Child Development PDF

LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 1 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT 1.0. Intended Learning Outcomes...

LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 1 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT 1.0. Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of this unit, you should be able to: a. describe the principles that underlie development; b. differentiate the periods of human development; c. evaluate the issues in human development; and, d. explain the different theories of child development. 1.1. Introduction This unit is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn. We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. We will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence (Lumen Learning, as cited in Paris et al, 2019). 1.2. Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities) 1.2.1. Principles of Development There are several underlying principles of development to keep in mind (Paris et al., 2019): Development is lifelong. Change is apparent across the lifespan and early experiences affect later development. Development is multidirectional. We show gains in some areas of development, while showing loss in other areas. Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions: physical, cognitive, and social and emotional. The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, changes in gross and fine motor skills, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness. The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem- solving, memory, and language. The social and emotional domain (also referred to as psychosocial) focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends (Paris et al., 2019). C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 2 All three domains influence each other. It is also important to note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains. Development is characterized by plasticity, which is our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. Early experiences are important, but children are remarkably resilient (able to overcome adversity). “Plasticity is an intrinsic property of the central nervous system, reflecting its capacity to respond in a dynamic manner to the environment and experience via modification of neural circuitry. In the context of healthy development, plasticity is considered beneficial, facilitating adaptive change in response to environmental stimuli and enrichment, with research documenting establishment of new neural connections and modification to the mapping between neural activity and behavior (Anderson et al., 2011).” Development is multi-contextual. We are influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) - when and where we live and our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to circumstances surrounding us. The key here is to understand that behaviors, motivations, emotions, and choices are all part of a bigger picture (Lally & French, 2019). According to Hart et al (2019): “Across a wide range of studies, researchers often conclude that the home environment and children’s outcomes are causally linked. In contrast, behavioral genetic studies show that parents influence their children by providing them with both environment and genes, meaning the environment that parents provide should not be considered in the absence of genetic influences, because that can lead to erroneous conclusions on causation.” 1.2.2 Periods of Human Development Think about the lifespan and make a list of what you would consider the basic periods of development. How many periods or stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: childhood, adulthood, and old age. Or maybe four: infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Developmentalists often break the lifespan into eight stages (Course Hero, 2022). Prenatal Development Infancy and Toddlerhood Early Childhood Middle Childhood Adolescence Early Adulthood Middle Adulthood C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 3 Late Adulthood Prenatal Development Figure 1.1. A tiny embryo depicting some development of arms and legs, as well as facial features that are starting to show. Image by lunar caustic is licensed under CC BY 2.0 Conception occurs and development begins. There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern (Course Hero, 2022). There are various approaches to labor, delivery, and childbirth, with potential complications of pregnancy and delivery, as well as risks and complications with newborns, but also advances in tests, technology, and medicine. The influences of nature (e.g., genetics) and nurture (e.g., nutrition and teratogens, which are environmental factors during pregnancy that can lead to birth defects) are evident. Evolutionary psychology, along with studies of twins and adoptions, help us understand the interplay of factors and the relative influences of nature and nurture on human development (Course Hero, 2022). C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 4 Infancy and Toddlerhood Figure 1.2. A swaddled newborn. Image by Han Myo Htwe on Unsplash The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with many involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing but poor vision, is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time (Course Hero, 2022). Caregivers similarly transform their roles from those who manage feeding and sleep schedules to constantly moving guides and safety inspectors for mobile, energetic children. Brain development happens at a remarkable rate, as does physical growth and language development. Infants have their own temperaments and approaches to play. IntPeractions with primary caregivers (and others) undergo changes influenced by possible separation anxiety and the development of attachment styles. Social and cultural issues center around breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training, and whether or not to get vaccinations (Course Hero, 2022). Early Childhood Figure 1.3. Two young children playing in the garden Image by Alaric Sim on Unsplash C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 5 Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years, consisting of the years that follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages 2 to 5 or 6. As a preschooler, the child is busy learning language (with amazing growth in vocabulary), is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance, such as demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others (Course Hero, 2022). Middle Childhood Figure 1.4. Two children running down the street Image by Wayne Lee-Sing on Unsplash The ages of 6-11 comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others (Course Hero, 2022). Schools participate in this process by comparing students and making these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. The brain reaches its adult size around age seven, but it continues to develop. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. Children also begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students; same- sex friendships are particularly salient during this period (Course Hero, 2022). C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 6 Adolescence Figure 1.5. Two smiling teenage women Image by Matheus Ferrero on Unsplash Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty; timing may vary by gender, cohort, and culture. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. Research on brain development helps us understand teen risk- taking and impulsive behavior (Course Hero, 2022). A major developmental task during adolescence involves establishing one's own identity. Teens typically struggle to become more independent from their parents. Peers become more important, as teens strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex peer groups become more common. New roles and responsibilities are explored, which may involve dating, driving, taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics (Course Hero, 2022). C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 7 Early Adulthood Figure 1.6. Early adulthood, roughly ages 20-40, may be split into yet another category of "emerging adulthood," as there are often profound differences between younger adults and those in their late 30s. Source: Course Hero (2022) Late teens, twenties, and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood (students who are in their mid to late 30s may love to hear that they are young adults!). It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are the primary concerns at this stage of life (Course Hero, 2022). Middle Adulthood Figure 1.7. Middle adulthood spans the years between ages 40-65. Source: Course Hero (2022) C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 8 The late thirties (or age 40) through the mid-60s are referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period in which physiological aging that began earlier becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely. Referred to as the sandwich generation, middle-aged adults may be in the middle of taking care of their children and also taking care of their aging parents. While caring about others and the future, middle-aged adults may also be questioning their own mortality, goals, and commitments, though not necessarily experiencing a "mid-life crisis" (Course Hero, 2022). Late Adulthood Figure 1.8. Late adulthood is generally viewed as age 65 and older, but there are incredible variations in health and lifestyle between the "young old" and the "oldest old," who may be well into their 100s. Source: Course Hero (2022) This period of the lifespan, late adulthood, has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in industrialized countries, as average life expectancy has increased. Late adulthood covers a wide age range with a lot of variation, so it is helpful to divide it into categories such as the “young old" (65-74 years old), “old old" (75-84 years old), and “oldest old” (85+ years old). The young old are similar to middle-aged adults; possibly still working, married, relatively healthy, and active. The old old have some health problems and challenges with daily living activities; the oldest old are often frail and in need of long term care. However, many factors are involved and a better way to appreciate the diversity of older adults is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured in Figure 8 who is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 9 stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same age) (Course Hero, 2022). There are some aspects of development that have been debated. Let’s explore these. ACTIVITY 1.1 “MAPPING DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES” Fill out the Graphic Organizer (ACTIVITY 1.1) to briefly show your understanding on the important changes in each period of development. Online tool: You may use a Canva, an online design tool that offers templates for various graphic organizers, including mind maps, concept maps, and timelines. 1.2.3 Issues in Development Nature and Nurture Why are people act the way they are? Are features such as height, weight, personality, being diabetic, etc. the result of heredity or environmental factors- or both? For decades, scholars have carried on the "nature/nurture" debate. For any particular feature, those on the side of nature would argue that heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Those on the side of nurture would argue that one's environment is most significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in all aspects of human development, and most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture (Paris et al., 2019). Continuity versus Discontinuity Is human development best characterized as a slow, gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of more abrupt change? The answer to that question often depends on which developmental theorist you ask and what topic is being studied. The theories of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are called stage theories. Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 10 that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume development is more discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information processing theorists, assume development is a slower and gradual process known as continuous development (Paris et al., 2019). Figure 1.6. The graph to the left shows three stages in the continuous growth of a tree. The graph to the right shows four distinct stages of development in the life cycle of a ladybug. Image by NOBA is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 Active versus Passive How much do you play a role in your own developmental path? Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you? Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own development. Piaget, for instance, believed that children actively explore their world and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process (Lally & French, 2019). Another really important framework to use when trying to understand children’s development are theories of development. Let’s explore what theories are and introduce you to some major theories in child development. ACTIVITY 1.2 “ANALYZING DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES”” Fill out the “Agree-Disagree” Matrix (Annex 1.2) which will show your position on the different issues in development. Check the box either you agree or disagree. Write your reasons in the actual answers. C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 11 ACTIVITY 1.2 Online tool: “Mentimeter”. This tool is excellent for live polling and can be used to gather instant feedback on agree/disagree questions. 1.2.4 Developmental Theories What is a theory? A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used. Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. (Lumen Learning, as cited in Paris et al., 2019). Let’s take a look at some key theories in Child Development. ❖ Psychoanalytic Viewpoint Freud’s Psychosexual Theory We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development (Paris et al., 2019). Figure 1.7. Sigmund Freud Image is in the public domain C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 12 Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self. The id is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes (Paris et al., 2019). The ego develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self (Paris et al., 2019). The superego represents society’s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego (Paris et al., 2019). Table 1.1 - Freud’s Psychosexual Theory (Paris et al., 2019) Name of Descriptions of Stage Stage Oral Stage The oral stage lasts from birth until around age 2. The infant is all id. At this stage, all stimulation and comfort is focused on the mouth and is based on the reflex of sucking. Too much indulgence or too little stimulation may lead to fixation. Anal Stage The anal stage coincides with toilet training or learning to manage biological urges. The ego is beginning to develop in this stage. Anal fixation may result in a person who is compulsively clean and organized or one who is sloppy and lacks self-control. Phallic The phallic stage occurs in early childhood and marks the Stage development of the superego and a sense of masculinity or femininity as culture dictates. Latency Latency occurs during middle childhood when a child’s urges quiet down and friendships become the focus. The ego and superego can be refined as the child learns how to cooperate and negotiate with others. Genital The genital stage begins with puberty and continues through Stage adulthood. Now the preoccupation is that of sex and reproduction. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 13 development (Paris et al., 2019). Figure 1.8. Erik Erikson Image is in the public domain He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones (Paris et al., 2019). Table 1.2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (Paris et al., 2019) Name of Stage Description of Stage Trust vs. mistrust (0-1) The infant must have basic needs met in a consistent way in order to feel that the world is a trustworthy place. Autonomy vs. shame Mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they and doubt (1-2) like to exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5) Preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things “all by myself.” Industry vs. inferiority School aged children focus on (6- 11) accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates Identity vs. role Teenagers are trying to gain a sense of confusion identity as they experiment with various (adolescence) roles, beliefs, and ideas. Intimacy vs. Isolation In our 20s and 30s we are making some of our (young adulthood) first long-term commitments in intimate relationships. C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 14 Name of Stage Description of Stage Generativity vs. The 40s through the early 60s we focus on stagnation being productive at work and home and are (middle adulthood) motivated by wanting to feel that we’ve made a contribution to society. Integrity vs. Despair We look back on our lives and hope to like (late adulthood) what we see-that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs. ❖ The Learning Viewpoint Pavlovian conditioning Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. Figure 1.9. Ivan Pavlov Image is in the public domain Pavlov began to experiment with this concept of classical conditioning. He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus. The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned) (Paris et al., 2019). C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 15 Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson (Paris et al., 2019). Watson’s Behaviorism John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public (Paris et al., 2019). Figure 1.10. John B. Watson Image is in the public domain He tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18-month old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced (Paris et al., 2019). Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents who are eager to apply science to household order (Paris et al., 2019). C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 16 Operant conditioning, on the other hand, looks at the way the consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. So, let’s look at this a bit more (Paris et al., 2019). Skinner’s Operant Learning Theory B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain (Paris et al., 2019). Figure 1.11. B. F. Skinner Image is in the public domain. A reinforcer is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding (Paris et al., 2019). Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired (Paris et al., 2019). The use of positive reinforcement involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others (Paris et al., 2019). Negative reinforcement occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others? C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 17 Punishment is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn’t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you’re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well. Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory (Paris et al., 2019). Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura (1925) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation (Paris et al., 2019). Figure 1.12. Albert Bandura Image by Albert Bandura is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, as cited in Paris et al., 2019). C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 18 Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment (Lumen Learning, as cited in Paris et al., 2019). ❖ The Cognitive Development Viewpoint Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children’s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently (Paris et al., 2019). Figure 1.13. Jean Piaget Image is in the public domain Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive equilibrium. This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 19 something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else (Paris et al., 2019). A schema or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for “under” and “soft” or “running” and “sour”. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones (Paris et al., 2019). One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is assimilation. So, the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being “sort of like my brother” or “his voice sounds a lot like yours.” Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken (Paris, et al., 2019)! Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I’ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is accommodation. Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think “outside the box. (Paris et al., 2019)” Table 1.3. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (Paris et al., 2019) Name of Stage Description of Stage Sensorimotor During the sensorimotor stage, children rely on use of the Stage senses and motor skills. From birth until about age 2, the infant knows by tasting, smelling, touching, hearing, and moving objects around. This is a real hand on type of knowledge. Preoperational In the preoperational stage, children from ages 2 to 7, Stage become able to think about the world using symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else. The use of language, whether it is in the form of words or gestures, facilitates knowing and communicating about the C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 20 Name of Stage Description of Stage world. This is the hallmark of preoperational intelligence and occurs in early childhood. However, these children are preoperational or pre-logical. They still do not understand how the physical world operates. They may, for instance, fear that they will go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub, even though they are too big. Concrete Children in the concrete operational stage, ages 7 to 11, Operational develop the ability to think logically about the physical world. Middle childhood is a time of understanding concepts such as size, distance, and constancy of matter, and cause and effect relationships. A child knows that a scrambled egg is still an egg and that 8 ounces of water is still 8 ounces no matter what shape of glass contains it. Formal During the formal operational stage children, at about age Operational 12, acquire the ability to think logically about concrete and abstract events. The teenager who has reached this stage is able to consider possibilities and to contemplate ideas about situations that have never been directly encountered. More abstract understanding of religious ideas or morals or ethics and abstract principles such as freedom and dignity can be considered. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development (Lumen Learning, in Paris et al., 2019). His belief was that development occurred first through children’s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning (Leon, n.d.). C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 21 Figure 1.14. Lev Vygotsky Image by The Vigotsky Project is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is scaffolding and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators (Lumen Learning, as cited in Paris et al, 2019). “Child development is not biologically determined, or framed as an unfolding of a natural developmental trajectory (ages and stages), as has been shown in other theories of child development (such as that proposed by Piaget). Rather, child development is framed as a cultural process determined by the society in which the child lives and the child’s active engagement in that society (Fleer, 2017).” Like Vygotsky’s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development. C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 22 ❖ The Ecological Systems Viewpoint Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives (Paris et al., 2019). Figure 1.15. Urie Bronfenbrenner Image by Marco Vicente González is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual’s development. Table 1.4. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model (Paris et al., 2019) Name of System Description of System Microsystems Microsystems impact a child directly. These are the people with whom the child interacts such as parents, peers, and teachers. The relationship between individuals and those around them need to be considered. For example, to appreciate what is going on with a student in math, the relationship between the student and teacher should be known. Mesosystems Mesosystems are interactions between those surrounding the individual. The relationship between parents and schools, for example, will indirectly affect the child. C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 23 Name of System Description of System Exosystem Larger institutions such as the mass media or the healthcare system are referred to as the exosystem. These have an impact on families and peers and schools who operate under policies and regulations found in these institutions. Macrosystems We find cultural values and beliefs at the level of macrosystems. These larger ideals and expectations inform institutions that will ultimately impact the individual. Chronosystem All of this happens in an historical context referred to as the chronosystem. Cultural values change over time, as do policies of educational institutions or governments in certain political climates. Development occurs at a point in time. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher’s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history (Paris et al., 2019). Figure 1.16. Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory Image by Ian Joslin is licensed under CC BY 4.0 C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 24 ACTIVITY 1.3 “DIFFERENTIATED GROUP ACTIVITIES” 1. Singing: Theory-Themed Song Composition Compose and perform a song that explains one or more theories of child development. The lyrics should highlight the key concepts of the chosen theory (e.g., Piaget’s stages of cognitive development or Erikson’s psychosocial stages). The song can be performed as a group. 2. Poem Recital: Developmental Stage Poetry Write and recite a poem that captures the essence of a specific theory of child development. For example, you could write a poem from the perspective of a child in Piaget’s preoperational stage or a poem that reflects Erikson’s stages of identity vs. role confusion. The poem should incorporate key ideas from the theory. 3. Interpretative Dance: Movement Through Developmental Stages Create and perform an interpretative dance that represents different stages of a child’s development according to a specific theory. For example, you could choreograph a dance that moves through Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, showing progression from sensorimotor to formal operational stages. 4. Verse Choir: Choral Recitation of Developmental Concepts In a verse choir, collectively recite a poem or series of verses that outline key child development theories. The performance should be dynamic, using vocal variation, emphasis, and movement to convey the theories’ core ideas. Each group could focus on a different theory, and the recitations can be performed sequentially. ASSESSMENT Part 1 – Summative Test Directions: Read the following questions carefully. Encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. What gives us a plan or model to be utilized in bringing various studies together? A. assumptions B. hypothesis C. method D. theory 2. What adheres to a belief that surroundings or situations influence us more in what we are today? C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 25 A. nature B. knowledge C. nurture D. skills 3. Which principle of human development supports this statement: Development as a process is complex because it is the product of different processes? A. Development is multidirectional. B. Development is plastic. C. Development is contextual. D. Development is multidimensional. 4. By understanding how characteristics develop, we can make accurate and useful predictions about learners and design effective instructional strategies based on our knowledge. What principle of human development was applied in the given statement? A. Development is relatively orderly. B. Development takes gradually. C. Development as a process is complex. D. Development is plastic. 5. What generalization would you impart to your fellow teachers who are arguing on which factor has the most significant influence on human development? A. Development is all about nature or the environment. B. Development means continuity. C. Full genetic expression happens once. D. Heredity and environment operate together. Part 2-Essay (Annex 1.3) 1. Describe briefly the principles that underlie development. 2. Differentiate the periods of human development. 3. Evaluate the different issues in human development. What do you think is the significance of studying different theories related to child development? 4. Explain briefly the different theories of child development. Cite at least two (2) theories of child development that you think are relevant at present educational settings. C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 26 RUBRIC FOR ESSAY (Adapted from rubistar) 1 – Needs CATEGORY 4 - Excellent 3 – Very Good 2 - Fair Score Improvement Content Knowledgeable, Enough Limited Does not show relevant to the knowledge of the knowledge knowledge of assigned topic. topic. Main ideas of the topic, the topic. Main Main ideas are are clear but are Main ideas ideas are not clear. not well are clear. supported by somewhat detailed clear. information. Organization well-organized, loosely organized, lack logical does not logical logical but sequencing communicate, sequencing, incomplete no organization cohesive sequencing Total 1.3. References Course hero. (2022). Module 1: Lifespan Development. Course Hero | Make every study hour count. https://bit.ly/3RvBDtc Lumen Learning. (2019). Human development | Lifespan development. Lumen Learning – Simple Book Production. https://bit.ly/3yU8Irf Paris, Ricardo, Rymond, & Johnson. (2021). Book: Child growth and development (Paris, Ricardo, Rymond, and Johnson). Social Sci LibreTexts. https://bit.ly/3sPDqwU C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 27 ACTIVITY 1.1 “MAPPING DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES” PROGRAM/YEAR/SECTION: _______________________ DATE: ____________________ GROUP LEADER: MEMBERS: Directions: Please complete the graphic organizer to concisely demonstrate your comprehension of the significant changes in each developmental period. When expressing your ideas, please refer to Rubric 1. If needed, utilize an additional sheet. SCORE: Content (C): _______; Organization (O): ________ TOTAL: _________ LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 28 ACTIVITY 1.2 “ANALYZING DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES” PROGRAM/YEAR/SECTION: _______________________ DATE: ____________________ GROUP LEADER: MEMBERS: Directions: Please complete the "Agree-Disagree" Matrix that reflects your position on various development issues. Check the box corresponding to whether you agree or disagree and provide your reasons for your choice in the provided answers. Additionally, formulate your generalizations and conclusions, considering Rubric 1 when expressing your thoughts. ISSUES EXPLANATION Write here your generalization/conclusion: ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ SCORE: Content (C): _______; Organization (O): ________ TOTAL: _________ C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 29 ACTIVITY 1.3 DIFFERENTIATED GROUP ACTIVITIES PROGRAM/YEAR/SECTION: _______________________ DATE: ____________________ GROUP LEADER: MEMBERS: “DIFFERENTIATED GROUP ACTIVITIES” 1. Singing: Theory-Themed Song Composition Compose and perform a song that explains one or more theories of child development. The lyrics should highlight the key concepts of the chosen theory (e.g., Piaget’s stages of cognitive development or Erikson’s psychosocial stages). The song can be performed as a group. 2. Poem Recital: Developmental Stage Poetry Write and recite a poem that captures the essence of a specific theory of child development. For example, you could write a poem from the perspective of a child in Piaget’s preoperational stage or a poem that reflects Erikson’s stages of identity vs. role confusion. The poem should incorporate key ideas from the theory. 3. Interpretative Dance: Movement Through Developmental Stages Create and perform an interpretative dance that represents different stages of a child’s development according to a specific theory. For example, you could choreograph a dance that moves through Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, showing progression from sensorimotor to formal operational stages. 4. Verse Choir: Choral Recitation of Developmental Concepts In a verse choir, collectively recite a poem or series of verses that outline key child development theories. The performance should be dynamic, using vocal variation, emphasis, and movement to convey the theories’ core ideas. Each group could focus on a different theory, and the recitations can be performed sequentially. C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 30 ACTIVITY 1.4 ESSAY PROGRAM/YEAR/SECTION: _______________________ DATE: ____________________ GROUP LEADER: MEMBERS: Directions: Please carefully read the following questions and provide your answers in paragraph form, taking into consideration the rubric when expressing your ideas. 1. Briefly describe at least two (2) principles that underlie development. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 2. Differentiate between the various periods/stages of human development. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 3. Evaluate the different issues in human development. What do you think is the significance of studying different theories related to child development? ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ C. M. D. Hamo-ay LEARNING PACKET 1 | PROF. ED. 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles 31 4. Briefly explain the different theories of child development. Cite at least two (2) theories of child development that you believe are relevant in current educational settings. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ SCORE: Content (C): _______; Organization (O): ________ TOTAL: _________ C. M. D. Hamo-ay