Forensic Anthropology Laboratory Manual PDF

LABORATORY MANUAL FSC 540 FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY LABORATORY (For Private Circulation Only) Name of the Student: ……………………………………………….. Registration Number ……………………………………………. Section and Group ………………………...

LABORATORY MANUAL FSC 540 FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY LABORATORY (For Private Circulation Only) Name of the Student: ……………………………………………….. Registration Number ……………………………………………. Section and Group …………………………………………………….. School of Bioengineering and Biosciences Session-term: 24251 1 General Guidelines for the students: 1. Students are expected to maintain the decorum of the laboratory by maintaining proper discipline and adhering to the University rules and policies. 2. Before coming to the lab class, students should read the principle, procedure and other related aspects from the lab manual provided to them. Having background knowledge of the experiment; students will be able to perform efficiently and effectively. 3. Students are required to write each observation in the worksheet only while performing the experiment and get it signed from the teacher. All students should maintain the lab manual and worksheet in a clean and decent form. Dress code: No specific dress code is required, however students have to wear Lab coat all the time whileworking in the lab Compulsory things to be carried by the students in lab: Lab Manual and Lab Coat (Apron) Safety Guidelines: 1. Girl students should tie long hairs for their own safety as well as for avoidingcontamination. 2. Autoclave and hot air oven may cause severe burn injuries. Therefore properprecaution should be taken while handling these instruments. 3. Students should have basic understanding of chemical, fire, radiation, carcinogen andbiological safety Do’s: 1. Always listen carefully to instructions given by class teacher and strictly follow suchguidelines. 2. Report any safety risks or incidents immediately to class teacher or to labTechnician 3. Always record y o u robservations in worksheet provided in lab manual. 4. Always keep your mobile phones in the bags in switched off mode. 5. Return all the apparatus or glass wares to the concerned lab technician after completion of the experiment. 2  Don’ts: 1. Never talk loudly or unnecessarily in the lab. 2. Do not attend mobile phones while working in the lab. 3. Do not eat or drink in the lab. 4. Never take any chemicals outside the lab. However, if there is a need to do so, take properpermission from the class teacher. 5. Never discuss unnecessarily in the lab. 6. Never leave any equipment unattended. Any other instructions: Students should make it a habit to wash their hands with soap before leaving thelaboratory 3  TABLE OF CONTENTS S.No. Experiments Page No. 1 To study characteristics features of skull 5-13 2 To study characteristic features of pelvis 14-18 3 To analyze characteristic features of long bones 19-24 4 To identify various cranial landmarks 15-32 5 To perform somatometric and craniometric measurements 33-43 6 To conduct osteometric analysis of different bones 44-48 7 To estimate age from skull 49-54 8 To determine sex from skull and pelvis 55-58 9 To estimate stature from long bones 59-62 10 To re-assemble the skeletal parts 63-67 Reference Books: 1. Anthropometry by IP Singh and MK Bhasin, Educational Publisher 2. Forensic anthropology laboratory manual by Steven Byers, Pearson 4  Experiment No. -1 1. Experiment: To study characteristics features of skull 2. Material required: Human skeleton 3. Learning Objectives: To learn the features of skull 4. Theory: Skull is the bone structure of the head. Its main purpose is the protection of brain and face. Skull is almost an enclosed structure and divided into two parts: neurocranium (braincase) and viscerocranium (facial skeleton). There are 22 bones in the human skull which amount to total 29 if hyoid and inner ear bones are included as well. Of these 22 bones, mandible or lower jaw is the only bone which remains a bit separate from the rest of the skull and movable. The cranium bones include: 1. Frontal bone: singular bone which covers the part of forehead 2. Parietal bone: these are two in number on top - left side and right side of the skull 3. Occipital bone: singular bone forming the back of skull and connecting with the occipital condyles and foramen magnum 4. Ethmoid bone: small, rectangular, singular bone visible inside the eye orbit behind the nasal bridge 5. Sphenoid bone: singular, butterfly shaped bone situated underneath frontal bone behind eye orbit. 6. Temporal bone: paired bone present on the sides of the skull around the auditory meatus. Zygomatic bone, styloid process and mastoid process also connect here. 5 6 Facial bones also form a part of a human skull. They provide support and structure to facial muscles and organs. These are 14 in number and include: 1. Nasal bone (02): forms the bridge of the nose 2. Inferior nasal conchae (02): lower bones in the nasal cavity 3. Vomer (01): bone dividing the nasal cavity 4. Lacrimal bone (02) 5. Maxilla (02): forms top area of jaw or upper jaw 6. Zygomatic (02): cheekbones 7. Palatine (02): forming part of the roof of mouth 8. Mandible (01): lower jaw 7 An infant’s skull is softer which provides it a much-needed flexibility for birthing and growth. Over a period of time, it forms a tough, fibrous membrane and bones fuse tightly to form a single skull. Most of the skull bones are joined together through sutures to form a united unit. There are around 33 sutures in skull. 8  The important sutures include: 1. Coronal suture: region of articulation of frontal bone with the two parietal bones 2. Sagittal suture: region of articulation of two parietal bones together 3. Lambdoid suture: articulation region of two parietal bones with occipital bone 4. Squamous suture: articulation region between temporal bone and parietal bone of one side 9 10  5. Outline of Procedure: 1. Wear gloves. 2. Collect the skull and identify the anterior and posterior view as depicted in figures given above. 3. Identify the different bones in the skull as given instructions. 4. Draw well labeled diagrams in separate A4 paper sheets. 6. Result: Each bone in skull would be identified. 7. Scope of result: The students will learn about each bone of skull. 8. Cautions: 1. Carefully handle the bones as well as the instruments. 2. Mark nothing on the bone and take measurements should be taken precisely. 3. Wash hand properly after handling of bones. 9. Suggested Reading: Anthropometry by Singh, I.P. And Bhasin M. K., Educational Publisher 11  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 12  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 13  Experiment No. -2 1. Experiment: To study characteristic features of pelvis 2. Material required: pelvic bones 3. Learning Objectives: The purpose of the experiment is to identify the pelvis bone by visualizing its characteristic features. 4. Theory: Pelvis form the lower part of the axial skeleton which joins with the femur thereby connecting axial to appendicular skeleton. Pelvis is formed by two pelvic bones and some parts of vertebral column namely, sacrum and coccyx. It forms a basin like structure and houses as wells as protects abdominopelvic viscera which includes small intestine, large intestine and reproductive organs. In addition to this, it helps in carrying and transmitting the weight of upper body to lower limbs of the body. Pelvic bone also known as hip bone or innominate bone forms the pelvic girdle and contains 3 different bones – ilium, ischium and pubic fused together to form one bone. Ilium lies superiorly to the hip joint whereas ischium forms the major posteroinferior part of the pelvis. Pubic bone is the anteroinferior part of pelvic bone which articulates with its contralateral pelvic bone at he median. All these three parts of the pelvic bone contribute in the formation of socket shaped articular surface called acetabulum or hip joint where femur head attaches to the axial skeleton. 14 15  5. Outline of Procedure: 1. Wear gloves. 2. Collect the bone and identify the anterior and posterior view as depicted in figures. 3. Identify the given bone as per given instructions. 4. Draw well labeled diagrams in separate A4 paper sheets. 5. Cautions: Carefully handle the bones and instruments. Do not mark anything on the bone. Wash hand properly after handling of bones. 6. Suggested Reading: Anthropometery by Singh, I.P. And Bhasin M. K., Educational Publisher 16  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 17  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 18  Experiment No. -3 1. Experiment: To analyze characteristic feature of long bones 2. Equipment required: Femur, humerus, ulna, radius, tibia. fibula, clavicle 3. Learning Objectives: The purpose of the experiment is to study characteristic features and identify long bones. 4. Theory: There are 206 bones in the body which are further classified into five (5) different types on the basis of their shape: long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones and sesamoid bones. Long bones are those which are long than wide. They are hard, dense and provide strength and mobility to the body. There are about 90 such bones in the body and most of them are present in the upper and lower extremities. These include femur, humerus, clavicle, ulna, radius, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges. Femur: Longest and strongest bone of body and is present in the thigh. It is divided into three regions: proximal end, shaft and distal end. Proximal end articulates with pelvic bone through its head called acetabulum and also includes neck and trochanters. Majority of the femur is made by shaft which is round, thick and runs end to end. Distally the femur articulates with patella which settles in its distal groove and with tibia bone through the condyles present on with side of groove. 19 Humerus: Present in the upper part of the arm, it lies between shoulder and elbow joint. It consists of three major parts- proximal point, shaft and distal point. The proximal part connects with the shoulder joint of scapula. The shaft is long round region which provides attachment location to muscles and connect proximal and distal part of humerus. The distal part connects to the radius and ulna through elbow joint. Ulna: This bone stretches from elbow joint to the little finger of the hand. It lies on the medial side of forearm and runs parallel to the radius. It consists of proximal end, shaft and distal end. Proximal end articulates with humerus and is broader. Shaft has slightly triangular shape and possesses three borders and surfaces. The distal end, smaller than the proximal end, articulates with radius to form radio-ulnar joint near wrist. Radius: It is another bone of the forearm and has three parts- proximal, shaft and distal region. The proximal end is towards the elbow. The shaft is more or less triangular in shape with diameter expanding distally. The distal end is rectangular in shape which articulates with ulna to form radio- ulnar joint. 20 Tibia: Second largest bone in the body and main bone in lower leg, it consists of proximal end, shaft and distal end. The proximal end is wide to allow articulation with the femoral condyles for facilitating weight bearing. Shaft is prism shaped with three borders and surfaces. The distal end is also wide which forms tibiofibular joint for ankle and articulates with tarsal bones. Fibula: It is a slender lateral bone in the lower leg which consists of three parts- proximal end, shaft and distal end. The proximal end articulates with tibia and contributes in weight bearing. Like tibia, fibula shaft also possesses three borders and surfaces. The distal end articulates with tibial distal end to form tibiofibular joint for ankle region. Clavicle: Also known as collar bone, it is the only long bone placed horizontally in body. It is S- shaped elongated bone lying across ribcage, articulating at the proximal end with the manubrium of sternum and distally with the acromial end of scapula. The shaft of clavicle provides attachment region and several muscles. 21 5. Outline of Procedure: 1. Wear gloves. 2. Collect the bone and identify the anterior and posterior view as depicted in figures given above. 3. Identify the given bone as per given instructions. 4. Draw well labeled diagrams in separate A4 paper sheets. 6. Result: The landmarks of each bone would be identified. 7. Scope of result: The students will learn about the characteristics of each bone. 8. Cautions: Carefully handle the bones and instruments. Do not mark anything on the bone and take measurements precisely. Wash hand properly after handling of bones. 9. Suggested Reading: Anthropometery by Singh, I.P. And Bhasin M. K., Educational Publisher 22  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 23  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 24  Experiment No. -4 1. Experiment: To identify various cranial landmarks 2. Material required: human skull 3. Learning Objectives: The purpose of the experiment is to learn the various landmarks present in the human skull 4. Theory: Cranial landmarks are the standard regions or points which define a morphological characteristic or its location in the skull. These may be the region of bony protuberances, locations of suture joining or certain depths or depressions present in a skull. These are helpful in radiological or anthropological skull measurements as their inter-distance is individual specific. There are various landmarks identified in a skull and some are mentioned below: 1. Alare (al): The most laterally positioned point on the anterior margin of the nasal aperture. This point should be marked on both the right and left sides of the nasal aperture. 2. Alveolon (alv): The point where the midline of the palate is intersected by a straight tangent connecting the posterior borders of the alveolar crests. 3. Auriculare (au): It is defined as a point on the lateral aspect of the root of the zygomatic process at the deepest incurvature, wherever it may be. 4. Basion (ba): The point where the anterior margin of the foramen magnum is intersected by the mid-sagittal plane. The point is located on the inner border of the anterior margin of the foramen magnum directly opposite of Opisthion. 5. Bregma (b): The point where the sagittal and coronal sutures meet. 6. Candylion (cdl): The most lateral points of the mandibular condyles. 7. Dacryon (d): The point on the medial border of the orbit at which the frontal, lacrimal, and maxilla intersect. 8. Ectoconchion (ec): The intersection of the most anterior surface of the lateral border of the orbit 25 and a line bisecting the orbit along its long axis. 9. Ectomolare (ecm): The most lateral point on the lateral surface of the alveolar crest. This point is generally positioned on the alveolar margin of the second maxillary molar. 10. Euryon (eu): The most laterally positioned point on the side of the braincase. Euryon always falls on either the parietal bone or on the upper portion of the temporal bone and may be determined only by measuring maximum cranial breadth. 11. Frontomalare temporale (fmt): The most laterally positioned point on the fronto-malar suture. 12. Frontotemporale (ft): A point located generally forward and inward on the superior temporal line directly above the zygomatic process of the frontal bone. 13. Glabella (g): The most forwardly projecting point in the mid-sagittal plane at the lower margin of the frontal bone, which lies above the nasal root and between the superciliary arches. 14. Gnathion (gn): The lowest point on the inferior margin of the mandibular body in the mid-sagittal plane. 15. Gonion (go): The point on the mandible where the inferior margin of the mandibular corpus and the posterior margin of the ramus meet, i.e. the point on the mandibular angle which is directed most inferiorly, posteriorly, and laterally. 16. Infradentale (id): The point between the lower incisor teeth where the anterior margins of the alveolar processes are intersected by the mid-sagittal plane. 17. Lambda (I): The point where the two branches of the lambdoidal suture meet with the sagittal suture. 18. Nasion (n): The point of intersection of the nasofrontal suture and the mid-sagittal plane. Nasion corresponds to the nasal root. 19. Nasospinale (ns): The lowest point on the inferior margin of the nasal aperture as projected in the mid-sagittal plane. 26 20. Opisthocranion (op): The most posteriorly protruding point on the back of the braincase, located in the mid-sagittal plane. 21. Opisthion (o): The point at which the mid-sagittal plane intersects the posterior margin of the foramen magnum. 22. Prosthion (pr): The most anterior point on the alveolar border of the maxilla between the central incisors in the mid-sagittal plane. 23. Zygion (zy): The most laterally positioned point on the zygomatic arches. 24. Alveolare (alv): the lowest single point on the bony septum between the upper central incisors. This can be confused with Infradentale, which is the comparable point between the lower central incisors. It is used to measure upper facial height. 25. Apex: the highest single point on the frontal section defined by left and right Porion with the skull oriented to the Frankfort Plane. The apex is posterior to Bregma. 26. Orbitale (orb): a paired point at the lowest part of the orbital margin. It is used to define the Frankfort Plane and to measure orbital height. 27. Pogonion (pg): the most anterior single point on the midsagittal plane of the mandible; the front of the chin. 28. Porion (po): paired points at the most lateral part of the superior margin of the external auditory meatus. It is used to define the Frankfort Plane and to measure mastoid length. 29. Pterion (pt): a paired point on the upper end of the greater wing of the sphenoid. This is more often a region than a point. 30. Vertex: the highest single point on the midsagittal section of the skull when positioned in the Frankfort Plane. 27 28 29 5. Outline of Procedure: 1. Wear gloves. 2. Collect the skull and locate the landmarks as depicted in figures given above. 3. Identify the landmarks as per given instructions. 4. Draw well labeled diagrams in separate A4 paper sheets. 6. Result: Cranial landmarks would be located and identified. 7. Scope of result: The students will learn about the important landmarks in the skull. 8. Cautions: 1. Carefully handle the bones. 2. Do not mark anything on the bone. 3. Wash hand properly after handling of bones. 9. Suggested Reading: Anthropometery by Singh, I.P. And Bhasin M. K., Educational Publisher 30  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 31  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 32  Experiment No. - 5 1. Experiment: To perform somatometric and craniometric measurements 2. Equipment required: spreading caliper and sliding caliper (with blunt ends), anthropometer rod, Steel tape. 3. Learning Objectives: The purpose of the experiment is to take measurements using sliding caliper and spreading calipers. 4. Theory: Somatometry means the measurements of the living body including head and face. Measurements should not be taken with shoes on. Minimum number of clothes should be worn at the time of measurements. The subject must stand erect on a level floor against a wall where his back and buttock touch the wall. Again, the feet should remain parallel to each other and the heels need to touch the wall. Arms should hang to the maximum; the palms of hands need to touch the thighs. Both the shoulders should be on same plane. The head should rest without any strain in the eye-ear plane or Frankfurt plane, i.e., tragion and the right orbitable must lie in one plane. All measurements except those concerned with mid sagittal plane must be taken on the right side of the body as because it is easier to handle the instruments with right hand. The subject should be asked to seat on a low stool of about 40cm height at the time of taking the measurements on head and face. The head must be straight, looking forward. Measurement landmarks: 1. Alare (al): It is the most laterally projected place as a point on the nasal wing. It has to be determined at the time of measuring the nasal breadth. 2. Chelion (ch): This point is situated on the mouth-opening line where the lateral margins of the upper and lower lips meet. It denotes the extreme comer points of the mouth. 3. Euryon (en): It is the most laterally placed point on the parietal side of the head. Such a point is only determined by trial method at the time of measuring the maximum head breadth. 4. Frontotemporale (ft): The medial most point on the temporal line—the most anterior and inner point on the linea temporalis or temporal line on the frontal bone. The first finger must be placed on the margin of the anterior and lateral wall of the forehead above the orbits. 5. Glabella (g): It is the most prominent point on the protuberance in the median plane between the two eyebrows. This protuberance is found at the lower forehead above nasal root, which is situated between the eyebrow ridges intersected by mid-sagittal plane and just above the naso- frontal suture. 33 6. Gnathion (gn): It is the lowest point on the mandible where the lower margin of the lower jaw is intersected by the mid-sagittal plane. It can be palpated on the lower jaw from the back but placed slightly anterior to chin. 7. Gonion (go): It is the lowest posterior and most lateral point on the angle (formed by the body and the ramus of the mandible) of the lower jaw. The point is located at the lateral side of the angle. 8. Inion (i): It is a point at the meeting region of the superior nuchaeal lines in the mid-sagittal plane. This point can be felt at the junction between the posterior protuberance and the neck, at an extreme posterior position. The tip of this external occipital protuberance is taken as a landmark for measurement on the living body. 9. Labrale Superior (Is): This point is located in the mid-sagittal plane and so can be cut by a tangent, placed at the highest elevation of the upper margin of the integumental hp. 10. Labrale Inferior (li): This point is located at the lower margin of the lower lip, in the mid- sagittal plane. 11. Nasion (n): It is a point at the junction where the frontal bone meets the nasal root, being intersected by the mid-sagittal plane. In case of living body this point cannot be seen. Therefore it is only felt by means of finger and found at the naso-frontal suture which is located deep in the nasal root. It has to be identified by probing at the depression of the nose. Usually nasion lies in the level of the medial end of the eyebrows, mostly at the lower margins, which is away from the height of the eyebrows. 12. Opisthocranion (op): This point is the most posterior point on the back of the head. It corresponds to the mid-sagittal plane on the posterior protuberance. 13. Orbitale (or): It is the deepest point on the lower border or margin of the eye socket. It can be easily felt through the skin by first finger. 14. Pronasale (prn): It is the most anteriorly placed point on the tip of the nose when the head is placed in mid-sagittal plane. 15. Subnasale (sn): It is a point between the lower surface of nasal septum and the upper lip. 16. Prosthion (pr): It is a point on the lower margin of the gums of upper jaw at the mid-sagittal plane between the middle of incisors. It can also be defined as the most downward point on the lower border of the gum. 34  17. Stomion (sto): It is the point just at the junction of the two lips in the median plane otherwise the slit of the mouth with close lips as cuts at the mid-sagittal plane. 18. Subaurale (sba): It is the lowest point on the lower margin of the ear lobe. 19. Superaurale (sa): It is the highest point on the margin of helix of the ear. 20. Trichion (tr) or Crinion: It is the point on the median plane of the hair limit where the anterior border of the hair on the forehead cuts the mid-sagittal plane. 21 Tragion (t): It is a point on the upper margin of tragus where tangents drawn to the anterior and upper margin of this cartilage cut each other. It is on the junction of the anterior-inferior root of the helix with the tragus cartilage. It lies 1-2 mm below the helix spine. Some scholars accept it in the middle of the tragus or at the tip, but others count it at the ear opening or auriculare. 22. Vertex (v): It is the highest point on the top of the head in mid-sagittal line when the head is in eye- ear plane. It is not a fixed anatomical point, rather depends on the orientation of the skull. 23. Zygion (zy): It is the most laterally placed point on the zygomatic arch. These points are to be determined at the time of measuring the bizomatic breadth. 5. Outline of Procedure: 1. Wear gloves. 2. Take measurements on living being as per given instructions. Take measurements as follow: 1. Maximum Head Length: This measurement is the straight distance between glabella (g) and opisthocranion (op). The opisthocranion is the most projecting point of occipital bone, which is located on the upper surface of the head in the mid-sagittal plane (Spreading Caliper). 2. Maximum Head Breadth: This measurement shows the straight distance between the two eurya (eu), i.e. euryon to euryon. For an accurate finding, measurement should be taken at right angles to mid-sagittal plane (Spreading Caliper). 3. Auricular Height of head or Head Height: This measurement shows the projective distance between tragion (t) and vertex (v) (Anthropometer rod). 4. Minimum Frontal Breadth: This measurement reveals the straight distance between the two frontotemporalia (ft). It is actually a linear distance from frontoteraporale to frontotemporale (Spreading Caliper). 5. Breadth of Bizygomatic Arch: This measurement shows the straight distance between the two zygia (zy), i.e. the distance from zygion (zy) to zygion (zy) (Spreading Caliper). 35 6. Bi – Gonial Breadth: This measurement shows the straight distance between the two gonia (go). Instrument: Spreading Caliper with blunt ends. 7. Nasal Height: This measurement reveals the straight distance between nasion (n) and subnasale (sn). Instrument: Spreading Caliper with blunt ends. 8. Circumference of the Head or Horizontal Circumference of the Head: This measurement shows the maximum circumference of the head in horizontal position (Steel tape). 9. Stature or Height Vertex: It is the measurement of vertical distance from vertex (v) to floor (Anthropometer). 10. Sitting Height or Sitting Height Vertex: This measurement shows a vertical distance from vertex (v) to the sitting surface of the subject when vertebral column is stretched to its maximum (Anthropometer). 1. Craniometry is concerned with the technique of measurement on the cranium and face of the skeleton. Craniometry includes measurement of different types, for example liner, angular, depth, volume, arc, etc. and hence, different types of instrument are needed to take different types of measurements. Some measurement are taken directly taken on the skull, while others are measured on the tracking of the skull. Direct measurements are taken allowing the skull to rest on a pad or by mounting it on a craniphore. Tracing is done with help of a set of instruments designed for the purpose. Cranial landmark are well defined and are easier to locate in comparison to those used in somatometry. As in somatometry, in Craniometry also it is always necessary to have full knowledge about the landmarks, to locate them accurately, and then to take the measurement correctly following the standard technique. In times of measuring a skull record should be kept as regards its identification (skulls preserved in Museum and laboratory are appropriately numbered and that must be noted) as well as the date and the place of taking measurement along with the investigator‘s name. In order to take measurement, more particular measurement, the skulls must be oriented on a fixed plane, which must be well defined and accepted by all workers.One of this plane is the FRANKFURT HORIZONATL (F.H) PLANE. This is an internationally accepted standard procedure. When the right and left porion (the deepest point on the upper margin of the external auditory meatus) and the orbital, preferably the left one, if not the two (the deepest on the inferior margin if the orbit ) of the skull are on the same horizontal plane, it is said to be on the Frankfurt horizontal plane. This plane is used as a constant plane in measuring and describing a skull. Another plane known as NASION-INION PLANE is used to take a few angular measurements. When the nasion and inion are on the same horizontal plane, it is called nasion- 36 inion plane. Numerous measurements and indices have been proposed by different scholars. Here, however a limited number of those have been included. The shape and size of the skull of man and his near relatives, the primates – both living and extinct – can be obtained by Craniometry. The values thus obtained can be fruitfully and meaningfully compared. This sort of study comparatively anatomy helps to establish the phylogenic relationship among them and thereby to learn about the evolutionary trends in man and primates. The correlations among the different parts of the skull can be established through Craniometry , and such the missing portions of a skull can be reconstructed. Moreover a skull can be reconstructed from the available measurements of the skull even if it destroyed or lost. 37 2. Outline of Procedure: 1. Wear gloves. 2. Collect the bone and identify the anterior and posterior view as depicted in figures given above. 3. Identify the given bone as per given instructions. 4. Draw well labeled diagrams in separate A4 paper sheets. Take measurements as follow: 1. Maximum Cranial Length (g-op): distance between glabella (g) and opisthocranion (op) in the midsagittal plane, measured in a straight line by using spreading caliper. 2. Maximum Cranial Breadth (eu-eu): maximum width of skull perpendicular to midsagittal plane wherever it is located, with the exception of the inferior temporal lines and the area immediately surrounding them by using spreading caliper. 3. Bizygomatic Diameter (zy-zy): direct distance between most lateral points on the zygomatic arches (zy-zy) by using spreading or sliding caliper. 4. Basion-Bregma Height (ba-b): direct distance from the lowest point on the anterior margin of foramen magnum (ba), to bregma (b) by using spreading caliper. 5. Cranial Base Length (ba-n): direct distance from nasion (n) to basion (ba) by using spreading caliper. 6. Basion-Prosthion Length (ba-pr): direct distance from basion (ba) to prosthion (pr) by using spreading or sliding caliper. 7. Maxillo-Alveolar Breadth (ecm-ecm): maximum breadth across the alveolar borders of the maxilla measured on the lateral surfaces at the location of the second maxillary molars (ecm) by using spreading caliper 8. Maxillo-Alveolar Length (pr-alv): direct distance from prosthion (pr) to alveolon (alv) by 38 using spreading or sliding caliper. 9. Biauricular Breadth (au-au): least exterior breadth across the roots of the zygomatic processes (au), wherever found by using sliding caliper. 10. Upper Facial Height (n-pr): direct distance from nasion (n) to prosthion (pr) by using sliding caliper. 11. Minimum Frontal Breadth (ft-ft): direct distance between the two frontotemporale (ft) by using sliding caliper. 12. Upper Facial Breadth (fmt-fmt): direct distance between the two external points on the frontomalar suture (fmt) by using sliding caliper. 13. Nasal Height (n-ns): direct distance from nasion (n) to the midpoint of a line connecting the lowest points of the inferior margin of the nasal notches (ns) by using sliding caliper. 14. Nasal Breadth (al-al): maximum breadth of the nasal aperture (al-al) by using sliding caliper. 15. Orbital Breadth (d-ec): laterally sloping distance from dacryon (d) to ectoconchion (ec) by using sliding caliper. 16. Orbital Height: direct distance between the superior and inferior orbital margins byusing sliding caliper. 17. Biorbital Breadth (ec-ec): direct distance between right and left ectoconchion (ec) by using sliding caliper. 18. Interorbital Breadth (d-d): direct distance between right and left dacryon (d) by using sliding caliper. 19. Frontal Chord (n-b): direct distance from nasion (n) to bregma (b) taken in the midsagittal plane by using sliding caliper. 20. Parietal Chord (b-l): direct distance from bregma (b) to lambda (1) taken in the midsagittal plane by using sliding caliper. 21. Occipital Chord (l-o): direct distance from lambda (l) to opisthion (o) taken in the midsagittal plane. 22. Foramen Magnum Length (ba-o): direct distance from basion (ba) to opisthion (o) byusing sliding caliper. 23. Foramen Magnum Breadth: distance between the lateral margins of foramen magnum at the points of greatest lateral curvature by using sliding caliper. 24. Mastoid Length: vertical projection of the mastoid process below and perpendicular to the eye-ear (Frankfort) plane by using sliding caliper (and craniophore). 39 40 6. Result: The landmarks for measurements will be identified and measured with help of spreading and sliding calipers, etc. 7. Scope of result: The students will learn about the measurements on living human being. 8. Cautions: 1. Carefully handle instruments. 2. Take measurements precisely. 9. Suggested Reading: Anthropometery by Singh, I.P. And Bhasin M. K., Educational Publisher 41  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 42  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 43  Experiment No. -6 1. Experiment: To conduct osteometric analysis of different bones 2. Material required: ulna, radius, humerus, femur, tibia, fibula, pelvis, osteometric board, sliding caliper, metal tape. 3. Learning Objectives: The purpose of the experiment is to take osteometric measurements of different bones. 4. Theory: Long bones are hard, dense bones that provide strength, structure, and mobility. The thigh bone (femur) is a long bone. A long bone has a shaft and two ends. Some bones in the fingers are classified as long bones, even though they are short in length. 5. Outline of Procedure: 1. Wear gloves. 2. Collect the bone and identify the anterior and posterior view. 3. Identify the given bone as per given instructions. 4. Observe and measure the long bones by using osteometric board. Take measurements as follow: Ulna: 1. Maximum Length: distance from the most superior point on the olecranon to the most inferior point on the styloid process by using osteometric board. 2. Anterior-Posterior (Dorso-Volar) Diameter: maximum diameter of the diaphysis where the crest exhibits the greatest development in anterior-posterior (dorso-volar) plane by using sliding 44 caliper. Radius: 1. Maximum Length: distance from the most proximally positioned point on the head of radius to the tip of the styloid process without regard for the long axis of the bone. Instrument: osteometric board. 2. Anterior-Posterior (Sagittal) Diameter at Midshaft: distance between anterior and posterior surfaces at midshaft. Instrument: sliding caliper. Comment: determine the midpoint of the diaphysis on the osteometric board and mark with a pencil. Humerus: 1. Maximum Length: direct distance from the most superior point on the head of the humerus to the most inferior point on the trochlea. Humerus shaft should be positioned parallel to the long axis of the osteometric board. 2. Epicondylar Breadth: distance of the most laterally protruding point on the lateral epicondyle from the corresponding projection of the medial epicondyle. Instrument: osteometric board. 3. Vertical Diameter of Head: direct distance between the most superior and inferior points on the border of the articular surface. Instrument: sliding caliper. Femur: 1. Maximum Length: distance from the most superior point on the head of the femur to the most inferior point on the distal condyles. Instrument: osteometric board. 2. Bicondylar Length: distance from the most superior point on the head to a plane drawn along the inferior surfaces of the distal condyles. Instrument: osteometric board. 3. Epicondylar Breadth: distance between the two most laterally projecting points on the epicondyles. Instrument: osteometric board. 4. Maximum Head Diameter: the maximum diameter of the femur head, wherever it occurs. Instrument: sliding caliper Tibia: 1. Length: distance from the superior articular surface of the lateral condyle to the tip of the medial malleolus. Instrument: osteometric board. Fibula: 1. Maximum Length: maximum distance between the most superior point on the fibula head and 45  the most inferior point on the lateral malleolus. Instrument: osteometric board. 2. Maximum Diameter at Midshaft: maximum diameter at midshaft. Instrument: sliding caliper. 5. Result: The long bones will be measured using osteometric board. 6. Scope of result: The students will learn about long bone measurements and use of osteometric board and other instruments 7. Cautions: 1. Carefully handle the bones and instruments. 2. Do not mark anything on the bone and make observations precisely. 3. Wash hand properly after handling of bones. 8. Suggested Reading: Anthropometery by Singh, I.P. And Bhasin M. K., Educational Publisher 46  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 47  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 48  Experiment No. -7 1. Experiment: To estimate age from skull 2. Material required: skull. 3. Learning Objectives: The purpose of the experiment is to estimate the skeletal stature from long bones. 4. Theory: The coronal suture is the cranial suture formed between the two parietal bones and the frontal bone. At the junction of coronal, sagittal and frontal sutures is the anterior fontanelle which is open at birth and usually fuses at around 18-24 months after birth. Fusion of the coronal suture occurs at around 24 years of age. Suture closure occurred for sagittal, lambdoid, coronal, parieto-mastoid, parieto-temporal and baso-occiput with baso- sphenoid at age group of 50-60 years, 45-55 years, 50-60 years, 55-70 years, 60-70 years and 18-25 years respectively. Cranial suture closure Teeth are another important feature for age estimation. Humans are diphyodont i.e. they have two sets of teeth- temporary/deciduous and permanent teeth. The eruption and shedding of these teeth in the oral cavity follow a set pattern. This pattern serves as the age indicator. The following images show the known age range of emergence and shedding of these teeth. 49 50  5. Outline of Procedure: 1. Wear gloves. 2. Collect the bone and identify the anterior and posterior view as depicted in figures given above. 3. Identify the given bone as per given instructions. 4. Draw well labeled diagrams in separate A4 paper sheets. 5. Observe the suture closure in the skull and estimate the age of the diseased and determine the sex from the skull. 6. Result: The skeletal age and sex will be determined from the skull. 7. Scope of result: The students will learn about the age estimation and sex determination from the skull. 8. Cautions: 1. Carefully handle the bones and instruments. 2. Do not mark anything on the bone and take measurements precisely. 3. Wash hand properly after handling of bones. 9. Suggested Reading: Anthropometery by Singh, I.P. And Bhasin M. K., Educational 51  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 52  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 53 54  Experiment No. -8 1. Experiment: To determine sex from skull and pelvis 2. Material required: skull and pelvis 3. Learning Objectives: The purpose of the experiment is to determine sex from morphological features of skull and pelvis 4. Theory: Pelvis is considered to be highly sexually dimorphic and hence serve as the best indicator of sex. However, in case of its unavailability, skull is the second-best sex indicator in the skeleton. The accuracy of sex determination from pelvis alone is 90-92% and skull alone is 80-90%. This accuracy increases beyond 95% if both pelvis and skull are present. Identifying features for male and females are based mostly on size and architecture There are various morphological and metric features indicative of sex Skull: Feature Male Female Size Large and rugged Small and smooth Mastoid Large and projecting Small and non-projecting Supra-orbital ridges Large Small or indistinct Frontal Slanted Rounded Frontal eminences Not prominent prominent Nuchal area Rugged with hook Smooth without hook Supraorbital margin Rounded Sharp Orbit Squarish Rounded Chin Broad Pointed Palate U shaped Parabolic 55  Pelvis: Feature Male Female Size large and rugged Small and gracile Ilium High and vertical Low and flat Pelvic inlet Heart shaped Circular Subpubic angle V-shaped U-shaped Obturator foramen Large and ovoid Small and triangular Greater sciatic notch Narrow Wide Sacrum Long and narrow Short and broad 5. Outline of Procedure: a. Wear gloves. b. Collect the bone and study the sex specific characteristics of pelvis and skull as mentioned above. c. Write observations of each feature for both bones separately. d. Analyze the outcome of all features taken together and determine the sex from the skull and pelvis. 6. Result: Sex would be estimated from skull and pelvis. 7. Scope of result: The students will be able to determine the sex of a skeleton from its skull and pelvis. 8. Cautions: a. Carefully handle the bones and instruments. b. Do not mark anything on the bone and make observations precisely. c. Wash hand properly after handling of bones. 9. Suggested Reading: Forensic anthropology laboratory manual by Steven Byers, Pearson 56  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 57  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 58  Experiment No. -9 1. Experiment: To estimate stature from long bones 2. Material required: femur, humerus, ulna, radius, tibia, fibula, osteo-metric board, scale 3. Learning Objectives: The purpose of the experiment is to stature of a person from its skeletal remains 4. Theory: Stature is one of the important pillars for building biological profile of an individual. Research states that there is a strong correlation between living height and bones. If the whole skeleton is present, it can be aligned in anatomical manner and measured as such. To such measurement, a constant for compensating the tissue depth is added to obtain the approximate height. However, the full skeleton mostly may not be recovered intact. In such cases, individual bones are analyzed. Hence, a number of formulas have been developed for estimating height from different bones of the skeleton through regression method. The lengths of long bones are more accurate in height determination and are preferred bones for the purpose. This way stature reconstruction can be studied intensely for the skeleton. The table shows the formulae for stature calculation for males and females separately. Bone Male Female Femur 2.701 * Total length + 48.10 2.624 * Total length + 49.26 Tibia 2.891 * Total length + 62.95 2.351 * Total length + 80.11 Fibula 2.832 * Total length + 66.96 2.487 * Total length + 76.51 Humerus 3.574* Total length + 57.21 2.534 * Total length + 86.62 Ulna 4.534 * Total length + 53.33 3.346 * Total length + 82.82 Radius 4.525 * Total length + 61.22 3.530 * Total length + 83.29 59 5. Outline of Procedure: a. Wear gloves. b. Collect the long bones and separate them as male or female c. Measure the total lengths of the bones and put the lengths in the formulae mentioned above as per the bone and sex. d. Note down the stature estimated through the formula for each bone 6. Result: Stature would be estimated from long bones. 7. Scope of result: The students will be able to determine the stature from the long bones of a skeleton. 8. Cautions: a. Carefully handle the bones and instruments. b. Do not mark anything on the bone and make observations precisely. c. Wash hand properly after handling of bones. 9. Suggested Reading: Forensic anthropology laboratory manual by Steven Byers, Pearson 60  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 61  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 62  Experiment No. -10 1. Experiment: To re-assemble the skeletal parts 2. Material required: all skeletal bones 3. Learning Objectives: The purpose of the experiment is to assemble the bones anatomically 4. Theory: On the recovery of skeletal remains especially commingled remains, it is important to separate the bones of one individual from other and estimate the number of victims involved. The bones recovered are unattached to each other due to loss of soft tissues. The bones upon their collection are cleaned and re-arranged in anatomical order. This ensures the number of bones, record the missing bones and also helps to ascertain the injury or other attributes of the person. This overall helps in creating the biological profile of the individual as well as study the bones for trauma etc. For this, the bones are segregated as per their size classification (long, short, irregular, flat). These bones are further identified as specific bones as per their individualistic characteristics. Once the bones are positively identified, the side of the bones are determined (left or right). These bones are then placed on a table in respective anatomical order. 5. Outline of Procedure: a. Wear gloves. b. Collect all the bones and segregate them as per their classification of long, short, irregular or flat. c. Identify each bone in each category. d. Determine the side of each identified bone e. Place the bones in anatomical order on a table. f. Note the observations for each bone once re-arranged as skeleton. 63 6. Result: Bones would be re-arranged in anatomical order. 7. Scope of result: The students will be able to re-arrange bones in proper order based on their classification and analysis. 8. Cautions: a. Carefully handle the bones and instruments. b. Do not mark anything on the bone and make observations precisely. c. Wash hand properly after handling of bones. d. Suggested Reading: Forensic anthropology laboratory manual by Steven Byers, Pearson 64  Worksheet of the student Date of Performance: Aim: Observations: 65  Result and Discussion: Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt): To be filled in by Faculty S.No. Parameter (Scale from 1-10, 1 for very poor and 10 Marks Max. Marks excellent) obtained 1 Understanding of the student about the 20 procedure/apparatus. 2 Observations and analysis including learning outcomes 20 3 Completion of experiment, Discipline and cleanliness 10 Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained 66 67