Making Sense of Media and Politics PDF

Making sense of media and politics Lieke Brekelmans Chapter 1: Political power and power over the media The President has immense political power. He has constant media access with a large number of journalists assigned to them. A less powerful politician has mo...

Making sense of media and politics Lieke Brekelmans Chapter 1: Political power and power over the media The President has immense political power. He has constant media access with a large number of journalists assigned to them. A less powerful politician has more challenges in gaining media attention. Political power = media power Symbiotic relationship - The close ecological relationship between members in which both members are mutually benefited Politicians and journalists have a symbiotic relationship (competitive symbioses) - Politicians want publicity - Journalists want newsworthy information - Also competitive → both sides seek to benefit with minimal cost → politicians try to get most coverage without revealing too much → journalists try to get juiciest stories Indexing explains how the media largely reflects the views of political elites, which limits the range of opinions in the news. In authoritarian and partially free democracies, political power can be used more directly to control the media, often through intimidation or violence, Indexing - A media phenomenon where coverage is primarily based on what political elites are saying and doing, limiting the diversity of perspectives presented in the news Digital media - Platforms where non-professionals can create, comment, and share content - Blogs, twitter, social media Traditional media - Conventional news outlets - Traditional news outlets - CNN, BBC User-generated content (UGC) - Key feature of digital media - It’s shaped by ordinary people rather than professional journalists Qanon theory - A cabal of Satan-worshipping Democrats, Hollywood celebrities and billionaires runs the world while engaging in paedophilia, human trafficking and the harvesting of a supposedly life-extending chemical from the blood of abused children - Started by Trump The media often favours coverage of more wealthy and populous regions, leading to a global imbalance in information flow. Spin doctor - Expert who is skilled at manipulating or influencing the way information is presented to the public, often with the aim of shaping perceptions in a way that benefits their client, or themselves - Public relations experts hired by political figures to craft favourable media stories and manage their public image Less powerful individuals or groups get attention through dramatic or controversial actions. This often leads to superficial coverage focused on the spectacle rather than the message. Law and order frame - Media coverage often frames protest with a focus on violence or disorder, benefiting authorities who can highlight the need for control Back door entry - Method by which weaker political actors or organizations gain media attention, typically through unusual or sensational actions, often leading to superficial or misrepresented coverage Front door entry - The method through which powerful political figures get media attention, often with positive or neutral coverage where their messages are communicated without significant challenge Civil disobedience - A nonviolent protest strategy that aims to disrupt normal life and gain media attention, often by attracting dramatic responses from authorities - Effective tactic for weaker groups - Peaceful protest that lead to dramatic police actions which will gain sympathy for the protesters - Example: American civil right movement → police using attack dogs on peaceful protesters Cumulative inequality - The concept refers to how those with political and economic power naturally have easier access to the media, while those without power struggle to get attention Four key goals of political movements 1. Mobilizing supporters: digital media excels in helping movements attract and organize supporters 2. Amplifying messages: going viral or gaining coverage in traditional media is essential but increasingly competitive 3. Influencing leaders: gaining the attention of policymakers remains challenging despite digital outreach 4. Changing policies: achieving tangible policy changes is the hardest and least influenced by digital tools Challenges with digital media 1. Slacktivism: a. Digital-only activism where participants feel they have contributed enough without taking further action b. The concern that digital participation reduces physical activism is unfounded c. Research shows that digital engagement often correlates with real-world activism 2. Competition: a. The digital space is crowded, with movements, corporations and celebrities all vying for attention 3. Limited impact on policy: a. Oppositional forces with equal or greater access to digital tools often block movements’ efforts Movements’ success depends on their resonance with the public, political environment, and goals. Amplification effect - The ability of digital media to spread messages widely, increasing the visibility and influence of a movement Chapter 2: Political control and media independence Leaders lose media control when they lose control over the political environment. Political environment - Encompasses what leaders, the public, and interest groups are doing and saying about an issue Elite opinion strongly influences media narratives. How do authoritarian regimes control media - North Korea uses strict censorship - China employs strategies like pro-government propaganda and limited dissent to maintain control Dissent - The holding or expression of opinions at variance with those commonly or officially held - Holt or express opinions that are at variance with those commonly or officially held Democracies face intense scrutiny when leaders fail to manage crises effectively. Authoritarian regimes rely on suppressing dissent and propaganda but face challenges in the digital age. Indicators of success in controlling the political environment 1. Control over events: a. Leaders lose credibility when events spiral out of control 2. Control over information: a. Leaders who can manage leaks and maintain a monopoly on information gain an advantage 3. Elite and public support: a. Broad elite consensus often results in favourable media coverage, while division leads to critical reporting The media’s portrayal of leaders is heavily influenced by their ability to manage crisis, control information, and secure elite and public support. Independent media - Outlets that operate without reliance on government or elite control Highly dependent media (right on the continuum) - Reliance on authorities for information - Prominent during crisis, wars, or disasters when political leaders have strong control over narratives - Example: o Rallying around the flag – effect: broad consensus (overeenstemming) among media and digital platforms during moments of national unity or crisis. Media and public opinions align with government narratives during crises or wars High independent media (left on the continuum) - Journalists or ordinary citizens initiate or uncover critical news stories independently - Often involves investigative journalism or event-driven journalism - Examples: o Investigation into scandals  o Stories originated from digital media uploads, such as citizen footage Partially independent media (middle of the continuum) - Media access diverse viewpoints, including opposition narratives, when government control is partial - Political debate becomes a focus of reporting - Example o Conflicts where information from opposition and controversies challenge the official line Consensus - Unified support and alignment with the elite narrative Controversy - Media includes diverse, conflicting perspectives Politics-media-politics (PMP) cycle - Conceptual framework illustrating how political change influences media coverage, which in turn accelerates further political change - A dynamic process where political shifts influence media narratives - Media coverage reshapes public opinion and political actions, leading to further political changes Vietnam war - Initial consensus → strong support for US involvement among elites - Media influence → negative coverage depicted grim realities - Result → rising opposition, increased protests and public dissent Iraq war 2003 - Initial stages → media and political consensus supported the invasion due to fears of Saddam Hussein’s alleged WMDs o Journalists reflected the government’s stance due to limited access to dissenting sources - Shift → early military control over information through embedded journalism o As insurgencies escalated, media grew sceptical, amplifying opposition - Result → increased dissent against the war mirrored in political campaigns Media amplifies existing discontent but rarely initiates political change. While media is a powerful force in shaping political outcomes, its role is conditional upon pre-existing political and social conditions. The troubles - A long-standing conflict (1969 – 2001) between Catholics (seeking reunification with Ireland) and Protestants (favouring union with Britain) The success of peace processes depends on leaders’ ability to manage political consensus and prevent disruptions, which subsequently shapes media narratives. Media’s dual role 1. Reflects existing political dynamics 2. Can also independently influence public opinions Movie ‘wag the dog’ - Spin doctors have the power to transform political failures into successes through media manipulation. They can do this through manufactured events, like a fictional war, to distract from scandals. - Complication: o Political power and clever storytelling provide some advantages but cannot fully control the media coverage without real accomplishments o Dogmatic loyalty among certain followers may buffer leaders from some criticism, but it does not fundamentally change media narratives rooted in reality Genuine political success is the foundation for favourable media coverage. Chapter 3: Every political story is biased Stories - The goal is to create a narrative either true or fictitious, designed to interest, amuse or instruct those who read, hear or view them Media bias - A consistent slant in how stories are selected and presented - It is inevitable across all forms of media - When journalists show bias in how they report and cover news - Types of bias: o Cultural bias: rooted in the specific values, beliefs, and contexts of a particular society. It reflects a narrow worldview based on time, place and societal norms o Partisan bias: reflects the ideological or political leanings of a media outlet or journalist, often favouring one political party or perspective Cultural bias - The tendency to interpret events through the lens of one’s cultural values, beliefs, and assumptions - The tendency to interpret and judge phenomena in terms of the distinctive values, beliefs, and other characteristics of a particular society or community - Characteristics: o News is often ethnocentric, focusing on events relevant to the outlet’s audience o Local and national events take priority over international news, especially from poorer or geopolitically insignificant regions o Even digital media reflects cultural bias, as content creators share the same cultural assumptions as traditional media audiences Partisan bias - Easier to recognize due to overt political leanings of outlets  - Examples: o Fox News and Newsmax are conservatives (republican) o MSNBC is liberal (democrat) - Polarization of news audiences based on ideological alignment - Ongoing debates about media objectivity, especially during politically charged events like elections Traditional media → limited airtime and newspaper ages Digital media → limited staff and resources to cover global events News focuses on what editors believe their audience wants, emphasizing local over foreign news. Routine global events are ignored unless they involve something extraordinary or deviant. All news media are biased. Representative deviance - Persistent negative reporting reinforces stereotypes about certain countries Media frames - Organizing devices used by journalists and internet users to create coherent narratives in news stories - They often reflect broader cultural, social and political biases, shaping how events are reported and understood - The process by which the media places the events and topics they report in a certain perspective or in certain frames - Functions: o Search and select: frames act like search engines, guiding journalists to select stories that fit existing themes o Providing meaning: frames help interpret and provide context for events, shaping public understanding and discussion Cultural silo - A group within a company or organization that has its own distinct culture, values, and norms that differ from the rest of the organization Echo chamber - An environment or ecosystem in which participants encounter beliefs that amplify (versterkt) or reinforce their preexisting beliefs by communication and repetition inside a closed system and insulated from rebuttal - Environments in which individuals are exposed only to information and opinions that reinforce their own views, reducing exposure to differing perspectives Frames must compete for dominance in media narratives Successful frames resonate with cultural norms, gain visibility through events, and ar4e supported by strategic advocacy. Ethnocentrism - Een manier van denken waarbij je negatief oordeelt over een andere cultuur Journalists depend on accessible domestic sources like the Pentagon or State Department, reinforcing one-sided narratives. Marginalize - The act of treating a person or group as though they are insignificant by isolating and/or disempowering them Deviance - Behaviour that is considered weird, odd and strange Conservatives often claim mainstream media leans liberal, liberals argue media favours conservative and big-business values. Democrats trust mainstream media. Republicans trust conservative media. Partisan bias - Distorted portrayal of reality favouring one political group - A significantly distorted portrayal of reality that systematically and disproportionately favours one party, political movement, or ideological position over others Selection bias - Choosing to highlight or ignore certain stories - The mechanism where media organs choose to cover some types of political actors and stories while ignoring or downplaying others Presentation bias - Framing stories to favour specific narratives - The way political stories are told, including factors like the sources present, tone, framing, issues, visual dimensions and ordering Partisan bias is difficult to measure due to - Differences in candidates’ actions - Election cycle where media coverage often reflects political performance rather than intentional bias Newspapers endorsed democratic candidates. Hostile media effect (HME) - Strongly partisan individuals perceive media as biased against their views - Meta-analysis by Hansen and Kim confirms HME across traditional media - The tendency for people with strong partisan beliefs to perceive most media coverage as biased against their views, regardless of the actual content Political parallelism - Media systems in many countries align with political ideologies - Pro: encourages higher political participation and engagement - Con: limits exposure to diverse opinions Recommendations for Informed Citizenship 1. Avoid echo chambers; diversify media consumptions 2. Explore international outlets like BBC for broader perspectives 3. Limit consumption of sensationalist or biased ‘junk news’ Filter bubbles - Situations where algorithms deliver content tailored to users’ preferences, isolating them from diverse viewpoints Chapter 4: Telling a good story All media are businesses aiming to generate profit, with audience size being crucial for success. Journalists prioritize attracting large audiences rather than manipulating public opinion. Speed has become more critical, leaving less time for in-depth reporting. Provocative, dramatic stories are more likely to go viral. Media outlet tell stories 1. Hero 2. Villain 3. Conflict 4. Drama 5. Serialized to keep audience engaged Infotainment - Many political narratives are constructed like stories, combining both factual and fictional elements - Distinguishing between news and entertainment has become difficult Types of news 1. Junk news: a. Media outlets with little credibility focused on entertainment and sensationalism b. Conspiracy theories 2. Responsible news: a. They aim to base stories on facts, though they are still motivated by profit and audience size b. They strive for accuracy, but they also focus on creating stories that will attract large audiences c. The New York Times d. The Guardian e. CBS News Drama at every stage 1. Story selection 2. Questioning 3. Information gathering 4. Photo/video capture 5. Headline creation Political-media-politics cycle (PMP) - Involves transformation of political events into dramatic media stories - Shows how media’s need for drama influences the portrayal of political events, which can lead to political consequences, like diminishing the credibility of protestors and framing them as extremists Commercial bias - The media’s focus on creating stories that attract large audiences for profit, often outweighing partisan bias - Journalists rarely abandon a compelling story, even if it contradicts their political views, because the primary goal is profitability Constant negativity in the media leads to decreased trust in political systems and politicians. Negative tone in media → political polarization → encourages leaders to attack opponents rather than focus on their achievements. Soft news - Lighter, less politically intense coverage - May help less politically engaged individuals stay informed - Provides a less overwhelming way for people to follow current events without the dramatic, polarized focus of more intense political coverage. Strategic frame - Implies politicians care more about personal gain than the public good, contributing to cynicism - Media portrays politics as a series of contests where winning is everything Spiral effect - As journalists focus on negative political stories, politicians feel pressured to provide such content to gain media attention, reinforcing the cycle of negativity and deepening public cynicism Political comedy shows contribute to cynicism, especially among young viewers, by mocking politicians, which can reduce political trust by also engage viewers in politics. False theories spread significantly faster than true ones, especially in politics. Populism - A range of political stances that emphasize the idea of the common people and often position this group in opposition to a perceived elite group - The idea that society is separated into two groups at odds with one another - A thin-centred ideology that divides society into a pure and virtuous people and corrupt elites Dangerous consequences of media bias 1. Commercial bias: a. The commercial pressures on media outlets to generate sensational stories often prioritize entertainment over substantive political discussion, amplifying cynicism and negativity 2. Dangers of the current media climate: a. The current media environment has become overly cynical. This has contributed to declining political trust and the spread of dangerous misinformation, hate and conspiracies 3. The need for balance: a. Media’s role should be to ask though questions and hold leaders accountable, but the focus shifted too far towards sensationalism and cynicism, harming democracy The media is drawn to stories of violence and war due to their ability to captivate audiences and drive profit. Initial media coverage of war tends to be patriotic and less cynical, with journalists often swept up in the national sentiment → leaves little room for criticism of the government → public is unaware of the long-term costs and dangers of war → over time, media shifts to a more critical tone, but still that they support the government Terrorist groups use media coverage to spread fear, boost their international profile and recruit followers. Journalists are often forced to cover terrorism due to the drama it generates. The media’s obsession with sensationalism leads to terrorism gaining undue attention, furthering their goals. Terrorist events in the PMP - Terrorist attacks trigger political responses, which in turn trigger media coverage, feeding into the public’s fear and reinforcing the political agenda - Terrorist groups use digital media to spread graphic and dramatic content, ensuring their message reaches a wide audience The media’s commercial bias often trumps ideological bias. Example: despite the greater threat from non-Islamic terrorism, Islamic terrorism receives far more media attention. Contradiction between peace and news - Peace processes require patience, secrecy and understanding between conflicting sides, - These elements clash with the immediacy, simplicity and sensationalism preferred by the news media - The media’s focus on threats, violence, and ethnocentrism often undermines the calm and understanding necessary for successful peace-building Though most journalist and media organizations prefer peace over war, their operational norms – emphasizing dramatic and immediate stories – often unintentionally hinder peace processes. Peace processes are inherently boring and this lack of drama makes them less appealing for news coverage Positive aspects of infotainment 1. Audience engagement 2. Accessibility 3. Soft news benefits Criticism of infotainment 1. Superficial information 2. Cynicism and distrust 3. Conflict vs. peace People who combine social media with traditional news sources show higher political knowledge and civic engagement. Consequences of sensationalism 1. Increased public cynicism about politics 2. Misinterpretations of wars and terrorism 3. Hindrances to global peace and reconciliation efforts Chapter 5: The media get you when you’re not paying attention Media campaigns and advertisements focus not on directly persuasion but shaping public thinking indirectly. Framing - Media shapes how issues are interpreted by presenting themes or narratives - Example: political activists and journalists frame stories to make them coherent and persuasive - Organizing devices used to create coherent stories about events, candidates and issues - Framing is pivotal in influencing how people perceive and react to events Points about framing 1. Significance of media frames: a. Framing has a measurable impact on how citizens think about politics and behave 2. Influencing factors: a. Individual and contextual factors can shape the extent to which people are exposed to and influenced by frames b. Individual choices, selective exposure, and echo chambers can shape the influence of frames 3. User-generated frames: a. With the advent of social media, user-generated frames have emerges as a major factor in shaping opinion b. Digital platforms have empowered activists and harmful actors to create frames, with significant political and social implications Study on partisan bias in newspapers showed that editorial slants can shape voting behaviour, proving framing effects in real-world settings. Factors enhancing or diminishing framing effects 1. Active audiences: a. People actively select communication channels and process information based on their preferences, meaning they are not passive recipients of media frames 2. Echo chambers:  a. Closed informational environments where individuals consume only information aligning with their beliefs b. Fears of echo chambers are often exaggerated. Studies show that politically engaged individuals actively seek diverse sources 3. Selective exposure: a. People prefer media consistent with their political attitudes, reinforcing ideological divides 4. Motivated reasoning: a. Citizens are more likely to adopt frames endorsed by their political party, especially when issues are central to party conflicts or among politically aware individuals Social media has enabled users to construct and promote their own frames, often diverging from traditional media narratives (user-generated frames). Hateful users spread messages more widely and quickly than non-hateful users. Agenda-setting - Media determines what issues the public considers important - Example: during elections, media can spotlight issues like healthcare or the economy, influencing voter priorities - The ability of media to influence what the public perceives as important by emphasizing certain topics over others - The news media may not tell us what to think, but they do tell us what to think about - Issues emphasized in media tent to dominate public concern, shaping the public’s agenda - By prioritizing specific topics, the media indirectly marginalizes other issues Agenda building - Focuses on how the media’s agenda is initially set - Often, political leaders, institutions, or dramatic events shape media focus - Traditional media are criticized for indexing topics primarily based on political elite interests, reducing their role in highlighting neglected issues Social media platforms provide divers voices and emphasize different issues, such as social justice and public order. Traditional media focus more on economics and governance. Social media has democratized agenda setting by providing a platform for marginalized voices, though often emphasizing distinct topics from traditional outlets. Priming - Extends agenda-setting by affecting the criteria voters use to evaluate candidates  - Example: emphasizing economic success may lead voters to assess candidates based on economic performance - Extends the concepts of agenda setting and framing by influencing how people evaluate political candidates, parties and issues - Agenda setting focuses on what people think, priming is indirectly shapes what to think by emphasizing specific issues or attributes - Acts like a metaphorical ruler → voters evaluate candidates using criteria emphasized by the media Affective priming - Focuses on the tone of coverage rather than the issues themselves - Media emphasis on positive or negative candidate traits influence voter perceptions and decisions Framing → shaped how people interpret issues or candidates Priming → influences how much weight voters place on the framed attribute during decision-making Implications of priming 1. Electoral strategy: a. Candidates and parties strive to align their strengths with media-emphasized issues b. Media coverage can indirectly decide which party or candidate holds an advantage 2. Media’s role: a. Media not only informs but also shapes the standards by which political actors are evaluates b. Tone and issue focus significantly influence public opinion and voting behaviour 3. Dynamic effects in political campaigns: a. Priming highlights the interplay between events, media emphasis, and voter decision-making, demonstrating the cyclical influence of politics and media Media effects 1. Learning 2. Political participation 3. Persuasion Unintentional effects - Journalists aim to create engaging content, not directly influence voters - Impact occurs as an unintended byproduct Unnoticed influence - When people are unaware of persuasive efforts, they are more susceptible to subtle media influence Exceptions to indirect effects - Partisan media → deliberate slanting by partisan outlets can have direct effects on viewers - Conspiracy theories → intentional manipulations through misinformation represents a significant exception Pre-existing biases influence who consumes and remembers media content, complicating research. Regular media users tend to have higher political knowledge than infrequent users, although causality works both ways → knowledgeable people consume more media, and media exposure increases knowledge. Digital participation - Online activities like signing petitions or expressing opinions on social media Traditional participation - Actions such as protests, attending meetings, or working on campaigns Social media alone is less effective for knowledge acquisition but enhances participation. Framing events in specific ways can shape audience perspectives. Priming directs attention to issues that influence voting behaviour. Who is persuadable - Medium-awareness individuals are most persuadable - Low-awareness individuals are harder to reach - High-awareness individuals are more resistant User-generated frames - Social media has introduced a more dynamic interaction where users actively create and spread political messages Prosumers - Individuals who not only consume news but also use social media to influence others Pp slide 1 If you don’t exist in the media, you don’t exist politically. - Become known - Mobilise supporters - Influence public opinion - Influence policy Five principles in political communication 1. Political power can usually be translated into power over all forms of media 2. When the powerful lose control over the political environment, they also lose control over all forms of media 3. Every political story that appears in every form of media is biased (there is no such thing as objective journalism, nor can there be) 4. All forms of media are dedicated more than anything else to telling good stories and this can often have a major impact on the political processes (commercial bias) 5. Many of the most important effects of the various forms of media on citizens tend to be unintentional and unnoticed Competitive symbiosis - The relationship between political antagonists and the news media can be described as a competitive symbiosis in which each side of the relationship attempts to exploit the other while expending a minimum amount of cost - Each side has assets needed by the other to succeed in its respective role Front door - The powerful are always relevant and thus get more/autonomic media access and positive media coverage Back door - Powerless have to work hard/make themselves relevant/interesting to get into the media Sidedoor - Civil disobedience Inequality is not accidental, but structural (also in media). Edward S. Herman - Developed the ‘propaganda model’ of media criticism arguing that ‘market forces, internalized assumptions and self-censorship’ motivate newspapers and television networks to stifle dissent Media as democratic watchdog - Media takes initiative - Investigate reporting - Independent scrutiny - Documenting, questioning, and investigating - Provide public and official with timely information US media fails to perform democratic task and are basically akin to propaganda systems in totalitarian states Panopticism - The systematic ordering and controlling of human populations through subtle and often unseen forces (surveillance techniques) Power - The intentional production of causal effects - The ability to achieve one’s goals or objectives - The ability to overcome oppositions, to exercise control over people - Hierarchical Superior → principle Subordinate → subaltern Forms of power - Correcting forms: 1. Physical force or coercion on decisions or compliance (zero-sum) → literally limiting options 2. The ability or disposition to change social relationships or to leave them intact, through manipulation, propaganda, agenda-setting and non-decisions → changing the basis of choices so it becomes rational to comply - Persuasive forms: 3. Preference-shaping via institutions (signification or cognitive symbolism) → shaping the meaning and significance of things 4. Values-shaping (thought control) → the spectrum of actions of the subaltern is limited via ideological and discursive hegemony and disciplining Frames shape individual understanding and public opinion concerning an issue by stressing specific elements or features of the broader controversy. Frames are ideologically laden → packages of truth claims about reality Ideological hegemony - A situation where a particular ideology is pervasively reflected throughout a society in all principal social institutions and permeates dominant cultural ideas and most social relationships Propaganda-model - Explores the relationships between ideology, communicative power and social class interests - 5 filters determine media-content - These filters produce a very narrow view of the world that is in line with most powerful economic interest - Traces the routes by which money and power are able to filter out the news fit to print, marginalise dissent, and allow the government and dominant private interests to get their message across to the public - The filters: 1. Advertising: a. News media cater to political prejudice and economic interests of advertisers b. News has only a marginal role in the background c. In the context of media, news organizations are heavily reliant on advertising revenue. As a result, news content is often influenced by the political preferences and economic interests of advertisers 2. Size, ownership and profit orientation: a. Media organizations tend to be owned by a small number of large corporations or conglomerates. These media owners often have vested interest in maintaining the status quo that benefits their other business ventures b. Profit over journalism 3. Anti-ideology and fear: a. Media outlets may downplay or distort certain political ideologies or social movements that are viewed as a threat to the interest of the powerful b. Media outlets often promote fear and insecurity. This fear is used to justify government actions or policies that benefit elite interest 4. Flak: a. Negative responses to a media statement or a TV/radio programme b. Phone calls, letters, text messages, threats, court cases, etc c. Refers to negative responses or criticism directed at media outlets or journalists who challenge dominant narratives d. Legal threats e. Public backlash f. Corporate pressure  g. Flak serves as a way to deter media outlets from publishing content that challenges the established power structures. 5. Sourcing: a. Media outlets often rely on official sources such as government spokespeople, corporate representatives, and experts from powerful institutions to provide information for news stories Indexing theory - Sources and views in media are indexed according to power balance among political institutions and actors - Journalists mostly cite dominant actors and they use dominant views/frames Pp slide 2 Media-politics-media cycle - A cause and effect type relationship that begins with an event that alters the political landscape which the media is forced to respond to - Politics are then further impacted by the medias coverage of the initial event - Politics react again, and so on… Fourth dimension is the most important. (self-)mediatization - A process whereby politicians tailor their message offering to the perceived news values, newsroom routines and journalistic culture Consequences of mediatization 1. Increased complicity (processing instead of probing) 2. High rhythm of (shallow) news production 3. Context-less reporting of one-off institutional failures 4. Loss of standards of rhetorical propriety 5. Stereotyping minorities and other valuable groups 6. Distorted depiction of reality 7. Predominant portrayal of politics as a power game Mediatization - The process by which media, particularly mass media, shape and influence various aspects of society, culture and individuals - It describes how media systems, structures and technologies affect social processes, power relations and human behaviour Other forms of political communication 1. Rationalisation stream 2. Single issue or cause stream 3. Grass-roots stream 4. Popularising stream 5. Party faithful stream Watergate - Information leak from the inside Social/digital media and losing control 1. Increased danger of losing control over information 2. Easier to accidentally leak information/get hacked 3. Easier to disseminate/publish information 4. More interaction is recorded → greater chance of scandal 5. Increased danger or losing control over consensus 6. Quicker news cycles 7. Easier to mobilize supports Indexing theory - Source dependency cause focus on political elite - Range of views in media indexed by elite views - Powerful politicians can most easily get good media attention - News media are major agents for maintaining and even intensifying the power gaps in society - Explains routine news production in democracies - The way political news and discourse are shaped and influenced by the priorities, framing, and perspectives of the political elites and institutional sources, particularly the government and media Indexing hypothesis - Predicts that political news content generally follows the boundaries of the elite debate Spin doctors - Present or transforming political information to reflect positive on a power-holder, preventing critical journalism - Shield actual power-holders from direct public scrutiny - Intentional relationship between professional communicators and the press Pundits - Provide perspectives within news stories - Journalists frequently quote or invite pundits - Expert and partisan Pp slide 3 Ideologic polarisation - Different opinions - Vrouw meer Affective polarization - We don’t like each other - Man meer - The emotional divide between positive feelings for one’s own party and negative feelings for the opposing party - This increase is primarily driven by growing negative sentiments toward opposing parties, with feeling thermometer ratings for rivals dropping sharply since the 1970s Due to deep partisan polarisation, campaigns matter less. Rechts → republicans Links → democrat Rust Belt - Oud industrieel gebied - Pennsylvania - Michigan - Wisconsin - Normally democrat Sun Belt - Mooi en warm Rijken stemmen voor links. Jongeren stemmen minder omdat ze denken dat democratie vanzelf is en dat ze het niet nodig hebben. White working class supports Trump. How did Trump win over the Rust Belt in 2016? - Voters in rural areas of these states - Trump’s appeal is to voters outside the major cities - Young men in rural and suburban areas who may have never voted before - White working-class vote in the Rust Belt Who did Harris have to mobilize to win the Rust Belt? - Urban voters in and around major cities - Black, Latino and other minority votes - College-educated and middle-class voters in the suburbs - Particularly white women Negative relation between the rise of e-technology and political participation. Life cycle of voting - Political participation follows an age-related cycle - Owing to various structural, social, moral and economic factors, a smaller percentage of young people vote compared to older people - Relationship between age and political behaviour is curvilinear → people are most active in middle life and least active in the earliest and lates stages of the life cycle News media socialize young people differently than previous generations. Commercialization changed content and form - Young people are less exposed to political information and more to entertainment - Result is growing lack of political interest and lower levels of political knowledge among young people Low-information voters are more likely to respond to emotional appeals. Low-information voters do not know basic facts about government and lack a need for cognition. Pp slide 4 Journalism - A craft collectively devoted to truthfully assembling, reporting and verifying information, based on particular criteria, transforming the accumulated information into news of matters of public importance, while, at the same time, illuminating social problems, articulating opinions about topics of public interest, and engaging richly with the community Every political story that appears in every form of media is biased. Cultural bias - The tendency to interpret and judge a phenomena in terms of distinctive values, beliefs, and other characteristics of a particular society or community - Very powerful because they are usually invisible → they are based in common understandings of the world Partisan bias - A significantly distorted portrayal of reality that systematically and disproportionately favours one party, political movement, or ideological position over others News values 1. Frequency 2. Threshold: a. The bigger the impact of the event and more people are affected, higher are the chances to be covered 3. Unambiguity: a. Events that are easy to explain 4. Meaningfulness: a. Does the audience identify with the story 5. Consonance: a. Does the event match the media values, priorities 6. Unexpectedness: a. Out of the ordinary? 7. Continuity: a. Is the story already in the news? It will get more coverage 8. Composition: a. Strike a balance between type of news, competing stories 9. Elite nations 10. Elite persons: a. Rich, powerful, important people get more coverage 11. Personalization: a. People are interested in human interest angles 12. Negativity Pp slide 5 All forms of media are primarily dedicated to telling good stories, which can often have a major impact on political processes. A journalist’s priority is to attract a large audience. Infotainment - All narratives have elements of fiction and non-fiction The need to tell a good story is referred to as commercial bias. The need for profit is often more important than any partisan bias. Satire - Not seen as news - Parody - Funny - Amusing Poor journalism - Superficial - Inaccurate - Sensational News - Associated with professionally produced information that is accurate, timely, clearly communicated and fair - There is often no clear agreement on where to draw the line between fake news and news Game frame - Politics as a game - Framing as winners & losers - Actions aimed at winning Spiral of cynicism  - The facts that journalists are looking for negative stories means that politicians believe they need to provide these types of stories - Going negative have thus become a mantra for running modern political campaigns Virtuous circle - Attention to the news media enhances people’s tendency to get involved in politics and this prompts more attention to the news - Mobilization hypothesis Soft news - Provides many people with an easily accessible and understandable source of political information Baum’s studies - Inattentive voters who watched talk shows (soft news) were more likely to vote Why does negative news grab more attention than positive news - Negative information is more psychologically memorable - Negative information is more neurologically impactful - Negatively-focused news agitate and arouse readers Effects of negative news - News avoidance - Decrease in political trust - Reduce political participation - Increase cynicism - Affects people’s engagement in public life Impact of the news - Frequency - Threshold - Unambiguity - Unexpectedness - Negativity Audience characteristics - Meaningfulness - Elite nations - Elite persons - Personalization Pragmatics of media coverage - Consonance - Continuity  - Composition Motivated reasoning theory - People sometimes process attitude-relevant information in a biased manner, in a way that favours attitude-congruent information over attitude-incongruent information - To reduce the threatening potential of attitude-incongruent information, attitude- contradicting content can be ignored → defensive inattention - Users favour and prefer to share attitude-congruent news over attitude-incongruent news - How individuals’ desires, preferences or motivations influence their reasoning processes, leading them to arrive at conclusions that align with their emotional or ideological goals rather than objective evidence Hyper-partisan news sites twist their material well out of context. It is designed to appeal to users with strong pre-existing ideological loyalties. Three share worthiness factors significantly influenced whether an article was shared or not 1. Proximity 2. Conflict 3. Human interest Pp slide 6 Many of the most important effects of the various forms of media on citizens tend to be unintentional and unnoticed. Era of strong media effects (early 1930s) Era of minimal effects (1940 and early 1950s) → a response to findings suggesting a strong influence of media on behaviour. The hypodermic needle theory - Media messages are injected in people’s minds - The effects are informingly and direct affecting audiences’ minds Media does tell people what to think about and how to think about it. We might be in a new era of minimal effects coinciding with people’s increasing control over both content choice and media sources due to technological changes. The effects are stronger when forming rather than changing opinion. As political awareness rises, it increases the degree to which someone is persuadable until it reaches a certain high point. When it passes that point increasing awareness leads to less persuasibility. People with a medium level of political awareness and knowledge are the most persuadable. Their opinions are not as well anchored in a large pre-existing set of knowledge and ideology. Strongest media effect are implicit rather than explicit persuasion → agenda setting, cultivation, learning effects Agenda setting theory - Explains the process by which the media exerts a substantial influence on audience perceptions of the issues relevant for society Media can’t decide what you think, but they decide what you think about. The media agenda - It’s a construct, a measure build by adding up the number and size of media reports related to a certain issue and then raking all different issues - How do we measure: o By adding up the number and size of media reports related to a certain issue and then ranking all different issues The public agenda - It refers to those issues, topics, and persons that are perceived as the most important of the day - How do we measure: o The most important problem question The political agenda - By adding up the number of instances in which politicians and parties mention certain issues and then ranking all different issues The need for cognition defined by two components 1. The personal relevance of the issue under study 2. The uncertainty with regards to the extent to which audience perceives itself to be informed about the issue The need for information should be the highest for people who assess an issue to be highly relevant for them personally while they hold little or no information. Framing - To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment, recommendation for the item described - Organizing principles that are socially shared and persistent over time, that work symbolically to meaningfully structure the social world Fractures paradigm - Many definitions of what frames are Priming - How the media can make voters to think about certain issues and use them to evaluate candidates, events, policies - How media emphasizes certain traits and how citizens use those traits to evaluate politicians → affective priming - Changes in the standards that people use in making political evaluations Beliefs are hard to change, but weight attached to believes van be changed by priming. Problems with media effects - Most people are not that interested in political news - Views are hard to change - People often have strong habits/preferences regarding politics - Media often have competing frames - Confirmation bias → people reject attitude-incongruent messages Self-selection - The idea that people navigate news information aligned with their pre-existing ideas and avoid those news sources, which content do not match their pre-conceived ideas Pre-selection - The idea that social media platforms immerse people in algorithmically curated diets that are consistent with peoples’ ideology and preferences Echo chambers - Informational environment where we are over-exposed to news we like or agree with, distorting our perception of reality Filter bubbles - Where news we dislike or disagree with it automatically filtered out, narrowing what we know Selective exposure - Tendency to prefer media an media content that is consistent with out political attitudes Pp slide 7 Core question: How has the rise of digital media shaped social movements and collective action dynamics? Five principles in political communication 1. Political power can usually be translated into power over all forms of media  2. When the powerful lose control over the political environment, they also lose control over all forms of media 3. Every political story that appears in every form of media is biased (there is no such thing as objective journalism) 4. All forms of media are dedicated more than anything else to telling good stories, which can have major impact on political processes 5. Many important media effects on citizens tend to be unintentional and unnoticed What is the impact of digital media? - The impact is limited - When it comes to the ability of movements to organize and mobilize it is certainly a new age - On the other hand, the new technologies appear to be less revolutionary when it comes to getting a message to the broad public or bringing about real change Old logic → collective action New logic → connective action (protest based on personalized content sharing across social media networks) (DNA: digitally networked action) Changes that lead to this new type of collective action 1. Political content in the form of easily personalized ideas 2. Communication technology takes over the role of organizations Social movements - Conceived as collectives, ranging from informal groups to formal organizations, that seek to challenge or defend institutional and/or cultural systems of authority and their associated practices and representatives - Collective challenges, based on common purposes and social solidarities, in sustained interaction with elites, opponents, and authorities Core properties of social movements 1. Collective: a. Social solidarity and common purpose b. An unconnected crowd or and individual action is not a SM 2. Political: a. Undertake some action to challenge/defend authority b. Contention: disruptive direct action against power-holders c. Lobbying, negotiating, petitioning, influencing debate 3. Extra-institutional: a. Exclusion from the polity/governance b. Generally, SM are not part of or embedded in state institutions c. A political party is generally not considered a SM 4. Sustained: a. SMs may last for a matter of days or decades  b. One single collective event is not (yet) a SM Social movement theories 1. Classical theories: a. b. Breakdown and structural strain → stressful changes and conditions c. Societal tensions → creates discontent and grievances d. Social movements emerge as a collective reaction to some form of societal malfunction/disorganization e. Collective behaviour is distinct from ‘ordinary’ → sharply set off from conventional behaviour i. It’s spontaneous, irrational, emotional, aggressive, disruptive, under the spell of agitators f. Behaviour is driven not so much by the desire to attain political goals, but to manage psychological tensions g. Archetypical movements: rebellion, French revolution, totalitarian fascism and communism h. Mass society theory: i. In particular it is the socially uprooted and unattached members of all classes who support these movements first and in the greatest numbers. This implies that unattached intellectuals, marginal members of the middle class, isolated industrial and farm workers have been among the major social types in totalitarian movements ii. ‘Mass society’ refers to lack of social cohesion → no societal groups through which people are well-integrated into political and social life i. Why men rebel: i. Feelings of status inconsistency/relative deprivation arise from a perceived discrepancy between what is and what should be ii. Temporal comparison and/or intergroup comparisons contribute to feelings of frustration, directed against those who are privileged j. Weaknesses: i. Abnormal, irrational, pathological traits are assigned to movement participants ii. Some movements pursue and attain political goals iii. Social dysfunction is a necessary but insufficient prerequisite of social movements 2. Resource mobilization theory (RMT): a. Organizational strength and resources (knowledge, time, money, social networks) b. One might have grievances and frustration, but there should also be mobilizing agents → organizations and recruiting networks c. Action not because of discontent, but it rather depends on the resources d. External support from established elite groups is important, individuals and organizations outside the collectivity which a social movement represents e. f. Protest behaviour is seen as political and as such is similar to institutionalized action g. Political and sociological, rather than psychological approach i. It’s rational, instrumental, professional, by resourceful socially integrated people h. Agency-oriented paradigm i. Importance of costs and rewards in explaining individuals and organizational involvement in social movement activity j. People in fact cannot be expected to act together just because they share a common problem or goal. In large groups in which individual contributions are less noticeable, rational individuals will free-ride on the efforts of others k. Criticism: i. Top-down approach, elitist perspective ii. Difficult to differentiate between professional, formal interest groups and social movements iii. Difficult to clearly differentiate organized efforts by excluded groups and by established polity members  iv. Risk of co-optation → elite involvement could suppress social movements, when protest is moved to institutionalized channel v. Underestimation of marginalized groups → no explanation for why certain marginalized groups with few material resources, still were successful in mobilizing many people 3. Political process/political opportunity approach: a. Socio-economic processes: i. Among the events and processes likely to prove disruptive of the political status quo are wars, industrialization, international political realignments, prolonged unemployment, and widespread demographic changes b. External political opportunities/constraints include: 1. Divisions between power-holders 2. Decrease in repression 3. Access to political system c. Indigenous organizational strength → emphasis on autonomous capacity to act of excluded groups, mobilizing networks and resources, and using disruptive tactics to exert pressure on elites 4. The cultural turn in social movement theory: a. In line with role of cognitive liberation: people must collectively define their situations an unjust and subject to change through collective action b. Analysis of framing work c. Focus on how organizations manage or fail to formulate messages that persuade and mobilize people d. Collective action frames centres on common interpretations of collective identity linked to the continuous issues on hand Collective action problem - People benefit from public goods even if they don’t participate - Therefore, people have the incentive to not participate Davies’ J-curve theory of revolution - Revolutions are most likely to occur when a prolonged period of objective economic and social development is followed by a sharp reversal - Core functions of framing 1. Diagnostic: a. Tell what is wrong and why b. A phenomenon is converted into a social problem (not anymore and individual problem) c. Identification of those responsible for the situation 2. Prognostic: a. Tell what is the solution b. What are the goals and the strategies? 3. Motivational: a. Tell why people need to join and undertake action b. Related to identity-building Weakness of protest based on logic of connective action 1. Personal action frames: a. Digital media alter the logic of Olson’s theory of collective action, because participation becomes ‘self-motivating’ 2. Communication technology takes over the role of organizations (leaderless) Pp slide 8 Example of protest movement based on connective action - Los Indignados, occupy movement - Protesters not regularly involved in formal political/civic organizations - No formal affiliation with political groups Core question: what is the democratic role of digital media for protests in non-democratic countries? - Too many commentators have either exaggerated or over-simplifies the role the social media actually play in such conflicts - Politics comes first o A political change leads to media change → media react to changes in the political environment rather than initiate them → social media are facilitators or amplifiers of protest, rather than causes The relative openness/closeness of state’s media system - The state’s control over mass media and which new gets circulated varies dramatically globally - Open media systems: o US o France o Netherlands  o The state has limited control over information, so there are more opportunities for SM activists to use mainstream mass media - Closed media systems: o Egypt o Russia o China o The state controls the news coverage o As a result, accurate coverage of movements is poor or non-existent What are the main goals of social movements? 1. Inform and mobilize supporters/sympathizers a. Building of collective identity b. Turn sympathy into resources and action 2. Reach a wider audience a. Influence the public debate, achieve media visibility, spread their message b. Try to convert public into mobilization potential 3. Influence on political leaders and policy a. Achieve real impact on political decision-making and society Station that movements have to pass in their attempts to climb a steep mountain whose peak is called ‘political success’. Arab Spring - 2011 - 5 phases to the story: 1. Preparation early tech-save activists who start sharing grievances and building community 2. Ignition --> incident/triggering event (self-immolation of fruit seller Mohammed Bouazizi) 3. Street protests 4. International buy-in 5. Climax → win or lose moment Tools of authoritarian regimes 1. Fear: a. Intimidate and arrest civil society actors (activists, journalists etc.) 2. Friction: a. Censorship b. Authoritarian government can try to block opposing content online c. Shutting down internet or particular pages/platforms d. Surgical removal of social media posts e. Algorithmic manipulation of search results 3. Flooding: a. Create content  b. Authoritarian governments can overflow the internet with regime propaganda Preference falsification - Most people are afraid of speaking up and protesting (repression) - They don’t share their private (anti-government) beliefs - Discontent people (majority) believe they are minority - On social media platforms, people can speak up more or less anonymously/freely, trying to break pattern of preference falsification Bandwagon effect - People don’t want to be the first ones to go on the streets - When a critical mass (small group of initiators) is already on the streets, individual repression is less likely - This van set in motion a sudden self-reinforcing snowball effect → people join protests because they see already many other protesters Why mass revolutions suddenly took place in non-democratic countries - Classical approaches: o Discontent, grievances, dissatisfaction - These stem from certain societal conditions Theres a difference between comparing countries with each other, and comparing individuals within a country. Substitution effect - When you already showed online support, it decreases the willingness to provide additional, more substantial contributions Click-based activity negatively affect your offline participation, because they distract us from real-life engagement. Online and offline actions supplement, rather than replace each other. Pp slide 9 We often see social media as anti-democratic force, due to issues such as misinformation, fake news, trolling, extremist movements, hate speech, online surveillance, repression technology. Two challenges for the internet as medium for democratic deliberation 1. The empire strikes back a. Useful technology for authoritarian governments b. What about censorship and propaganda tools to distort public discourses? 2. Ani-system forces:  a. What about bad social movement actors that are promoting violence, xenophobia, intolerance, inequality, racism, hate Double reality of social media 1. They give a voice to those whose views are normally excluded from the political discussion in the mainstream media 2. The platforms of information freedom can be exploited in order to silence others → censorship Far-right movement - Nativism - Non-native people and ideas are threatening the nation-state, restrictive notion of citizenship Why do people joint far-right social movements? 1. Ideology:  a. Someone want to voice his/her grievances and discontent, expressive motivation 2. Instrumentality: a. Someone want to change the state of affairs, goal-oriented 3. Identity: a. Someone want to engage with like-minded others, socially oriented Factors on three levels 1. Micro-level: a. Individual background characteristics and viewpoints matter (social- psychology) 2. Meso-level: a. Characteristics and strategies or organizations matter (organizational science) 3. Macro-level: a. Characteristics of the political system matter (political science) Approaches to explain variation in far-right mobilization 1. Classical theories: a. Grievances/anger b. Discontent about unemployment, relative deprivation, perceive threatened national identity c. Influx of migrants 2. Resource mobilization: a. Organizational strength b. Capability to organize and co-ordinate, attract funding, leadership 3. Political opportunities: a. Contextual constraints/openings related to the political environment in which far right groups operate 4. Cultural turn: a. Framing, identification, emotions The stronger the far-right parties, the less protest activity on the street. Negative correlation between access to local and national political representation through anti-immigration parties and racist and radical right violence. The stronger the far-right parties, the less racist violence. Political opportunities (electoral success of far-right parties) have negative relationship with the amount of right-wing violence. Discursive opportunities (intensity of public debate) have positive relationship with amount of right-wing violence. Pp slide 10 Mainly citizens with low levels of social capital avoid (political) news → increasing inequality in political knowledge. Populist communication 1. Reference to ‘the people’ 2. A battle against the ‘corrupt’ elite 3. The identification of an out-group - A thin-centred ideology that considers society to be ultimately separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups, the pure people vs. the corrupt elite, and which argues that politics should be an expression of the general will of the people Outgroup derogation - The tendency to see members of a particular social group to which one does not belong oneself as inferior or undesirable in society Features of populist communication - Simplistic o Simple solutions o No nuance/compromise - Extremist o Extreme policy positions, detached from factual and practical basis - Opportunistic o Take any ‘popular’ issue position o Relate to people vs elite ‘The people’ - Kept deliberately fuzzy → strategic ambiguity - Role in communication → advocacy, accountability, legitimization - Definition as nation, class and/or culture ‘They’ - Evil elite that sold out the people - Establishment, incumbents, experts, scientists - Out-groups (minorities, refugees, scapegoats presented as external threats) Why do blue-collar/working-class vote for far-right? - Their bargaining power is shrinking due to outsourcing to cheap labour countries, automation/robotics, competitions with labour migrants Populism involves the unemployed working class, but also the middle class → the rising financial insecurity affecting large segments of the European population and the rising income and wealth inequality Readjustment of effects of mass immigration + mass higher education = leave many people in the bottom half of the income( and ability) spectrum feeling demoralised and devalued Double anxiety - Feelings of injustice and status threat Factors that explain political extremism 1. Psychological distress stimulates extreme ideological outlook 2. Extremists have relatively simplistic, black-and-white perception of social world 3. This mental simplicity makes extremists overconfident in their judgements 4. Extremists are less tolerant of different groups and opinions that moderates - These psychological features of political extremists increase the likelihood of inter- group conflict Populism is a worldview of demarcation → there’s always some sort of threat to the nation Xenophobia - Dislike of or prejudice against people from other countries Gullibility explanation - Populist attitudes are associated with a higher likelihood of believing any claim that is not inconsistent with one’s worldview Bullshit receptivity - The extent to which people perceive deeper meaning in statements that appear profound but actually are empty Pp slide 11 Fake news - Fabricated information that mimics news media content in form but not in organization process or intent More work is needed to develop as clear as possible a nomenclature for misinformation that would allow scholars to more precisely define the phenomenon they are seeking to address. Fake news as a genre - Deliberately created - Pseudo journalistic disinformation - It describes the deliberate creation of pseudo journalistic disinformation Fake news as a label - It describes the political instrumentalization of the term to delegitimize news media A message should be studied as fake news when - It’s low in facticity - Was created with the intention to deceive (most difficult to grasp) - Is presented in a journalistic format The creation of the fake news is always intentional, while the dissemination may be unintentional. There’s often no clear agreement on where to draw the line between fake news and news. Categories of empirical literature on fake news 1. Investigation on how fake news occur within the public discourse 2. Studies interested in effects 3. Those that investigate how the spread of fake news can be counteracted False news - News that is not true Fake news - Purposefully false news Disinformation - Fake news spread in order to cause political effect Possible fixes 1. Fact checking 2. Media literacy 3. Changes to platforms (news) algorithms 4. Government regulation Society requires news → news requires trust → trust and truth are harder to get by Article: What’s work got to do with it? Precarious employment - Job instability - Low wages - Lack of social protection How precarious employment influences political behaviour, particularly support for radical left-wing and radical right-wing parties in France and the Netherlands. Precarity - Unstable, insecure and poorly remunerated work conditions - Temporary contracts, underemployment, jobs with limited social protections - Linked to economic insecurity Radical left parties - Advocate for redistributive policies, labour protections, and reduced inequalities Radical right parties - Emphasize nationalism, anti-immigration stances, and cultural protectionism Structural-economic theory  - Economic hardship and labour market vulnerabilities push individuals towards parties addressing these insecurities Cultural backlash theory - Individuals who feel culturally marginalized may turn to radical parties for cultural protection Differences between France and the Netherlands 1. France: a. Higher levels of precarity and a long-standing tradition of union activism, making workers more likely to align with radical-left platform b. Focus on economic inequality and workers’ rights c. Objective precarity 2. Netherlands: a. Lower overall precarity but significant cultural tensions, which could make precarious workers more inclined towards radical-right rhetoric b. Subjective precarity Economic precarity is a significant driver for political radicalization. Precarious employment interacts with broader anxieties about identity and culture. Stronger institutional protection → left-wing support Weaker institutional protection → right-wing support Younger workers and migrant are disproportionately affected by precarity, shaping their political preferences in distinct ways. Women in precarious employment face unique challenges but are underrepresented in radical party support compared to men. Objective precarity - Insecure job contracts - Low wages Subjective precarity - The perception of job insecurity or financial instability Article: The logic of connective action Collective action - 1965 - Involves groups mobilizing around shared identities, common goals, and formal organizational structures  - Individuals are so fragmented and diverse that it is difficult for their collective interests to be represented in the public policymaking - Free-rider problem: individuals benefit from group effort without contributing themselves. - Overcoming the free-rider problem: o Strong group identities o Leadership and organizational resources o Material, social or ideological incentives Connective action - A new form of collective action driven by digital media technologies - Personalized participation → individuals engage in politics through their personal identities, values, and self-expression rather than strong group allegiances - Digital networks → participation spreads through weak-tie networks facilitated by social media and online platforms, reducing the need for formal organizational structures - Low entry barriers → digital tools allow people to engage in activism with minimal effort, such as liking, sharing, or tweeting Action logics to analyse contemporary movements 1. Traditional collective action: a. Organized by formal institutions like unions or NGOs b. Relies on shared identities and hierarchical structures’ c. Example: civil rights movement of the 20th century 2. Connective action (self-organized networks): a. Decentralized and digitally facilitated b. Individuals participate by sharing personalize content or frames online c. Example: movements like Occupy Wall Street, where digital tools played a central role 3. Hybrid models: a. Combine aspects of collective and connection action b. Organizations act as facilitators of participations, using digital media to amplify their reach c. Example: environmental movements blending grassroots activism with NGO leadership Role of digital media - Lowering costs of participation - Personalized frames - Network effects Affordances of digital media - Shareability - Visibility - Low costs - Allow individuals to contribute without formal membership - Reduce reliance on traditional gatekeepers - Enable dynamic, real-time mobilization Potential limitations 1. Movements might lack sustained commitment due to the individualized and transient nature of participation 2. Without leadership, decision-making and strategy formulation can become fragmented Article: A general pattern in the construction of economic newsworthiness How economic news is deemed newsworthy across four distinct newspaper typers → popular, quality, regional and financial Analysis of news factors - Negativity: o Economic downturns o Unemployment o Crises, were expected to drive newsworthiness - Relevance: o How closely an economic story is tied to the newspaper’s geographic or audience context - Elite sources: o Use of influential sources in determining story importance Negativity → Stories focusing on economic decline, unemployment or crises are universally more likely to be covered. Elite sources → Articles quoting high-profile sources are deemed more newsworthy. Relevance → Content with direct implications for the readers is prioritized. Popular newspapers - Heavily emphasize drama and negativity to attract a broader, less specialized audience  - Less reliant on complex, elite-driven content, focusing instead on easily digestible stories - Focus on sensationalized content for the general public - Prioritize human-interest angles and simplicity in economic reporting - Frequently frame stories in ways that evoke emotion or drama, appealing to their mass audience Quality newspapers - Balance negativity with in-depth analysis and context - More nuanced coverage that aligns with their more informed readership - Focus on providing context and expert interpretations - Balanced negativity with emphasis on long-term implications or policy responses Regional newspapers - Strong emphasis on local relevance, giving priority to economic stories with direct regional impacts - Less focus on international or national issues unless tied to the region - Extremely localized framing of economic events - National or global economic stories are included only if they can be tied to the regional impacts Financial newspapers - Greater reliance on elite sources and expert analysis - Coverage includes niche topics appealing to specialized readers - Cater to professionals and business people by covering in-depth corporate analyses - Most likely to include niche economic topics, such as market indices, corporate takeovers, and fiscal policy details - Content tailored to a highly informed audience, often omitting broader context that general audiences might require Newspapers align their economic coverage with audience preferences, reinforcing distinctions in how different demographics consume news. Some factors, like negativity, are universally influential in economic news coverage. News values theory - Certain factors consistently influence the likelihood of an event being reported in the news - The factors: o Negativity: bad news is inherently more appealing due to its dramatic nature o Elite sources: stories involving prominent individuals or institutions carry more weight o Relevance and proximity: events tied to the audience’s geographic or cultural context are prioritized Audience-driven model of news selection - Journalists and editors tailor content to meet the interests and expectations of their specific readership Media logic - The idea that media organizations operate within frameworks that dictate how information is presented to fit organizational goals, audience needs, and commercial considerations Article: Mediatization of democracy Mediatization - The increasing influence of media on various societal sector, particularly politics’ - The process by which media shape political practices and institutions - Involves the growing influence of media on the structure, communication, and behaviour of political actors, institutions and citizens - Not just about the media’s role in disseminating information but also about how its transforms the way politic is practiced and understood by the public - Focus of political communication has shifted from informing the public to managing public perception Media’s growing power - Being merely channels of communication → to becoming central players in the political process Media logic - The prioritization of entertainment, simplification and emotional appeal - Increasingly influences the way politicians present their messages - The ways in which media prioritize sensationalism, personalization, simplification and emotional appeal in their coverage - Growing dominance leads to an erosion of the more deliberative, policy-oriented nature of political discourse Political logic - Emphasizes the need for rational discourse, deliberation and policy-based debate Traditional political institutions are pressured to adapt. Positive side of mediatization - It can increase transparency, accountability and accessibility in political communication - It can bring important political issues into public consciousness and encourage public engagement Negative side of mediatization  - The media’s focus on sensationalism, personality-driven politics and the constant need for entertainment-oriented content can diminish the quality of political discourse - It may lead to the oversimplification of complex issues, undermine serious political debate, and reduce political engagement to a shallow, spectacle-driven process Mediatization and democratic participation - While the media can help citizens become more informed and engaged, it can also lead to disengagement - The spectacle-oriented, often superficial nature of media coverage might reduce citizens’ trust in political institutions and contribute to feelings of political alienation - The constant stream of political media can overwhelm citizens, leading to political cynicism and disengagement New media - Internet - Social media - Allow citizens to engage more directly with political content but also contribute to fragmentation in political discourse, where individuals often choose information that aligns with their preexisting beliefs - It can democratize political communication and a greater diversity of voices, but it can also contribute to the spread of misinformation, echo chambers and the politicization of non-political issues As long as media outlets continue to prioritize sensationalism over substance, the potential for a vibrant, informed democratic public sphere is at risk. Article: Populism as an expression of political communication content and style Populism - The idea that society is separated into two groups at odds with one another - The pure people and the corrupt elite - Thin-centred ideology - Not full-fledged ideology like socialism or liberalism but a flexible framework that frames politics as a struggle between the pure people and the corrupt elite and is adaptable and can coexist with broader ideologies - Political communication strategy that: o Challenges the elite o Centres the people as a homogenous, virtuous group o Sometimes involves exclusionary or inclusionary rhetoric, depending on the context Populism is not solely an ideology, it is also manifested in political messages and their delivery. Two key dimensions to study populism in political communication 1. Content:  a. Populist content emphasized the dichotomy between ‘the people’ and ‘the elite’ b. Anti-elitism: criticism of elites and the establishment c. People-centrism: appeals to the people as sovereign d. Exclusionary vs inclusive populism: inclusive appeals may broaden the definition of the people, while exclusionary appeals create boundaries 2. Style: a. Populist style reflects how messages are delivered b. Emotionalization: use of emotion to connect with audiences c. Simplification: reduction of complex issues to straightforward messages d. Manichean rhetoric: polarization into good vs evil terms Populism and media - News media may inadvertently spread populist messages by covering emotionalized or simplistic statements - Social media allows direct communication with the people, bypassing traditional gatekeepers Technocratic communication - Focuses on expertise and evidence-based reasoning Pluralist communication - Values diversity and compromise Populist communication - Centres on emotional appeals, dichotomous framing and the glorification of the people Populist content - Anti-elitism: it may target media elites, economic elites, or even international organisations - People-centrism: often involves constructing a homogenous notion of the people, which may exclude groups seen as others Article: The cognitive and emotional sources of Trump support Low-information voters - Those with limited knowledge of political issues and policy details - Individuals who have limited access to, or understanding of, detailed political knowledge - These voters often rely on heuristics or simplified cues rather than policy specifics to guide their decisions - This group is not necessarily less intelligent, but they may lack the time, interest or resources to engage deeply with political information Why did Trump get so may low-information voters?  - He used simplistic, direct messaging - They found his communication style relatable and easier to understand compared to traditional political rhetoric - He capitalized on cognitive bias, such as the reliance on stereotypes and intuitive judgements, to frame issues like immigration and trade in ways that seemed straightforward and actionable - His appeals relied on us vs them narratives, which align with cognitive tendencies toward binary thinking - Many low-information voters felt alienated by globalization and demographic shifts. Trump addressed these anxieties by identifying scapegoats and promising to restore an idealized past Emotions - They played a crucial role in Trump’s appeal - He tapped into fear, anger, and resentment among voters - Regarding issues like economic inequality, immigration and cultural change Trump’s style - Confident - Defiance of political norms - Willingness to attack elites - Was emotionally satisfying to voters who felt disillusioned with the political establishment Trump’s populist message - Emphasizing the corruption of elites and the virtue of ordinary people Cognitive and emotional factors are interconnected. Trump’s simplistic solutions to complex problems (cognitive) often triggered emotional responses like hope and anger. The reliance on emotional appeals and simplified rhetoric may weaken the quality of public deliberation and policy-making. Trump’s rhetoric - Use of repetition and memorable slogans like “make America great again” - Portrayal of himself as an ‘outsider’ fighting for the common person against corrupt elites Recommendations to go against low-information voters - Improving civic education - Reforming media practices - Encouraging fact-based political discourse Article: Do social media undermined social cohesion? Dual role of social media - It provides new avenues for interaction, political engagement, and social mobilization, which can strengthen ties within communities and across diverse groups - Social media is also implicated in deepening social divisions through mechanisms like ideological echo chambers and selective exposure The rapid spread of misinformation online can undermine democratic processes and erode the trust needed for cohesive societies. Article: Democracy fourth wave? Arab spring - Series of anti-government protests, uprising and revolutions that occurred in several countries in the Arab world - These movements were largely driven by dissatisfaction with autocratic regimes, economic hardship, corruption and limited political freedoms Before the Arab spring, many governments had limited access to the internet or social media, but this changed in the years leading up to the uprisings. On one hand, social media bypassed stat censorship and allowed dissent to flourish, on the other hand, authoritarian regimes responded by using their own digital tools to survive, disrupt and control information space. Arab spring as the fourth wave of democratization - Digital media plays a central role - Characterized by a shift from traditional forms of political mobilization, such as physical organizations and newspapers, to digital forms of communication and coordination Article: Backlash politics against European integration Backlash politics - The resistance and opposition that arise in response to significant social, economic, or political changes - Manifests as opposition to European integration, often driven by the perception of the elite-led decision-making - Key features: o Reactive → it responds to perceived overreach by political, social, or economic elites o Polarizing → it intensifies political divisions, often along a new cleavage  o Populist connection → backlash politics frequently aligns with populist rhetoric and movements, especially those that aim to represent the people against the elites European integration is increasingly seen as a top-down process that disregards national sovereignty, stoking discontent among certain population groups. Cultural backlash dominates. Backlash politics threatens the cohesion of the EU by undermining trust in its institutions and fostering polarization among members. Root causes of backlash - Economic inequality - Cultural insecurities While European integration aims to unify, it simultaneously alienated segments of the population, creating a fertile ground for backlash. The UEU and its members states need to improve communication with citizens, address socioeconomic disparities, and involve citizens more directly in decision-making processes. Citizens fear the loss of national sovereignty as EU institutions expand their influence. Integration-demarcation cleavage - Those who support globalization and integration (typically urban, highly educated and cosmopolitan) against those who prioritize national sovereignty, identity, and protectionism (often rural, less educated, and culturally conservative) Addressing economic inequality and ensuring fair distribution of the benefits of integration are critical to reducing discontent. Article: The science of fake news Fake news - Intentionally fabricated information that mimics the format of legitimate news but lacks the editorial integrity of professional journalism - Fabricated - Deliberately misleading - Designed to deceive - Presented as factual reporting but lacks journalistic standards Misinformation - Unintentional inaccuracies Disinformation - Deliberate spreading falsehood - Also includes altered images, deepfakes, misleading memes, propaganda and doctored videos Difference disinformation and fake news - Fake news is a subset of disinformation that specifically takes the form of fabricated news articles or reports Algorithms prioritize engagement over accuracy, amplifying sensational and polarizing content. Confirmation bias - People are more likely to believe and share information that aligns with their existing beliefs and biases. Illusory truth effect - Repetition increases familiarity, which can lead to greater perceived truthfulness Fake news is profitable → it drives traffic and generates revenue through advertisements on platforms that reward clicks and views. The decline of traditional media institutions and editorial processes reduces the barriers to spreading false information. Consequences of fake news 1. Fake news undermines informed public debate and decision-making 2. Exacerbates polarization and distrust in institutions, which weakens democratic norms 3. Fake news campaigns are often used to influence elections, shape public discussion, and create division within societies 4. Misinformation intensifies ideological divides, as individuals retreat into echo chambers that reinforce their existing views What to do about it? 1. Educating the public to critically evaluate the credibility of news sources 2. Train individuals to recognize fake news 3. Encouraging social media platforms to modify algorithms to reduce the spread of fake news 4. Develop regulations that hold platforms accountable for spreading misinformation Heuristics - Mental shortcuts Article: The Herman-Chomsky propaganda model The propaganda model is a critical framework for understanding systematic biases in mass media and assessing how media serves elite interests. Propaganda model - Offers a structural analysis of systemic biases in media content - The model is robust, adaptable, and relevant in the digital age - Media does not function as an independent watchdog of power but instead serves the interests of dominant societal groups due to structural constrainst Five filters of the PM 1. Ownership: a. Media outlet are owned by large corporations or wealthy individuals with vested interest, which shapes media content to align with these interests 2. Advertising: a. Dependence on advertising revenue leads to a prioritization of content that attracts advertisers, excluding content that may challenge advertiser interests 3. Sourcing: a. Media relies on information from powerful institutions, which can limit dissenting perspectives 4. Flak: a. Negative responses (legal threats, complaints, or public attacks) from elites act as a deterrent to media producing critical or challenging content 5. Ideology: a. Fear of ideological threats serves as a mechanism to marginalize dissent and justify systemic biases - These filters operate interactively and cumulatively, ensuring that news content reinforces elite power structures Critiques of PM and responses 1. The PM is deterministic and leaves little room for agency a. The author argue that PM is not deterministic but structural b. While individuals in media may resist pressures, institutional constraints and systematic factors largely dictate media behaviour 2. PM overlooks media pluralism and dissenting voices a. Dissenting views are not systematically excluded but are marginalized b. PM addresses how mainstream narratives dominate rather than completely suppress alternative perspectives 3. The PM is outdated, especially in light of new media technologies a. Despite technological changes, the core dynamics of ownership, advertising, and institutional power persist, ensuring the ongoing relevance of PM Media reinforces dominant ideologies and power structures. Article: Scaling movements through social media Media enables movements to scale their influence by reaching broader audiences, coordinating decentralized efforts and sustaining attention on critical issues. Scaling - The process by which movements increase their scope, reach and impact - Geographic expansion - Demographic diversification - Amplification of messages Affordances social media - Visibility - Virality - Networked communication - These features enable movements to bypass traditional gatekeepers like mainstream media Social media strategies of BLM 1. Hashtag activism: a. The hashtag facilitated issue framing, bringing attention to cases of police brutality and racial inequality b. #BlackLivesMatter 2. Decentralized organization: a. BLM doesn’t have a rigid hierarchical structure b. Social media enables individuals and local chapters to take initiative while maintaining a shared identity c. Flexibility 3. Virality and visibility: a. Viral content became central to publicizing the movement’s goals and mobilizing people b. Social media facilitated real-time reporting from activists, challenging mainstream media narratives and exposing injustices 4. Intersectionality: a. BLM emphasizes intersectional issues, including gender, sexual orientation, and class b. Social media amplifies diverse voices within the movement, broadening its appeal Social media lowers barriers to entry for activism. Challenges - Misinformation - Co-optation of hashtags - Difficulties in sustaining momentum Social media is a critical tool for scaling social movements through visibility, decentralization, and accessibility. Article: the paranoid style of American elections The study addresses why a substantial portion of Americans believed, despite evidence to the contrary, that millions of illegal votes were cast in the 2016 elections. This scepticism about the electoral process can undermine faith in democracy itself. Key drivers: - The rise of populist ideologies - The prevalence of conspiratorial thinking Populist beliefs -