American Literature Postgraduate Course (ENG 822) PDF

COURSE CODE: ENG 822 COURSE TITLE: AMERICAN LITERATURE CREDIT UNIT: 3 COURSE DESCRIPTION This course primarily focuses on the development of written literature in the United State of America. It explores the various literary trends, forms and movements that emerged therefrom. There will be an emp...

COURSE CODE: ENG 822 COURSE TITLE: AMERICAN LITERATURE CREDIT UNIT: 3 COURSE DESCRIPTION This course primarily focuses on the development of written literature in the United State of America. It explores the various literary trends, forms and movements that emerged therefrom. There will be an emphasis on a selection of imaginative, historical, and political writing from the colonial times to the present. The course also explores the political and historical forces that influenced this national literature. Selected works will cut across periods, genres, and genders. Some writers to be considered here include, but are not limited to Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry David Thoreau, Frederick Douglass, Emily Dickinson, Arthur Miller, Allen Ginsberg, Edward Albee, Alice Walker and Toni Morrison CONTENTS PAGE Introduction………………………………………………….. iv Course Aims…………………………………………………. iv Course Objectives…………………………………………… v Working through the Course………………………………... v Course Materials…………………………………………….. vi Study Units………………………………………………….. vi Assessments………………………………………………… Tutor Marked Assignments (TMA)………………………… Final Examination and Grading………………………………. Course Marking Scheme…………………………………….. Presentation Schedule……………………………………….. vii Course Overview……………………………………………. How to get the most from this course …………………… Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials…………………………….. ix Summary…………………………………………………….. INTRODUCTION American Literature is a 3 credit, one semester postgraduate course. This course builds on your undergraduate knowledge of literature of the United States of America, loosely called American literature. The course guide thus provides you with a more encompassing study of this national literature. It provides you also with the necessary requirements for the course. The course consists of 18 units. Each unit examines a specific developmental landmark in the development of American Literature. American Literature as a course at the Master‘s level primarily focuses on the development of literature in America and the various literary trends, forms and movements that emerged in that geographical space from the colonial period up till contemporary times of the 20th century. You will study a selection of imaginative, historical, and political writings across genres and genders and explore the different forces that influenced this literature. COURSE AIMS The aims of this course are to: a. foreground the historical connection of American Literature to English literature; b. identify key trends and movements across the development of American Literature; c. explore perspectives or attitudes found in the literature of different periods in American Literature; d. study representative authors and works that have significant historical or cultural implications on the characteristics and growth of American Literature; and,  e. enhance student‘s ability to analyse American texts within the context of their author‘s literary oeuvre and the socio-political contexts of their production. COURSE OBJECTIVES The aims stated above are to ensure that you are able to achieve a number of broadly stated objectives. Each unit in this course guide has stated objectives tailored to the specific contents of that unit to help you in your study. Ensure that you study them before and after each unit. This will help you confirm that you have the requisite knowledge before moving on to the next task. These present objectives are broad and cover all expectations at the end of the course in its entirety. Therefore, at the end of this course, you should be able to:  discuss critically American Literature as a national literature;  identify the roots of American Literature that go beyond the geographical reach of the country;  explain the major socio-political developments that have implicated upon the body of literature, shaping it and influencing the emergence of forms and characteristics;  demonstrate mastery of the various forms of American literary works;  discuss succinctly the major trends of American literature;  demonstrate familiarity with important authors and the periods in which they emerged;  explicate American texts both in discussion and in writing;  identify defining characteristics in relation to movements, and periods; and,  compare works written by different authors and in different periods. WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE This course requires you to study the units contained in this course guide and other materials that will be recommended. You should start by studying this course guide to understand what is expected of you. You are advised to pay attention to the objectives stated at the beginning of each unit. This will inform you if you have or have not achieved the target set for each unit. Read all recommended texts and related materials to ensure that your understanding of the course is holistic. A self-assessment exercise is at the end of each unit. Attempt them as a way to assess your knowledge of the course. COURSE MATERIALS The required materials you will need for this course are: 1. This course guide 2. The study units 3. Literary texts, textbooks, and journal articles 4. Assignment file 5. Presentation schedule STUDY UNITS This course has 5 modules with eighteen study units. The modules and units are as follows: Module 1 American Literature during the Colonial Period (17th century to 1830) Unit 1 History America in the Colonial period Unit 2 Literature of the Colonial Period Unit 3 Survey of Writings during the Colonial Period Module 2 American Renaissance: The Literature of Reason and Revolution Unit 1 The Age of Reason Unit 2 Introduction to American Romanticism Unit 3 American Renaissance Unit 4 Transcendentalism and the American Literary Renaissance Module 3 The Development of American Literature from the Mid Nineteenth Century Unit 1 The American Civil War Literature Unit 2 The Development of Realist Fiction Unit 3 Naturalism in American Literature Module 4 Modern Literature (1900 to 1945) Unit 1 Modern American Prose Unit 2 Modern American Drama Unit 3 Modern American Poetry Unit 4 Early African-American and Women Writings Module 5: Contemporary American Literature (1945 to present) Unit 1 Postmodern American Literature Unit 2 The Beat Generation Unit 3 the Theater of the Absurd Unit 4 African American Women Writers: Alice Walker and Toni Morrison Each module is preceded by a miniature table of contents, including introduction, objectives, the main content, Self-Assessment Exercise (SAE), as well as Tutor- Marked Assignment (TMA) which you are required to answer and submit for grading. TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES There are recommended books for this course. You will find the list at the end of every unit. The materials listed will help you to understand the course. You are thus advised to read the materials. These lists are by no means exhaustive. As a research student at the Master‘s level, you should develop the skill of consulting books and materials that will broaden your perspective. You should therefore consult as many materials as possible. PRESENTATION SCHEDULE The presentation schedule contains important dates for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and when you will attend tutorials. These dates will be communicated to you. Note that you are required to submit your assignments according to the schedule. ASSIGNMENT FILE There is a file which contains the details of all the assignments you are expected do and submit to your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain from these assignments will form part of the final mark you obtain in this course. ASSESSMENT There are two types of assessments for this course. You are expected to attempt the two of them. The first is the Self-Assessment Exercises (SAEs). These are exercises you should answer but not submit for marking. The second is Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs). These are exercises you should do and submit for marking in an assignment file. Tutor-Marked Assignments are part of the requirements for the completion of this course. There are Tutor-Marked Assignments at the end of each unit and they account for 30% of your total score for the course. FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING The final examination for ENG 822 will be for duration of three hours. The examination will take into account all what the course materials cover. This implies that you should study all materials provided and recommended for this course. The final examination accounts for 70% of the total course grade. The examination questions will include questions that reflect self-assessment exercises and the tutor- marked assignments. You should read the entire course units and review all the Self- Assessment Exercises and Tutor-Marked Assessments for the final examination. COURSE MARKING SCHEME The table below indicates how the course marking scheme is broken down. Assessment Marks Tutor-Marked 30% Assessments Final Examination 70% Total 100% Table 1: Course Marking Scheme Course Overview The table below gives you an overview of the units, duration of study, and number of weeks that you should take to complete each unit. It also includes the assignments that follow them. Unit Title of Work Week’s Activities End of unit Assessment Course Guide Module 1 American Literature During the Colonial Period Unit 1 History of Colonial Week 1 America Unit 2 Popular Literature Week 2 of the Colonial Period Unit 3 Survey of Writings Week 3 and 4 during the Colonial Period TMA 1 Unit Title of Work Week’s Activities End of unit Assessment Course Guide Module 2 American Renaissance: The Literature of Reason and Revolution Unit 1 The Age of Reason Week 5 Unit 2 Introduction to Week 6 American Romanticism Unit 3 American Week 8 Renaissance Unit 4 Transcendentalism Week 9 TMA 2 and the American Literary Unit Title of Work Week’s Activities End of unit Assessment Course Guide Module 3 The Development of American Literature from the Mid Nineteenth Century Unit 1 The American Civil Week 9 and 10 War Literature Unit 2 The Development Week 11 of Realist Fiction Unit 3 Naturalism in Week 12 American Literature TMA 3 Unit Title of Work Week’s Activities End of unit Assessment Course Guide Module 4 Modern Literature (1900 to 1945) Unit 1 Modern American Week 13 Prose Unit 2 Modern American Week 14 Drama Unit 3 Modern American Week 15 Poetry Unit 4 Early African- Week 16 TMA 4 American and Women Writings Unit Title of Work Week’s Activities End of unit Assessment Course Guide Module 5 Contemporary American Literature (1945 to present) Unit 1 Postmodern Week 17 American Literature Unit 2 The Beat Week 18 Generation Unit 3 The Theater of the Week 19 Absurd Unit 4 African American Week 20 TMA 5 Women Writers: Alice Walker and Toni Morrison How to get the Most form this Course In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the advantages of distance learning; it allows you to read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace and at a time and place that suits you the most. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might give you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your set books or other materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use these objectives to guide your study. It is important that you do so. When you have finished the units, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If you make it a habit to do so, you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from your course guides. The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into trouble, telephone your tutor. Remember that your tutor‘s job is to help you. When you need assistance, do not hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it. Follow the following advice carefully: 1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment. 2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the ‗Course Overview‘ for more details. Note the time you are expected to spend each unit and how the assignments relate to the units. Whatever method you chose to use, you should decide on and write down dates for working on each unit. 3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late for help. 4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the Introduction and the Objectives for the Unit. 5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in the ‗Overview‘ at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the study unit you are working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same time. 6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to read sections from your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading. 7. Review the objectives for each unit to determine that you have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor. 8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit‘s objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule. 9. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems. 10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the Course Objectives (listed in the Course Guide). 11. Keep in touch with your study centre. Up-to-date course information will be continuously available there. Also ensure that you check your e-mail, SMS, and the University website for constant updates and information on your programme in general. Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials There are 8 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and retuned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help. The following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your tutor if: You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings, You have difficulty with the self-tests exercises, You have a question or problem with assignment, with your tutor‘s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face- to- face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussions actively. Nonetheless, it needs to be mentioned that the policy of the University now is that there must be a minimum of 50 students for there to be any face-to-face facilitation. The major means of interacting with students presently is through the online facilitation platform. You should explore this forum to the full. Summary This course guide gives you an overview of what to expect in the course of this study. ENG 822 American Literature focuses on the literary productions, trends and characteristics of the United States of America. It is a course that emphasises all the major genres of literature that emerged from the United States of America. Module 1 Colonial Literature: 17th century to 1830 Unit 1: History of American in the Colonial Period 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 General Overview 3.2 The Establishment of America 3.2.1 The Pilgrims and Puritans 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments 7.0 References/ Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit, you will study the beginnings of America and its Literature. This will cover the colonial period. You will discover those factors that influenced the emergence of the country. You will encounter in this unit the influence of religion especially in the way the country and its literature was established. Equally, you will identify those factors that led to what is today popularly called American literature. More so, you will discover the influence of England on early American literature. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the factors that led to the establishment of America 2. Explain the factors that shaped the American country 3. Explain the contributions of the Christian religion to the establishment of America 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 General Overview The literature that is popularly referred to as American Literature is that which is produced in that part of the American continent known as the United States. This implies that what can be called American literature is determined by the national space called America. It is that literature which in terms of author and content explores issues of the American people, their ideology, beliefs, and cultures. American literature is interwoven with American history. There is an inextricable relationship between the history and cultural values of that country and the literature produced therein. American literature like the country itself has root in colonial England. What is today the United States of America was established by settlers from England who came for diverse reasons. These include religious controversy; the need for expansion of empires; the quest for adventure; and the need to ship off populations that were filling up English cities in disillusionment for lack of employment and poverty and those convicted of crimes such as theft, murder, and delinquency. The early settlers in America were colonial Englishmen who brought the English language, books, culture and literature across the Atlantic. English literature formed the bedrock of the writings that later emerged from that space. The early settlers did not even see themselves as anything but Englishmen. The colonies that were to become the United States were inherently English in culture and law. It was during the process of creating a national identity during the American Revolution in the 1760s that the people began to regularly call themselves American. The country itself gained independence in 1776. 3.2 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AMERICA England‘s expansion into America was as early as 1497 when King Henry VII of England commissioned John Cabot to go in search of heathen peoples and lands. Cabot discovered North America and claimed it for England and King Henry. It was not until 1584 and 1585 that England took up the exploration of America. This was under Sir Walter Raleigh who set sail for America in two expeditions to establish the settlement of Virginia. This settlement was named in honor of England‘s virgin Queen Elizabeth I. Though Raleigh‘s expedition failed due to poor planning, it marked the start of an outpour of English men into the American continent. The first permanent English settlement in North America was Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Among the settlers was Captain John Smith who was an English Soldier of fortune. Reports about explorers‘ travels and settlements which were published in the 1600s were among the first works to emerge from the new colonies. Captain Smith‘s accounts of the New World formed the basis for American literature. Images and events of euphoric proportions and myths about a land of endless possibilities were in the reports he sent to England. This contributed immensely to the influx of more migrants into North America. In ―The New Land‖ as America was referred to, Captain Smith depicts such grand abundance waiting to be utilized. He encouraged anyone who wished to have experience such an incredible place to migrate. Other European countries also ventured into America. France, Spain, and the Netherlands had major colonization programs that took their armies to the continent. There were settlements such as New Sweden made up of Swedes and Finns and New Netherland for the Dutch. The Province of Pennsylvania was established for English Quakers who migrated to the New World for religious purposes. Similarly, the English Puritans and pilgrims founded New England comprising of the Plymouth Plantation and the Massachusetts Bay Colony. These diverse groups among many others all became part of the United States in 1776 when it gained its independence from England. Self-Assessment Exercise 3.2 Explain the influence of explorer‘s account in the expansion of migration to the New World. 3.2.1 The Pilgrims and Puritans Among the first English settlers who made it to the New World were Pilgrims and Puritans. They were a people who sought a land where they could practice their brand of religion. They needed a place away from the Old World of England and the practice of the Church of England. The Pilgrims from Holland settled in Plymouth in 1620 while the Puritans took the great migration to the Massachusetts Bay Colony between 1628 and 1643. The Pilgrims and the Puritans were results of the Renaissance and Reformation sweeping Europe. The Renaissance was a time that brought an end to the Middle Ages, the rebirth of classical learning, and the beginnings of civilization. The Reformation was a period of Protestant separation from the Roman Catholic Church. The reformers protested against many doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. They questioned the authority of the Pope whose justification was not found in the Bible. They believed that the Roman Catholic Church had deviated from the true path of worship. The Church was accused of being worldly, corrupt, and extravagant. The reformers, as they were called, rebelled against the priests and leaders of the Catholic Church for their corruption. Because of their protestations, these reformers were dubbed Protestants. The wave of reformatory protests that engulfed Europe broke the single uniting religion. There was no longer to be a single Church uniting all of Europe. The result of these protestations in England was the breaking away of the English Church from the Catholic Church in Rome in 1534 and the installation of King Henry VIII as its Supreme Head. The Church of England was later to give rise to a radical group of individuals who also rebelled against its principles. This group believed that the Protestant Church of England had not fully broken away from the Roman Catholic Church. They were disillusioned by remnants of practices of the Catholic Church. They were against the elaborate church rituals and the forms of prayers that were similar to the catholic faith. They rebelled against the worshiping of images and symbols as part of their worship. The ornamental church decorations were believed to take attention away from church service. The group also saw little difference in the authority of the catholic priests and the Protestant Priests. The way the Church was headed by the King and priests were not justifiable in the Bible. All these led to the same feelings of dissatisfaction that were popular against the Roman Catholic Church. The radical group who were dubbed Puritans was very conservative. They saw themselves as a chosen people who would do God‘s will. They strove to purify church worship from anything that alluded to Roman Catholicism. The Church of England did not sufficiently achieve this as many elements of the Roman Catholic Church were still in place. The Bible was their handbook and anything not contained therein was expunged from their lives. The Bible was their guide to everything they did. This staunch adherence to the Bible and craving to be pure led to their naming as Puritans. They had the reputation of being solemn and gloom. They were known to be against entertainment and beauty. The Puritans were a prosecuted people who suffered for their beliefs. Their refusal to obey the doctrines of the Church of England led to their persecution. They were seen as insubordinate to the headship of the Church of England: the King. They were thus persecuted and many of them fled to Holland in the early 17th century. The poverty and fear of loss of identity under the overriding Dutch influence spurred their later pilgrimage to America. Puritans who made the pilgrimage from Holland to America established the Plymouth Plantation and were to be called the Pilgrims. In 1620, another wave of radicals made the great migration to America. Thousands of Puritans from England migrated in search of a less restrictive space for their beliefs. These Puritans were to establish the Massachusetts Bay colony. There they maintained their religious stance. The Pilgrims and Puritans in America instituted a tradition of independent congregation. That is, they started the culture of freedom to determine their own doctrines. This led to a tradition of independence and freedom that is an enduring hallmark of the American nation Aside from the Bible, the Puritans doctrines were influenced by two theologians; Martin Luther and John Calvin. Both theologians emphasized the Bible as the word of God deserving to be read and studied. From Luther, they derived the philosophy that priests were not holier or better than other believers. Even if they understood the Bible more and explained it to other Christians, they were not higher in status than any other person. Calvin‘s doctrines called Calvinism spoke of the importance of the individual. It emphasized life as being in continuous moral struggle. This struggle could get each soul into heaven or hell for all eternity. From Calvin were the following five principles dubbed Calvinism: i. Total depravity: this cast all human kind as corrupt as a result of Adam‘s original sin and were inclined to evil; ii. Limited atonement: only a few with exceedingly pure acts would receive the God‘s forgiveness and atonement of sins from Jesus‘ sacrifice; iii. Irresistible grace: only God grants salvation and it is not earned; iv. Saint perseverance: God‘s chosen will be in a state of grace till the end of time when they will be transported to heaven; and, v. Predestination: everything has been fated to happen. In maintaining their religious stance, the Puritans instituted a tradition of independent congregation. That is, they started the culture of freedom to determine their own doctrines. By rejecting the authority of priests and kings, they became free to choose who led them. These led to traditions of independence and freedom of choice that are enduring hallmarks of the American nation. The prominence of sermons during this period is another enduring legacy. Preachers used sermons to galvanize their congregations to action. This is very much visible in both written literatures and in the spoken texts. Also, for reasons of religion, sermons became the most prominent literary forms. They became a source of information also before the advent of printing and newspaper. There was also an emphasis on education. This was to promote the study of the Bible and to promote the composition of sermons. It was also to ensure that there was proper understanding of sermons by the congregation. As such, the Massachusetts Bay Colony became a cultural center of sorts. It also became a center of learning. The first University in America, Harvard University, was established in 1636 in Cambridge as evidence of the wide quest for knowledge. Two years after the establishment of the institution, the first colonial press was also established in 1638. This facilitated the publication of the first American book, The Bay Psalm Book in 1640. There was also the establishment of The Boston News-Letter in 1704. This year marked the beginning of active journalism in the colonies. Self-Assessment Exercise 3.2 Discuss the factors that contributed to the Puritans and the Pilgrims migration to America. 4.0 CONCLUSION The colonial period of America was marked by an explosion in the number of settlers. These settlers were Puritans and Pilgrims. They swelled the population of the earliest settler in Virginia. They concentrated in the Massachusetts Bay area and the Plymouth Plantation. Their contributions to the establishment of the American country are significant. They were leading the colonial government in their colonies. The puritans were also conditioning the many cultures that have become enduring legacies in the country. Their quest for education brought the first institution and printing press to the country. The impact of these religious individuals is therefore foundational to the understanding of what is today known as the United States of America. 5.0 SUMMARY From studying this unit, you should be aware that England and its culture was the bedrock of American literature. The expansion of England into the New World of America led to the extension of the English culture to that continent. The reports of explorers and settlers were significant in increasing the number of migrants who made the treacherous journey across the Atlantic to America. A significant group that migrated to the New World was the Pilgrims and Puritans. They were in search of religious freedom in order to practice a form of Christianity that was unlike that of the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England. These religious migrants impacted greatly on the culture and literature of America. In the next unit, you will study the development of literature during the colonial period. You will study also the factors that contributed to the emergence of American literature during this period and the major writers. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSESSMENT Based on your understanding of this unit, answer the following questions: 1. Explain the factors that lead to reformers protesting against the Roman Catholic Church. 2. Discuss the legacies of the Puritans to American culture. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Bercovitch, Sacvan (ed.) (2006), The Cambridge History of American Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bercovitch, Sacvan and Jehlen, Myra (eds.) (1987), Ideology and Classic American Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bigsby, Christopher and Temperley, Howard (eds.) (2005), A New Introduction to American Studies. Harlow: Longman. Borroff, Marie. Ed. Wallace Stevens: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1963. Colacurcio, Michael (1996), Doctrine and Difference: Essays in the Literature of New England. New York: Routledge. Colacurcio, Michael (2006), Godly Letters: the Literature of the American Puritans. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. Dennis, May (2006), Native American Literature: towards a spatialised reading. New York: Routledge. Gray, Richard (2004), A History of American Literature. Oxford: Blackwell. Gray, Richard and Robinson, Owen (eds.) (2004), A Companion to the Literature and Culture of the American South. Oxford: Blackwell. McMichael, G. ed. (1997) Anthology of American Literature: Volume 1 Colonial Period Through Romantic Miller J.E. etal. (1982) United States in Writing. Roberts, E.V. & Henry Jacobs, (2001) Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing MODULE 1 UNIT 2: LITERATURE OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 General Overview 3.2 Popular Literary Forms of the Colonial Period 3.2.1 Exploration and colonization reports 3.2.2 Settlement Reports 3.2.3 Diaries, letters, biographies, memoirs 3.2.4 Sermons 3.2.5 Theological and political treaties 3.2.6 Verses 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments 7.0 References/ Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit, you will study the forms of writing prevalent during the early colonial period in America. Emphasis will be on the literature of the earliest explorers and adventurers who settled in America. You will equally explore colonial period literatures. These are literatures which were produced by the Puritans. You will identify those factors that generated the works. You will equally explore how these early writings evolved from genres that are not wholly literary. You will identify how these forms continue to influence writings beyond the colonial period. 2.0 Objectives At the end of this unit, you should be able to: i. Identify forms of writings during the colonial period of America; ii. Identify major writers of this period; iii. Discuss the major factors that lead to the emergence of the prominent forms of writing; iv. Explain the influence of these forms of writing on later writings. 3.0 Main Content 3.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW American literature began with the works of English adventurers and colonists who wrote for the benefit of readers in the mother land; England. Many of the works were written as reports of explorers and adventurers which were sent to England. Many of these reports painted glorious pictures of the New World. The works were also to encourage migration to America. Some of these early works included those by Captain John Smith and the historical narratives of William Bradford and John Winthrop. The significant number of Pilgrims and Puritans who moved to the New World from England made it that the Colonial period was dominated by Puritan beliefs. This is not to say that there were no writings devoid of the Puritan influence. There were accounts and reports by adventurers about their voyage to America. They recorded their experiences when they got to the New World and some of these works will be studied in the next unit. Major writings which emerged from the colonial period were however significantly influenced by the strong Calvinist beliefs of that time. The number and far-reaching impact of these works in later literature make them a dominant corpus during this period of America‘s literary history. The English settlers were not the only immigrants in America. They were also not the first. There were Frenchmen, Dutch, Germans, and Spaniards who also migrated to America. In fact, Christopher Columbus, the Italian navigator is credited as the first European to discover the ―New World‖. All these immigrants met American Indians who had established societies and cultures centuries before the invasion of European immigrants. The American Indians were the earliest to arrive. They came from Asia at about 30,000 B.C. Their culture was oral. They did not develop the writing of their languages until early in the nineteenth century. The literature of these peoples was transmitted from generation to generation by word of mouth. These include stories, myths, legends, poems and orations which documented their beliefs and guides to life. However, the large and very diverse number of communities of American Indians and the absence of written literature ensured that they had little or no influence on the English culture that was transported to America. 3.2 POPULAR LITERARY FORMS OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD Imaginative literature was uncommon during the colonial period in America. Due to the Puritan sensibilities, creative works were considered immoral. The Bible was the most popular book for the Puritans and Pilgrims. It was their chosen guide to the Promised Land. They considered the saving of the soul as the most important task. Entertainment and leisure were not things they engaged with. Basically, things that did not directly advance the attainment of paradise were thought to be activities of the devil. They believed such activities took the soul‘s attention away from the Bible. The Bible thus took the central place in their reading. Prior to the exodus of Puritans to America, the writings of the corps of sailors, adventurers, and explorers who were among the first to establish settlements in the New World were reports. Their writings were accounts of the voyage and descriptions of what they found in the New World. 3.2.1 Exploration and colonization reports These are reports by the discoverers and the earliest settlers in America. England‘s expansion into America was as early as 1497 when King Henry VII of England commissioned John Cabot to go in search of heathen peoples and lands. England‘s expansion into America was as early as 1497 when King Henry VII of England commissioned John Cabot to go in search of heathen peoples and lands. The exploration of England‘s discovery of North America through John Cabot did not begin until 1584 and 1585. This was when Sir Walter Raleigh was commissioned and set sail for America in two expeditions to establish the settlement of Virginia. But before this time however, other European countries had sent explorers too to North America. These European exploration activities were to achieve two things. They were to search of heathen peoples and lands for evangelism purpose and to discover areas that could help bring economic ease to the countries. Christopher Columbus, the Italian navigator and adventurer, is said to be the first European to discover America. He wrote accounts and reports that have been translated into English language. Columbus at the time of his discovery was on the authority and commission of the King and Queen of Spain. Later accounts by English explorers contain details of their exploration activities into the land that was to become the United States of America. They are works that capture the efforts to adventurers sent to establish colonies for England in the New World. Such books written were descriptions of the country and narratives of the challenges of the new settlements. These works were printed in England and the information was meant for the English public. The earliest and most noteworthy among books of this kind were the writings of Captain John Smith. True Relation was printed at London in 1608. Among Smith's other books is General History of Virginia also printed in London in 1624), Powhatan‘s Discourse of Peace and War, and A Description of New England. Other writings in the early exploration and colonization category are Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) Columbus‘s Letter Describing His First Voyage, The Diary of Christopher Columbus‘s First Voyage to America; and Francis Higgins New England‘s Plantation (1630). 3.2.2 Settlement Reports Settlement Reports are related forms of writing to the exploration and colonization reports. However, settlement reports are records of migrants whose intentions were to be settlers in North America. The reports account for the processes of migrating and settling in North America. Such works take into account the challenges they faced in the process. They also take into account efforts to organize settlers and establish colonial administration in America. Original sources of the history of the settlement of New England include the journals of William Bradford who was first governor of Plymouth. Also, John Winthrop, the second governor of Massachusetts wrote The Journal of John Winthrop. These works are considered more trustworthy in their account than the writings of Captain John Smith in the Virginia colony. Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation covers the period from 1620 to 1646. Winthrop's Journal, History of New England, covers 1630 to 1649. Both Bradford‘s and Winthrop‘s works are important. They provide insights into the establishments of the two colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth Plantation. 3.2.2 Diaries, letters, biographies, memoirs English settlers in North America were wont to keep personal diaries of daily happenings. Partly to keep boredom at bay, they also wrote letters to friends and families in England. Others took up writing their autobiographies which have become documents for which the lives, thoughts, beliefs, experiences, and perception of these earliest Americans lived. Prominent among this genre of writing are Samuel Sewell‘s The Diary of Samuel Sewell, a diary kept from 1673 to 1729 and Mary Rowlandson‘s The Narratives of Mrs Mary Rowlandson. In the case of Mary Rowlandson‘s diary, it records her kidnap by American Indians. It tells of the hostilities between the Native Indians and the European Settlers. 3.2.3 Sermons A significant number of works from this period were collections of sermons. This is expectedly so given the prominence of the Puritan faith on the colonial establishments and the number of Puritans in the colonies. They were thus the most popular form of writing. The influence of sermons on the literature of the country was significant. Michael Colacurcio affirms in Godly Letters (2006) that the principles of the Puritan faith did not only provide the religious, philosophical and political infrastructure of the country but also influenced the literature of subsequent generations. The writing of sermons was shorn of all embellishments. Writers focused on moral lessons and spiritual diets in the place of flowery and creative language. The writings were historical, religious, and didactic. Common genres were sermons, tracts, journals, and narratives. Journals written during this period contained record of events. It revealed Puritan attitudes toward the world. Puritanism was essentially, a significant force in the creation of American literature. By the 1700s, the influence of the Puritan belief began to wane. However, the impact of the religious belief on literature was significant. 3.2.5 Theological and political treaties Theologians were the dominant group in the public square of Colonial America. They maintained the dual roles of the state and the Church that was the tradition in Old England. This overriding influence of religion in state affairs led to the production of theological and political treaties. There was no separation between theology and politics. There were at this time writings which explore different aspects of the Puritan relationship with politics. Prominent among these works are the writings of Martin Luther and John Calvin. Another is Roger Williams, an impetuous man who was an advocate of the modern doctrine of the separation of the Church from the State. Williams was driven away from the Massachusetts colony and he and his followers settled in a plantation on Rhode Island. Williams was a prolific writer on theological subjects. His most important writing is the Bloody Tenent of Persecution printed in 1644. The Bloody Tenent Washed and made White in the Blood of the Lamb was written as a reply to the work of Mr. John Cotton who criticised his call for the freedom of worship. 3.2.6 Verse Verse began with the Puritans. Puritan verse was offered to the service of God. It was written with the aim of promoting Puritan values and the piety expected of people. Beers (2007: 128) points out that ―Of poetry, indeed, or, in fact, of pure literature, in the narrower sense—that is, of the imaginative representation of life—there was little or none in the colonial period… There was verse of a certain kind, but the most generous stretch of the term would hardly allow it to be called poetry). Many of the early divines (as the Puritan church leaders were called) wrote verses in the intervals of writing sermons. Elegies and eulogistic verses in the style of ―metaphysical poets were the prominent verses they wrote. This was because the metaphysics were in fashion when the Puritans left England. Michael Wigglesworth Day of Doom (1662) was uncompromisingly theological and Anne Bradstreet's poems, issued as The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650), were reflective of her own piety. Self-Assessment Exercise 3.1 Explain the influence of religion in the writings of the colonial period. 4.0 Conclusion It should be noted that what is now American literature developed slowly. There are two reasons for this slowness in the emergence of a distinct national body of writing. First, the struggle to establish communities and livelihoods in the wilderness was not conducive for literature to develop and thrive. Second was the fact that the settlers in America did not begin to see themselves as distinctly Americans and not New Englanders until the American Revolution in the 1760s. Early migrants did not consider themselves of a different nationality to that of England. Their earliest works also showed remarkable similarities to those produced in England. As such, they did not begin to consciously ascribe their writings as distinct works separate from those of Old England. Many of their works were even written for the people in England. These restricted the growth of any tradition that would have been vastly different from that of Old England. For these reasons, early American literature could not compete with that produced in England during the same period. 4.0 SUMMARY Writings that can liberally be referred to as literature did emerge from Colonial America. The works are traceable to the very early 17th century when the first English explorers arrived at the New World. The writings were more about documenting the migration and settlement efforts of the migrants than creative works. Explorers‘ accounts and Colonizers‘ reports recorded efforts of the earliest arrivals in North America. Settlers‘ reports on the other hand document the challenges of the groups of settlers who migrated from England for diverse reasons. Diaries and journals recorded the daily activities of the people. Sermons were in large supply as they reflected the religious temperament of the Puritans. Political and religious treaties also were in abundance. They reflected the religious and political views of the colonial leaders who were also religious leaders of the time. Verses rather than poetry emerged during this period. The form was used in furtherance of the Puritan life style which encouraged piety. The style of versification resembled that of the metaphysical poets of England. This is one strong indication of the influence of England on the writing tradition that emerged from America during the colonial period. 5.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments 1. Identify and discuss two popular forms of writing during the Colonial period in America 2. Discuss the factors that militated against the growth of literature in the earliest years of the establishment of America. 6.0 References/ Further Reading Beers, Henry. A. (2007), Brief History of English and American Literature. New York: Eaton &Mains Cincinnati. Colacurcio, Michael (2006), Godly Letters: the Literature of the American Puritans. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. Jaskoski, Helen and Ruoff, LaVonne Brown (eds.) (1996), Early Native American Writing: New Critical Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kalaidjian, Walter (2005), The Cambridge Companion to American Modernism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Santamarina, Xiomara (2006), Belabored Professions: Narratives of African American Working Womanhood. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Spengemann, William C. (1994), A New World Of Words: Redefining Early American Literature. New Haven: Yale University Press. MODULE 1 UNIT 3: A SURVEY OF WRITERS DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Major writers and their works 3.1.1 John Winthrop 1588-1649 3.1.2 Roger Williams 1603-1683 3.1.3 Anne Bradstreet 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments 7.0 References/ Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit, you will study selected writers and writings of the colonial period. The selected works are representations of the larger body of writing that emerged during the period. You will explore the fundamental issues the selected writers engage. You will also examine the form their writings took. In this unit, you will study works that cut across gender and form. The selected writers are also notable. They were key drivers of the colonial period and also important writers of the time. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. List prominent writers and their works during the colonial period of America; 2. Discuss the forms of writing that were prominent; 3. Explain the prominent themes that writers of the period engaged in; 4. Discuss the works of the colonial period. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Major writers and their works A significant number of writers emerged during the Colonial period in America. They wrote for different reasons. Some of which was to document their experiences in the voyage across the sea from England to North America. Others were to record their daily lives. Yet more wrote religious and political treaties for the exposition of their religious and political views. The Bay Psalm Book, a metrical translation of the complete Book of Psalms, was the first book to be printed in 1640. It was a version of the Psalms that church goers could sing to during service. But up till the twentieth century, the literary style of Europe overshadowed the writings that emerged from America. The autobiographical form was also to emerge. This form was popularized by Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790). In his Autobiography, Franklin presents his life as exemplary and proof that anyone can make it, especially in America, as long as they apply themselves to useful toil. To study the influence of the puritans, you shall study a variety of colonial period writings in this unit. 3.1.1 JOHN WINTHROP 1588-1649 John Winthrop was an Englishman who migrated to the ―New England‖ as America was referred to in 1630. His migration took place at the beginning of the exodus of Puritans from England. He was the leader of a fleet of ships carrying two thousand migrants who were making the great journey to America. He served as governor of the colony of Puritans in Boston, the Massachusetts Bay Colony, for many years. He kept a journal from the year he made the great migration up till the year he died in 1649. This journal revealed how the Puritans saw the world and their need for divine justification for their actions. A sermon he prepared for his companions on board the Arabella on the great migration was titled ―A Model of Christian Charity‖. Winthrop depicts the Puritan principle which was to form the bedrock of the life the migrants would establish when they arrived in the New World. This was especially needful as the migrants were from different regions and did not know each other before the voyage. Winthrop advocated strong bonds of community among the settlers. He preached love, charity and mercy to each other as the bedrock of the community they were to form in America. Winthrop acknowledged the disparity in wealth among the community. He thus preached charity and charitable lending between the wealthy and the poor. He advanced that should a debtor be unable to pay back a debt, the lender should simply forgive the debt. The section that has remained seminal in the sermon is the final section. There Winthrop describes Massachusetts Bay Colony as ―a city upon a hill‖. He made it out to be a city that has risen above the surrounding area. He implied that the success of the colony and its settlers would be a model to be emulated. Their failure too would bring disgrace to all Christians. Winthrop depicted the colony in a way that captured the essence of uniqueness. It was to be an example of a successful Christian settlement or an enterprise to be ashamed. This final section is usually cited in rhetoric about American exceptionalism. American exceptionalism speaks to the uniqueness of the American country. It has been used to distinguish the country from others. The unique factors for its creation and development are the commonly engaged to hold the country to higher standards. It has also been used to justify subjugating actions against other peoples and countries. For instance, it has been used to justify the ways lands belonging to American Indians were appropriated. Because Winthrop suggested that the colony would be used as an example, many public speakers have appropriated the notion to a larger context. They have advanced that the United States was a leading example to all other country in the world. Plot summary Winthrop opens the sermon with a proclamation of the inequality in human societies. He foregrounds the economic inequality that was inevitable in human societies. He gives reasons why God made such inequality to exist in human societies in there points: a. To ensure there is conformity with differences that exist in the rest of the natural world. This, he avers, is to make humans care for themselves. God provides for the wealthy so that they can in turn care for the poor. By being charitable to the poor, the rich is demonstrating how God provides for people. b. Where inequality exists, people have the opportunity to exhibit God‘s graces. The wealthy do this when they show love, mercy and gentleness to the poor. The poor in turn show God‘s Grace when they exhibit patience in their trials, have faith in God and remain obedient to God‘s laws in spite of their status. c. The inequality among people ensures that people continue to need one another, ―and from hence they might be knit more nearly together in the bonds of brotherly affection‖. These points buttress the call for everyone to help one another. This could be through giving, lending, and the forgiving of debts. However, charitable giving must be within the givers most basic needs. Winthrop was firm in stressing that at no point should any Christian give up all of his wealth to help the poor as the Apostles did in the time of Christ. He also advocated that people who are charitable will be taken care of by God. All the people such individual was of assistance to would stand in witness in his favor on the Day of Judgment. This was to dissuade saving extra wealth for fear of tragedy or the unknown: ―If thy brother be in want and thou canst help him, thou needst not make doubt of what thou shouldst do: if thou lovest God thou must help him‖. Winthrop further advanced that the Christian community was a single body. Members of the community are to be united toward a common goal. This was to serve God. They were also to work and support each other against any difficulty they might face. This was especially necessary given that many were unknown to each other. This ensured that the needs of the community took precedence over that of the individual: We must love brotherly without dissimulation, we must love one another with a pure heart fervently. We must bear one another‘s burdens. We must not look only on our own things, but also on the things of our brethren. According to Winthrop, they must follow the doctrines of their Puritan religion as the start a new community in a new land. He added that it was not only God who would assess their successes or failures but all humankind. As such, he described their new colony as ―a city upon a hill‖, visible to all to see either their success or failure. Themes American Exceptionalism One prominent and enduring theme that emerges from his writing is that of the exceptional nature of the American society. This is a concept that advances the United States as unique and different from other countries. Winthrop asserts that his group of settlers was divinely chosen by God to fulfill a special mission. That mission puts them under the scrutiny of God and the world. This idea pits the United States as divinely constituted. Also that it was a standard, especially in its successes, to other countries of the world. During the American Revolution, the concept Winthrop advocates in his sermon becomes an assertion for the viability of the independent country. Thomas Paine in his pamphlet titled Common Sense asserts that ―Should an independency be brought about… we have every opportunity and every encouragement before us, to form the noblest, purest constitution on the face of the earth‖. The exceptional position the country is believed to occupy granted it impunity to do a number of things. For instance, native Americans who had been the first occupiers of the North American region were deprived of their land in the conquest of the region. The colonizers saw their presence on the North American continent as a divine mandate to claim and populate the continent. This was taken as superior and superseding any previous claim to ownership of territory. This mindset was dubbed Manifest destiny. It refers to the belief that they have been destined to own the continent. There was also the practice of slavery and segregation of blacks. There was the claim by southern plantation owners who argued at the turn of the entrenchment of human rights principles that the plantation system was not feasible without slave labor. They therefore asked that the plantation system and the south be exceptions to the principles which would grant blacks freedom. Charity The importance Winthrop attached to charity is evidenced in the title which emphasized the idea of charity. He describes it as a way to serve God. It is also the very basis for the success of the colony. The communal perception that each person was the others keeper ensured that no individual was abandoned. He averred that the inequality inherent in humankind could only be balanced by a culture of charity by the rich to the poor. He also identified three ways by which charity could be show. The first consisted of providing money and material good to those in need. Such items were considered prone to decay and should not be stored for any considerable time. The second he said was the forgiving of debt owed. While to lend another was not considered an act of charity, to forgive a debt owed was. The third way was the offering of love without expecting anything in return. Communalism Central to Winthrop‘s treaties is the promotion of communal living among the new settlers in their new location. Winthrop was emphatic in his advocacy of the interest of the community taking precedence over those of the individual: ―We must be willing to abridge ourselves of our superfluities, for the supply of others‘ necessities‖. This implies that resources and responsibilities were shared among all. No section of the community was absolved from duties. He emphasized the preservation and good of all. This has become another enduring trait in the American culture. Communism according to Winthrop stemmed from love rather than fairness. Unity This theme is discernable in the unification of intent in the two thousand migrants that Winthrop was governor over. They were as diverse as they could be. They were united in their opposition to the Church of England. They were also united in their quest to migrate to a place where they would be able to worship without persecution. These unifying parameters ensured that Winthrop could advocate an extension to the colony they established in Massachusetts Bay. 3.2 ROGER WILLIAMS 1603-1683 Roger Williams was a radical Puritan Englishman who immigrated to Massachusetts in 1630. His radicalism even in Massachusetts was borne out of his belief that the Puritans in Boston were still members of the Church of England. He was a vocal critic of the way the Puritan colony took land from Indians. He also questioned the merging of the state and the church. Williams‘ criticism led to the Puritan authorities charging him for subverting their authority. He was an advocate of democratic principles in the affairs of the Puritan church. He called for the separation of the church from the state. In 1635, Williams was banished as a heretic. He took refuge with friendly Indians and was to later establish in Rhode Island, the Providence Plantation. His writings criticized the Puritanical ideal of religious conformity which denied people the freedom to make choices or have opinions contrary to those in the Bible. In The Bloody Tenet of Persecution for the Cause of Conscience, Williams argued against the call for the persecution of people who expressed personal opinion. In the preface to the treatise, Williams also called for freedom of religion. These he espoused in twelve principles as follows: i. That the blood of those killed during the Protestant and Papist wars were not required nor accepted by Jesus; ii. Arguments in the scriptures negate the call for the persecution for reason of conscience or having differing opinions;  iii. Ministers would also be guilty of having and giving opinions because they proffered answers to scriptural questions which were not explained in the Bible; iv. The lack of individual reasoning and opinion formulation which was encouraged by the Puritans was responsible for the deaths arising from religious wars; v. There should be a distinct separation of the church and the state; vi. God gave the command to give all humans the freedom to worship regardless of nation; vii. Israel should not be upheld as a model for any society or group; viii. God did not command that uniformity of religion be enforced in any state as it would breed hypocrisy, civil wars, mass killings, and the persecution of God‘s true worshipers; ix. Should uniformity of religion be enforced in any civil state, there should be no hope held of Jews converting to Christianity; x. Enforcing religious uniformity promotes the conflation of state and church. This reduced the impact of Christ‘s message and symbol; xi. Tolerating other religions and thinking promotes the entrenchment of peace amongst the people; and xii. Christianity can flourish alongside religious tolerance and diversity. These doctrines showed how radical Williams was. It also showed him to be an advocate of religious tolerance. This much reflected in his writings. Verses in his A Key into the Language of America contrasted the vaulted English honor and supremacy against the virtues of Indians with whom he lived when he was banished from the Puritan community in Boston. In ―Of Their Persons and Parts of Body‖, Williams unequivocally calls to question racial superiority. He criticizes the English for arrogating to themselves some higher status than the Indian who was generally thought of as heathen and uncivilized. He says ―Boast not proud English, of their birth and blood/Thy brother Indian is by birth as good.‖ So critical was William of racial superiority that he warned of a denial of heaven to those who discriminated racially: ―Make sure thy second birth, else thou shalt see/Heaven ope to Indians wild, but shut to thee‖. His writings celebrated the wild Indians in spite of their presumed savagery especially when compared to English civilization. In ―On Eating and Entertainment‖, his introduction was that ―It is a strange truth that a man shall generally find more free entertainment and refreshing amongst these barbarians than amongst thousands that call themselves Christians.‖ This theme also exists in ―Of Salutation‖ where Williams lauds the civility of Indian. This is a trait he finds wanting in the character of the English. Prominent themes that emerge from his verses include the glorification of certain features in the cultures of the Indians. This theme comes to the fore when he compares the English ways of life to those of the Indians. In spite of Williams‘ persistent recourse to the general depiction of the Indians as ―wild‖, ―pagan‘, ―barbarians‖, and ―ravens‖, he consistently portrays them as of a better disposition than the Englishman. Despite his ignominy in the opinion and thoughts of a majority of Puritans during the colonial period, Williams became recognized, contemporarily, as a symbol of American liberty. His criticisms and refusal to tow the stringent principles of Puritanism made him a symbol of advocate for liberty. He is also seen as a forerunner of the fight against racial discrimination. 3.3.3 ANNE BRADSTREET 1612-1672 Anne Bradstreet was brought up as a Puritan child in England. Her father was a steward and ensured that she had formal education beyond the usual domestic training given to women of her generation. She was a high spirited individual who migrated in 1630 with a staunch Puritan, Simon Bradstreet, and two years after their marriage. Her migration was with her parent and they sailed Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her father was to succeed John Winthrop as Governor while she and her husband settled in a frontier village. She was also to tame her high spirit in such a laid back community in New England with the Puritan conviction that she was living the way of God. Anne Bradstreet had eight children and still found time to compose verse despite the unpopular nature of the vocation, especially for women at that time. Her compositions were made public when her brother took copies of her works to England. They were published in 1650 without her knowledge. The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America was the first volume of poetry that would be published by a settler in America. She was to later revise some of the poems contained in that volume and compose more verses. She was especially mortified of errors and the undeveloped form of her work as she expressed in ―The Author to Her Book‖ published in the second edition of The Tenth Muse in 1678 in Boston. Bradstreet‘s style reflected those of English poets. Her works show prominently, concerns about her life. Many focus on her experiences as a woman, mother, and wife in a settler‘s colony. They also show the influence of the Bible and her Puritanical beliefs. In ―The Author to Her Book‖, Bradstreet expresses her chagrin at her perceived immature composition in the first edition of the collection. Though she describes her first publication as ―ill-formed offspring of my feeble brain‖, she identifies that it was ―snatched from thence by friends, less wise than true‖. This is an indication of her unawareness of the move to publicize the poems. Her Puritanical demeanor emerges in the ways she describes the first edition, the errors in it, and the fact that they were not composed for public consumption. She says the verses were ―exposed to public view/made thee in rags‖ and ―unfit for light‖. These exemplify the fact that Bradstreet was not keen on publicizing her works. They also show the puritan reticence for show off. Especially, Bradstreet says the work caused her to blush. This is an outward and physical display of embarrassment. That the edition had errors was not totally her doing. She expresses this when the verses were taken ―to th‘ press to trudge,/Where errors were not lessened‖. This was an indictment of the editorial quality of the press house. In many of Bradstreet‘s writings, her femininity and puritanical beliefs emerge. This is especially so in her subject matter and imagery deployed. This must be because her writings reflect her personal life and beliefs. For instance, in ―The Author to her Book‖, Bradstreet compares the emergence of her first book to that of birthing a child and similar imagery associated with motherhood and childbirth. She describes the book as an ‗offspring‘ and her ‗rambling brat. Other images of mothering emerge in her description of the process through which the publication made its way into public consumption. For instance, she compares her inability to make the work better with an economically challenged mother‘s inability to properly dress her offspring. Also in ―In Reference to Her Children, 23 June, 1659‖, there is the prominent depiction of the image of motherhood. In this poem, Bradstreet describes each of her eight children. She expresses the concerns of a mother over her children in the world where she cannot oversee their activities: Let others know what are my fears Lest my brood some harm should catch, And be surprised for want of watch, Whilst pecking corm and void of care, They fall un‘ware in fowler‘s snare, Or whilst on trees they sit and sing, Some untoward boy at them do fling, Or whilst allured with bell and glass, The net be spread, and caught alas. Or lest by lime-twigs they be foiled. (―In Reference to Her Children, 23 June, 1659‖,) Of similar feminine concern do we find in many of her verses. In ―To My Dear and Loving Husband‖ and ―A Letter to her Husband Absent upon Public Employment‖, Bradstreet depicts the acceptable feminine comportment of that time. She depicts wifehood as a station wherein a woman enjoys the love and affection of her spouse. This affection is occasioned by the piety, love and devotion of the wife. Her unequivocal depiction of the love of a wife for her husband is prominently visible in these poems. For instance, in ―To My Dear and Loving Husband‖, Bradstreet compares her love for her husband to ―…all the riches that the East doth hold./ My love is such that rivers cannot quench‖. For this, she attributes her husband‘s reciprocal affection as ―Thy love is such I can no way repay‖. Similarly in ―A Letter to her Husband Absent upon Public Employment‖, Bradstreet laments the distance between them. She mourns for the return of her husband. She presents images of loneliness and melancholy in her lines that deal with her husband‘s absence; ―I, like the Earth this season, mourn in black,/ My sun is gone so far in‘s Zodiac‖. Puritans believes spousal devotion was proof of piety. Thus her affection for her husband was in tune with God‘s plan. However, her love was not to overshadow her commitment to God. With her husband being the governor, his duties were time consuming. Puritan belief saw marriage as a partnership for producing young Christians. In all her femininity, her Christian beliefs are undeniable. There are images and biblical allusions in her poems which point to her strong Puritanical perspective. For example, in ―A Letter to her Husband Absent upon Public Employment‖, Bradstreet allude to the biblical story of Eve being the flesh and bone of Adam in Genesis 2 verse 23 to foreground her affection and conviction of their love for each other; ―Flesh of thy flesh, bone of thy bone,/ I here, thou there, yet both but one.‖ Bradstreet‘s Puritan beliefs and concerns radiate from her works. She was as identified earlier, the first settler to have a collection published. Her works give great insight into the life and beliefs of the Puritan settlers in America. 4.0 CONCLUSION The origin of American literature is inseparable from the history of England. Earliest American literature was neither American nor really literature. It was not American because it was the work of immigrants from England who did not even consider themselves American when writing the works. The style of the texts was also significantly influenced by English masters of literary composition. This made is so much difficult to distinguish writings from New England as anything but English writings. The writings were not quite literary in the distinct forms that exist as poetry, drama and prose. They were colonial travel accounts which are records of the perils and frustrations that challenged the courage of America's first settlers who arrived in 1620. They were a mixture of travel accounts and religious writings. In spite of these, Puritan beliefs dictated significantly, the content and form earliest American works took. 5.0 SUMMARY In this unit, you explored selected writings from the colonial period of America. The works are John Winthrop‘s A Model of Christian Charity, Roger William‘s and a selection of verses from Anne Bradstreet‘s works. From these selections of colonial writings, the overarching influence of the Puritan belief is visible. While Winthrop was concerned with the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, William was concerned with separating the state from the church and condemning the appropriation of Native Indian lands. Bradstreet on the other hand showed female concerns during this time. 6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT 1. Discuss how John Winthrop‘s ―A Model of Christian Charity‖ shaped the way America is considered unique. 2. How has Roger Williams‘ radicalism influenced later American awareness? 3. Explain the way Anne Bradstreet‘s verses reveal Puritan belief. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING ―A Model of Christian Charity‖ Literary themes for Students: the American Dream. Encyclopedia.com. 8 Jul. 2019 http://www.encyclopedia.com Bremer, Francis (1952), John Winthrop: America‘s Forgotten Founding Father. The H.W. Wilson Company. Dawson, Hugh J. (1992) ―Christian Charitie as colonial discourse: Rereading Winthrop‘s Sermon in its English Context‖, in Early American Literature, Vol. 33, No. 2 Spring. Paine, Thomas, ―Apendia to the Third Edition‖, Common Sense, www.ushistory.org/paine/commonsense/sense6.html (June 24, 2019) Winthrop, John, (1960), ―A Model of Christian Charity,‖ on The Winthrop Society. www.winthropsociety.org/doc_charity.php (June 24, 2019) Module 2 AMERICAN RENAISSANCE: THE LITERATURE OF REASON AND REVOLUTION Unit 1: The Age of Reason 8.0 Introduction 9.0 Objectives 10.0 Main Content 10.1 General Overview 10.2 The Making of the American Nation 10.2.1 Thomas Paine (1737-1809) 10.2.2 Thomas Jefferson (1743−1826) 10.2.3 Orators 3.3 Influence of the Age on Literature 11.0 Conclusion 12.0 Summary 13.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments 14.0 References/ Further Reading 8.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit, you will study the dominating ideas of the 18th century. This is known as the Age of Reason, the Neo-Classical Age, and the Age of Enlightenment. You will explore how this age influenced literature in America. You will explore the making of the American nation especially the dominant ideology that led to its creation. You will also study the dominant literary traditions that emerged therefrom. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 4. Discuss the factors that led to the emergence of the Age of Reason 5. List and explain the factors that contributed to the emergence of America 6. Discuss the influence of these factors on the literary forms that emerged 7. List and explain the efforts of writers who contributed to the English Colonist‘s war against England. 9.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 General Overview The eighteenth century in America is known for the dominating ideas of the Age of Reason, the Age of Neo-classism and the Age of Enlightenment. This was an Age that started in Seventeenth century England. It spread to other parts of Europe and the English colonies in America in the eighteenth century. The beginnings of the Age can be found in the rejection of medieval authoritarianism. The founding of the Royal Society of London in 1662 for the improvement of natural knowledge also promoted the exploration of knowledge beyond religion. The Age of Reason brought great discoveries which changed the ways many things were thought of. Isaac Newton‘s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) was one of the major change factors during this Age. The book made revolutionary revelations. Primarily, Newton affirmed that the universe is not a mystery in the hands of a God. He said the universe was operated as a mechanism that can be reasoned and understood by any intelligent person. Newton provided a single mathematical law which accounted for the movements of the earth and the stars. This marked the start of modern science. It began to weaken people‘s faith in religion, in holy books and especially in miracles and the divinity of kings and priests. Science became a thing that would dominate the world for a long time. The focus religion had in the previous century was now devoted to science. The study of astronomy, botany, biology, physiology and other sciences took precedence. Tom Paine challenged Christianity. In his book titled The Age of Reason, Paine argued that miracles were explainable. He also challenged the divinity of Jesus arguing that the proof of the existence of God was not in the Bible. He said the proof lay in nature. The earlier emphasis on religiosity took a mild tone. The concept of hell also disappeared from popular public discourse. Humanity became the central concept as against the worship of God. This influenced even governance. As humanitarianism took central stage, treaties that would deemphasize the role and status of God in governance emerged. For instance, John Locke‘s The Treatise of Civil Governance (1690) challenged the hitherto assumption that governance and leadership were divinely ordained. He maintained that leadership roles were not assigned by God through Kings to humans. He argued that a government was formed and gained authority when men agreed to give authority to some people. Through social contracts, the generality of the people surrendered a portion of their authority and freedom to the selected leader. Such surrender was not total as poor governance could be disrupted at any time. Treatise like Locke‘s saw the evolution of governance, radically different from that established in colonial America for instance. Many other prominent and established Puritan beliefs were challenged in this age. The cardinal philosophies of Calvinism came under severe attack. Predestination and total depravity were disputed as false. Locke in another publication- Essay Concerning human Understanding (1690) affirmed that every human at birth had minds that were in a state of tabula rasa. This refers to a blank state of cognition. This implied therefore that no one was predestined to be good of evil. 3.2 THE MAKING OF THE AMERICAN NATION The war English colonies fought against the French and the Indians in 1754 brought the English colonists together as a united people. At this time most of them were living on the sea coast from Georgia to Maine, and had not yet even crossed the great Appalachian range of mountains. The leaders of one colony knew little of the leaders in the other colonies. This war decided whether France or England was to be supreme in America. The collaborative effort of the English colonies ensured that they won. The treaty of Paris which was signed in 1763 made England the possessor of Canada and the land east of the Mississippi River. At the close of this defining war, the colonists learned that there should to be synergy between them in the face of aggression from France and the Indians. This synergy was not to seek independence from England but make them formidable against external aggression. The rule of King George III however changed the course of things. George III came to the throne in 1760 and his actions set in motion the most defining move that led to the secession of English colonies in North America from England. George was an authoritarian ruler who controlled the Parliament by bribery. He moved also that the American colonies should feel the weight of his authority. In 1763, some trade measures were taken to restrict trade between the colonies and other European countries. The move was to ensure that England made all the profit in foreign trade. He also imposed tax on the colonists and to station British troops in the colonies. The colonies saw the measures as another form of aggression. It moved them into armed resistance and led to the Revolutionary War, which began in 1775. Many colonists did not however support call for separation from England. The efforts of writers in the advancement of the nationalist move were noteworthy. 3.2.1 Thomas Paine (1737−1809) One of them greatest nationalist writers was Thomas Paine. He was an Englishman who came to America in 1774 and soon made himself an important codifier of colonial thought and feeling. He published a pamphlet in 1776 titled Common Sense. The pamphlet advocated complete political independence from England. Many of his writings contributed to the Declaration of Independence. Sixteen of his works appeared during the progress of the struggle for liberty. These writings inspired hope and enthusiasm in the colonists for the drive towards independence. 3.2.2 THOMAS JEFFERSON (1743−1826) Thomas Jefferson was another influential nationalist. His writings are so significant in number and quantity that they have been gathered into volumes. The most significant is the Declaration of Independence. Even he knew the significance of this document to his works. He left instructions that on his monument, the words, ―Author of the Declaration of American Independence,‖ should immediately follow his name. The Declaration of Independence has become one of the most influential works in history. It continues to influence the world and modify the opinions of nations. His influence would later culminate into his becoming the third President of the United States. 3.2.3 ORATORS Apart from writers penning treatises to motivate the independence cause, there were also orators who used oratory prowess to cajole and sustain the sometimes dwindling morale of the Americans. These orators persuaded, aroused, and encouraged colonists who were either disinclined towards independence of those who became demoralized as the war progressed slowly. The slow progress of the independence caused severe monetary loss and induced suffering to the revolutionists. Those appointed Orators helped to encourage the continuation of the war. Beyond this, they were important in the task of giving the country constitutional government. Some of the notable orators are James Otis (1725−1783), Patrick Henry (1736−1799), and Samuel Adams (1722−1803). Of note however is that the orators of this time stood out because they had great interest in the independence of America from England. They were also very knowledgeable in the affairs of the English colonies and the politics involved in being colonies. These men were personable characters who chose to engage in public speaking on an issue that was of concern to everyone in the colonies. They were however not clergymen. The influence of religion on politics was declining at the time. Rather, the legal profession was rising. Most of the orators of the time were lawyers. 3.3 INFLUENCE OF THE AGE ON LITERATURE The widely accepted postulations of philosophers on the centrality of human beings as inherently good deemphasized the previous rigid code of living. With the de-emphasis of religion came writers renewed focus in classical thoughts. Writers were now interested in creating an America that had little to do with Christianity but a lot to do with Athens and Rome. Their interest in classical writings and thoughts gave name to the period. Dubbed ‗Neoclassicism, literary activities began to revisit and draw from literary models from the classical period. The influence of classicism on literature reflected in the avoidance of ornamental and extravagant language. Prose was written in plain cultivated speech. Poetry had the measured cadence characteristic of the heroic couplet. Drama engaged in the three unities of time, place and action. Major writers of this period were to be found in England. John Dryden and Alexander Pope were the forerunners in the poetic tradition. However, at the turn of eighteenth century, there was a reaction against the neoclassical form of writing. A different style of writing emerged which upturned the artistic formality and restraint inherent in neoclassical style of writing. The challengers argued against the mechanical way of composition. They advocated for freer modes of writing beyond the traditional modes of expression which seemed rigid and forced. The cadences, the metrical forms, the heroic couplets were condemned as restrictive. The alternative form that emerged gave greater value to human emotions and spontaneity. Writers abandoned the classical form with its rigid structures and focus. They embraced instead a style that celebrated emotions. They glorified the mundane that could elicit emotions. Focus changed to rural life, the wilderness, nature, the picaresque, and the virtues of innocence. Writers craved for a style that could elicit profound emotions in readers. The legacy of erudition bequeathed by Puritanism in America fueled the search for intellectual understanding. The burgeoning print culture also facilitated the spread of intellectualism. Books and especially magazines were in constant supply given the increasing number of publishing houses. This in no small measure aided the ideological separation of America from England at the height of the nationalist move. In spite of all these, American writers followed the writing style of English writers. Novelists and poets still mimicked the style of the reigning masters in England. The earliest American novels for instance, were imitative of the didactic prose style that was prominent England at that time. There was also an increasing number of reading audience whose appetites were satiated with the importation of English books. These did little to create a tradition of works that will be wholly American. The dramatic genre took off much later than poetry and prose. The sentiments in the American colonies were not very keen to encourage dramatic forms. In fact, a law was promulgated in 1700 in Pennsylvania which banned all stage plays. They were thought of as riotous sport. The American colonies considered them to be corrupting. It was not until 1767 that the first American play was staged. Thomas Godfrey‘s The Prince of Parthia was the pioneer play that would be staged in America. The plays that also emerged from the American colonies did not also differ from the ones produced in England. Up until the nineteenth century, American literary output was an off shoot of England. However, it was only imaginative works that were imitative of English works. The nationalist ambitions of the times were generating political and revolutionary treatises that would redefine all the strata of the American world. Jefferson‘s The Declaration of Independence, Paine‘s the Federalist and The Crisis are some of the politically motivated works that have continued to define the essence of America. a. CONCLUSION The Age of Reason that swept the English colonies in America did more than influence the ways of life and thinking. This was an Age that started in Seventeenth century England. It spread to other parts of Europe and the English colonies in America in the eighteenth century. The beginnings of the Age can be found in the rejection of medieval authoritarianism. This influenced the dominant culture. The impact of Christianity was reduced. Emphasis shifted to human beings. This started the development and inventions of machines and technologies that would define the way the world developed over the years. This was also the Age when the nationalist call towards the founding of the American nation started. 5.0 SUMMARY The Age of Reason brought great discoveries which changed the ways many things were thought. Isaac Newton‘s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) was one of the major change factors during this Age. The book made revolutionary revelations. Primarily, Newton affirmed that the universe is not a mystery in the hands of a God. He said the universe was operated as a mechanism that can be reasoned and understood by any intelligent person. Newton provided a single mathematical law which accounted for the movements of the earth and the stars. This marked the start of modern science. It began to weaken people‘s faith in religion, in holy books and especially in miracles and the divinity of kings and priests. Science became a thing that would dominate the world for a long time. The focus religion had in the previous century was now devoted to science. The study of astronomy, botany, biology, physiology and other sciences took precedence. In literature, there was a shit to classical knowledge and tradition. This influenced the way literature was written. Political treatises and imaginative works surfaced. The most defining being Thomas Jefferson‘s The Declaration of Independence. It is a work that captures the essence of the American society. These are in the fundamental areas of freedoms and humanity. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS 1. What are the essential ways the Age of Reason differed from the preceding century? 7.0 References/ Further Reading Bercovitch, Sacvan and Jehlen, Myra (eds.) (1987), Ideology and Classic American Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bercovitch, Sacvan (ed.) (2006), The Cambridge History of American Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schmidt, Klaus and Fleischma, Fritz (2000), Early America Re-Explored. New York: Peter Lang. Godfrey, Thomas. (1917) The Prince of Parthia. Boston Locke, J. (1690) Essay Concerning human Understanding Locke, J. The Treatise of Civil Governance (1690) Newton, Isaac Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) Module 2: Unit 2 Introduction to American Romanticism 15.0 Introduction 16.0 Objectives 17.0 Main Content 17.1 General Overview 17.2 American Romanticism 17.3 Characteristics of Romanticism 17.3.1 Imagination 17.3.2 Nature 17.3.3 Symbolism and Myth 17.3.4 Emotion, Lyric Poetry, and the Self 3.3 Neo-classism versus Romanticism 18.0 Conclusion 19.0 Summary 20.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments 21.0 References/ Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit, you will study the emergence of other ideas that characterized the later part of the 18th century up to the nineteenth century of American writing. Known variously as the Romantic period, the Romantic era, or Romanticism, writings of this period countered the Renaissance style which privileged reason, strict format, and advanced human superiority. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: i. Discuss the origin of romantic period ii. Identify the defining features of Romantic writings iii. Explain the influence of the period on American literature iv. Highlight major writers of the period v. Examine their influence on the body of literature 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 General Overview The Romantic period was a time when particular thoughts and ideologies permeated different cultures and societies. It influenced different fields such as music, art and, especially literature. The strongholds of the Romantic Movement were England and Germany. It is from the historians of English and German literature that a convenient set of terminal dates for the period can be identified. The period is given as beginning in 1798, the year of the first edition of William Wordsworth‘s and Samuel Taylor Coleridge‘s Lyrical Ballads and of the composition of Hymns to the Night by Novalis. It is also said to have ended in 1832, the year which marked the deaths of both Sir Walter Scott and Goethe. In America, the movement started much later. This period coincides with what is often called the "age of revolutions". This includes the American revolution of (1776) and the French revolution of (1789). This was an age of upheavals in political, economic, and social traditions. It was the age which witnessed the initial transformations of the Industrial Revolution. In literature, the Romantic period movement placed intuition and imagination over reason. Known variously as the Romantic era, romanticism or the Romantic period, it was a movement that reached several aspects of society and came as a change and revolution against all that was real and scientific to focus on feelings and emotions. De Marr (01) describes the period as having been in existence even before the height of the era; ―there have been times when the frame of the world rested not on facts, but on wonders‖. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, there was a revolution against aristocracy, against social and political norms of the age of enlightenment which started to appear. This revolution gave prominence to the soul, instincts and emotions. These were against the principles of the era of Reason which ―advocated a cool, detached scientific approach to most human endeavors and dilemmas‖ (Smith 2011). The romantic period saw the emergence of new artistic, literary and intellectual wave in literature and the arts. It encouraged a rejection of many of the values of the Renaissance movement such as the scientific revolution held as seminal. It was an escape from the strict rules of society in favour of a spiritual world. Nature became the new object of love and emotions. Romanticism defined an artistic and philosophical movement that influenced the fundamental ways in which people thought about themselves and about their world. The era started as a reaction to the classical way of life that people used to live. The respect for authority, the love of order and the following of rules, were overturned in favor of strangeness and novelty. It placed a new emphasis on emotions and beauty of the language. Writers and artist during the romantic era saw themselves as revolting against the "Age of Reason" or ―Enlightenment‖ period which was at its peak between 1700 and 1770 (Harvey 1). There was the celebration of imagination and intuition as against reason. Spontaneity was encouraged instead of control. Subjectivity and metaphysical musing trumped objective fact. Romanticism was the wave that replaced all the old traditions, physics and reason that were buried in people‘s mind with a more spiritual and modern way of thinking. 3.2 American Romanticism The new revolutionary Romantic generation appeared in the modern ideas of Thomas Paine. This was inspired by the ideals of Rousseau. Paine established a set of ideas that would unleash the American Revolution. That was reflected in literary works in which authors and readers countered the pragmatic and scientific standards popular at that time. They sought freedom in literature through imagination, spirituality and the purity of nature. They advocated a rejection of civilization and rational constraints that had limited their freedom for ages. In fact, the first half of the nineteenth century was when the New Englanders engaged in a systematic attempt at establishing a distinct culture. Many New Englanders set aside some money for purchasing books before anything else. In 1800 there were few foreign books in Boston, but the interest in them developed to such an extent that a foreign bookstore and reading room were in place. There was a rapid recovery from emotional and aesthetic starvation caused by the stringent rules of the Puritan system. Poets and prose writers produced a literature in which beauty, power, and knowledge were often combined, a style hitherto discouraged by the Puritan authorities. The Romantic era in America lasted from about 1830 to 1870. It represented what was buried in the human soul. This was especially so since Americans were suffering from capi