Rodney cited in Uwakwe (2003, p.14) x-rays development: Development in human society is a many sided process. At the level of the individual, it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being... A society develops economically as its members increase jointly their capacity for dealing with the environment. This capacity for dealing with the environment is dependent on the extent to which they understand the laws of nature (science), on the extent of which they put that understanding into practice by devising tools (technology), and on the manner in which work is organized. Development is a planned and deliberate attempt to ensure growth and effect social change in the society. In consonance with this, Ogai cited in Uwakwe (2003) captured the concept of development: Development also refers to a widely participatory process of directed social change in a society intended to bring about social and material advancement including greater equality, freedom and other valued qualities for the majority of people through their gaining greater control over environment. He argued that some scholars view development as a changeover from a traditional to an industrial society. Development, in generic sense to him may be "conceived as planned mobilization and direction of scarce resources to achieve constantly rising national goals and objectives formulated by national machinery. Development can take place at the local, national or international levels. The absence of development in a society is known as underdevelopment. Roles of Media/Communication in Development Communication is an important tool in achieving socio-political and economic developments. Okunna (2002, p.293) argues that communication is so closely interconnected with development that there can be no development without communication. The above postulations cannot be faulted because of the roles communication play in the development enterprise. Nwodu (2002) outlines some of the roles: Creating a climate of development by adequately informing the people and encouraging them to embrace positive changes that can enhance their well-being. Encouraging people to aim high as well as developing new taste to the point of desiring good things in life. Focusing people's attention to developmental process thereby sensitizing their maximum participation in development effort. Helping the people to understand and appreciate government policies meant to enhance their living conditions. The link between communication and development is so powerful that the concept of Development Communication (DEVCOM) is fast attracting the attention of scholars. Nwodu and Fab-Ukozor (2003, p.27) define this concept as the "overall deliberate efforts to acquaint targets development with the desired message of development." DEVCOM whose primary aim is to create adequate awareness about the development projects designed to enhance the well-being of members of the society according to Nwodu and Fab- Ukozor (2003, p.27) "involves deliberate, well desired and articulated communication codes aimed at bringing development to the knowledge of development targets." Development entails the use of multi-media approach to prosecute the gospel of development for the good of the society.