GST103: Use of Library, Study Skills (Information Literacy) and ICT PDF

GST103: USE OF LIBRARY, STUDY SKILLS (INFORMATION LITERACY) AND ICT Introduction Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write. This is however a general definition. Other literacies do exist e.g. computer literacy, IT literacy, information literacy, etc. The fo...

GST103: USE OF LIBRARY, STUDY SKILLS (INFORMATION LITERACY) AND ICT Introduction Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write. This is however a general definition. Other literacies do exist e.g. computer literacy, IT literacy, information literacy, etc. The focus of this lecture series is on information literacy. Information literacy has been described by different authors including Gilster, (1997) who sees it “as the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computer/electronic networks”. Others define it “as the ability to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information” (Hinchliffe & Woodard, 2001; Elsenberg, Lowe & Spitzer, 2004). Similarly, Ojedokun (2007) sees information literacy as “an intellectual framework for identifying, finding, understanding, evaluating and using information as a prerequisite for lifelong learning, a basic requirement for the information society”. From the various definitions considered it becomes obvious that information literacy is different from the general literacy that has to do with the ability to read and write. It must be noted however that information literacy encompasses other literacies such as: tools literacy which is the ability to understand, adapt, evaluate and use current and emerging information technology; information resource literacy which is the ability to understand the type, characteristic, format, location and access methods of information resources. Others are social-structural literacy or knowing how information is socially situated and produced; the research literacy which is the ability to understand and use the IT-based tools relevant to the work of today’s researcher and scholar. It also includes the publishing literacy which is the ability to format and publish research and ideas electronically employing the whole array of ICTs; the emerging technology which is the ability to continually adapt to, understand, evaluate and make use of the continually emerging innovations in information technology and critical thinking literacy which is the ability to critically evaluate information sources and information. RATIONALE FOR INFORMATION LITERACY SKILLS (ILS) TRAINING According to the Association of Research and College Libraries (2000), Information literacy  forms the basis of lifelong learning.  is common to all disciplines, to all learning environments, and to all levels of education.  enables learners to master content and extend their investigations, become self- directed, and to assume greater control over their own learning. 1 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIBRARY AND INFORMATION LITERACY THE CONCEPT OF DATA AND INFORMATION Overview In this unit, we shall discuss the concept of data and information. We shall attempt to define data and information, show the relationship between data and information, information and knowledge as well as knowledge and communication. We shall also highlight the qualities of information. Finally, we shall describe the various sources of information as well as the use. Learning Objectives At the end of this module, students should be able to:  Define information and related concepts  Define information literacy  Highlight the qualities of information  Explain the characteristics of information  Identify the various sources of information  Identify formats of information  Explain the different uses of information  Outline types of information  Itemize uses of information Topics  Definition of information and related concepts  Qualities of information  Characteristics of information  Sources of Information  The different formats of information- Print, Non-print  Types of information  Uses of information CONCEPTS OF DATA AND INFORMATION What is data? Data can be defined as facts that are known from which inferences can be made. Better still, data can be defined as a representation of raw facts that must be processed. From these definitions, it is clear that data in its original form does not convey any meaning. It can also be seen as transactions from the outside world. From the various definitions considered, the one forwarded by Ojedokun (2007) was adopted. It defines information as “statement of facts, figures, ideas and creative works 2 of the human intellect, which are logically or by way of reasoning interrelated, and have been communicated, recorded, published, and/or distributed formally or informally in any format”. It follows that information can be considered as the bye- product of the transformation process being carried out on data that is, when data is processed, information results as output. The relationship between data and information can be schematically represented as follows: DATA PROCESS INFORMATION 2,2 2*2 4 FIG. 1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION In FIG.1, 2,2 which represents data does not convey any meaning initially but when it is processed, that is 2 is multiplied by 2 as can be seen and this results in generating output of 4, it then becomes meaningful. At this point, some concepts that impinge on information that emerged will be considered. These concepts and their relationship with information shall be discussed in the next sub- section. Emerging Concepts of Data, Knowledge and Communication and their relationship with Information Data according to Hayes (1992) is defined as recorded symbols. According to this definition, just about anything from printed characters to spoken words represent data. It appears raw and meaningless. However, when this raw, meaning recorded symbol is processed, it becomes information. Information is actually defined as processed data. Thus, it can be concluded that information evolved out of data and that without data there cannot be information. Knowledge is defined as a person’s range of information meaning that the person’s range of information will determine his/her knowledge rating. A professor’s range of information is expected to be different from an undergraduate’s. This analysis simply shows that knowledge is built on information. The more information one has, the more knowledgeable he becomes. Communication is seen as an interactive process involving the exchange of information. When communication is said to have taken place, it simply means, information had been exchanged. Thus, it can be seen that information arises out of communication. Information is the product of communication. Information has no value except it is communicated. Communication is the platform through which information travels. Thus, communication is the process where information is the product. Process and product cannot be separated. This relationship can be illustrated as follows: DATA INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE COMMUNICATION/AREA OF COMPETENCE FIG.2: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFORMATION AND RELATED CONCEPTS 3  FIG.2 can be explained as follows: When data is processed, we get information, when information is further subjected to processing, we get knowledge as bye-product and finally when knowledge is processed, we talk about communicating the knowledge being acquired and this results in area of competence. From the foregoing, information:  is connected to knowledge and communication  consists of spoken words, written communication, sheets of music, photographs, paintings and scientific formulae.  must have a context from which we can understand it.  must have a meaning.  comes from many sources.  can be discovered and created (research) QUALITIES OF INFORMATION From the various definitions of information considered, the following qualities summed up with the acronym CART emerged: Currency Accuracy Relevance Timeliness HOW WOULD YOU CHARACTERISE INFORMATION? In this section, we shall discuss four characteristics of information. Factual Information When information given to you is a fact and does not require you to give further explanation, then the information is factual, in other words, factual Information can be regarded as facts that are usually given as short non-explanatory answers. A purely factual information provides no explanation of its statements, just as a purely factual question often requires only a short non-explanatory answer from a friend or a quick look-up in a factual source. Examples of these sources are: dictionaries, atlases, etc. All of which can be found in the Bowen University Library collection. Analytical Information However, if you have to interpret the fact given, then the information is analytical. Analytical Information is therefore the interpretation of factual information. To analyze factual information you would need to gather or read more that one source of factual information. With this you produce an analysis of the available facts. It embodies:  Interpretations  Analysis  Criticisms Examples include: Reviews, statistical digests, dissertation/theses, political commentaries, books, subject encyclopedias, reports, etc. Subjective Information is the information that represents a person’s opinion or viewpoints on a topic. It presents information from an individual point of view. It features opinion and 4 personal viewpoints. Whilst subjective information can be based on fact, it is one person’s interpretation of the fact. Subjective information is mostly found in sources such as: Newspapers (mostly editorial columns) Advocacy web sites, Reviews Objective Information is one that represents observable findings. This is a non-judgmental or balanced reporting. It presents unbiased information that represents multiple points of view. It features nonjudgmental, balanced, neutral reporting of facts. Objective information is mostly found in sources such as: Encyclopedias, Handbooks, Journal articles SOURCES OF INFORMATION Information sources are the various means by which information is recorded for use by an individual or an organization. It is the means by which a person is informed about something or knowledge is availed to someone, a group of people or an organization. Information sources can be observations, people, speeches, documents, pictures, organizations. Information sources can be in print, non-print and electronic media or format. There are three ways by which information can be categorized. Information can be categorized based on its originality and proximity to the source of origin as Primary, Secondary and Tertiary (Ojedokun, 2007). Primary Information This is information in its original form e.g. raw data such as statistics that have been collected but not yet analyzed, first reports of research studies, electronic news reports available on the internet, etc. When a source provides information that has not been published anywhere else, or put into a context or interpreted or translated by anyone else, that source is a Primary Information source (or a Primary Publication). Primary sources are fundamental, authoritative documents relating to a subject, and are used in preparation of a later work.  These are original materials on which other research is based.  They are usually the first formal appearance of research results in the print or electronic literature.  They present information in its original form, neither interpreted nor condensed nor evaluated by other writers.  Not translated by anyone else.  Have not been published elsewhere Examples of primary sources are: first report of scientific work (students’ projects or theses), an original artwork, a handwritten manuscript, a newspaper account of an event written by a reporter on the scene, treatise, autobiographies, correspondence, diaries, interviews, Photographs, research journals etc. Primary information is a first appearance of information and much of its value as a source derives from this fact. Secondary Information This is the information removed from its original (primary) source and repackaged. It is a restatement, examination, or interpretation from one or more primary sources. When a source leads you to primary information, i.e. providing you with enough information to allow you to find the primary sources, it is called a Secondary Information Source (or Secondary Publication). Secondary source are any material other than primary sources used in the preparation of a written work. 5   Secondary sources are edited primary sources.  Repackaged primary sources  They represent someone else's thinking.  They describe, interpret, analyse and evaluate the primary sources.  They comment on and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources. Examples of secondary sources include periodical indexes or bibliographies that cite primary works, a newspaper index, and books (some books are however also primary sources because they are the first publication of that particular subject). Others are: Reviews – periodic or irregular review articles, Encyclopedias, Yearbooks, Directories, Manuals and Handbooks. Tertiary Information Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources. They are twice removed from the original source and their main purpose is to list, summarise or simply repackage ideas or other information. Examples are Abstracts, Indexes, Citation indexes, Library catalogue, Literature guides, Current awareness journals, etc. THE DIFFERENT FORMATS OF INFORMATION Information can be communicated, searched, retrieved, and stored/recorded in different formats. Format refers to the medium used to present or store the information. Based on the above, the following formats have been identified: 1. Print Format includes but is not limited to: Newspapers, Magazines, Textbooks, Pamphlets, Dictionaries, Indexes and Bibliographies. 2. Electronic Format refers to computer technology media in which information is recorded and/or stored, and from which information is retrieved. Examples include Databases, Online Catalogue, Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM), Audio and Video tapes. 3. Micro-Formats (sometimes called Microforms) allow for the miniaturization and archiving of large quantities of information into a relatively small space. They include Microfilms and Microfiches. DESCRIPTION OF LIBRARY MATERIALS 1. Textbooks These are works written on widely varying themes and they range from documentary to technical books to novels and nonfiction books. They are written by researchers or experts and are only published after passing through editors or publishers. Therefore books can be considered a source of information wherein assignments of responsibilities for the quality of that information are relatively clear. Books can be in print or electronic (e-books). 6 Books offer relevant sources of information when looking for an overall background on an issue, when you want to put your topic in context with other important issues, and when you want to find summaries of research to support an argument. In Bowen University Library, they are identified by the "BK" barcode, located on the library shelves in reading rooms according to their subject areas and can be used within or borrowed out of the library. 2. Periodicals A periodical literature is defined as published work or writings on a particular subject in a particular style at regular intervals. They are publications issued at regular intervals and are also referred to as Serials. They include publications such as journals, newspapers, or magazines published on a regular basis -daily, weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, bimonthly, quarterly or yearly. The information in periodicals covers a wide variety of topics and is very up-to-date. Periodicals are available in both print and electronic formats. Common types of periodicals include popular magazines (or general interest magazines), professional and trade magazines, scholarly journals, newsletters, and newspapers. The two basic types of periodicals are: journals and magazines. Periodicals are the best source for current and up-to-date information in a particular field. Most research papers require the use of scholarly journals, but information found in general interest sources can be useful in obtaining background information, public opinion, etc. They usually consist of a collection of articles ranging from a single page story in a magazine to a 40 page study in a scholarly journal. In Bowen University Library, they are identified by the "P" barcode, shelved in the Periodicals/Serials section according to their subject areas and can only be used within the library, they cannot be borrowed. Types and Uses of Periodical Literature Trade or Commercial Periodicals: These types of periodicals are published for commercial purposes to provide information on business. Practical information and concerns in a particular industry are discussed here. They contain business news, product information, advertising, trends in technology, and law. They include colorful illustrations and advertisements. They are published weekly or monthly. They are not subject to peer review. The purpose of this periodical is to make money rather than to provide information. They are targeted at professionals in that industry or students researching that industry. Examples include Aviation Week and Space Technology., American Libraries, etc. Scholarly or Professional Journals: According to Ojedokun (2007), scholarly journals have articles written by authorities in a specialized field (that is, scholars in the field or discipline). They are issued by professional institutions or associations to provide news and events like forthcoming workshops and conferences, etc. These journals give reports on original research or experimentation, which is often on specific academic disciplines and constitute an important part of the literature in the subject area. The contents of this 7 research are subject or peer-review process. Articles include footnotes or bibliographies to other sources using standardized citation format. The target audience is the scholarly researcher, faculty, and students, that is, members of a professional organization. These journals are published three times in a year, quarterly, 5 or 6 times in a year, bi-annually, or annually. Examples include Journal of Banking and Finance, African Journal of Economic Policy, Journal of the American Medical Association, Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, etc Popular Magazines: These are periodicals for general reading for the purpose of informing and entertaining. They have a glossy look to attract causal reader, have short articles and written in simple language, and include extensive advertisement and photographs. The articles contained here are usually on various subjects by different authors and sources are rarely cited. They are aimed at the general public and are good sources of current news and opinions. Examples include Ebony, Newsweek, Ovation, etc. Newspapers: These provide current news and vital information on a wide range of topics issued at stated, frequent intervals (usually daily). They contain news, opinions, advertisements, and other items of current, often local, interest. Examples are The Punch, The Guardian, The Sun, Vanguard, etc. Characteristics of Periodical Literature The main characteristics of journals are: a. They have plain covers. b. They are mostly text. c. They have authors with institutional affiliations or professional titles. d. They usually have an abstract at the beginning of each article. e. They contain scholarly references, including a bibliography or list of references. f. They contain very little or no advertisement. g. They consist of longer articles (compared to a magazine). h. They contain tables and graphs rather than photographs. The main characteristics of magazines are: a. They have a glossy look to attract the casual reader. b. They contain lots of advertisement. c. They consist of short articles (compared to journal). d. They have lots of photographs in them. The main characteristics of newspapers are: e. They are frequent publication. f. Information is printed on newsprint. g. They have unbound sections. h. They contain lots of advertisement. i. News reports are written by field reporters. j. They contain lots of photographs. k. They provide answers to who, what, when where, why, how. Roles/Advantages of Periodical Literature 8  Periodicals provide current, up-to-date and research-based information on a particular discipline or subject because they are published frequently.  They act as the basis of scholarly communication system.  They provide additional information which may not be covered in textbooks or in a syllabus, because they discuss current events long before they become the subject of a book  Periodicals advertise business at a cheaper cost compared to that of television stations.  They entertain users.  They promote a reading culture.  They include varieties of views and opinions readily available from different authors.  They contain information on the latest trends, products, research and theories  They are the best source of ephemeral or very specialized information.  More topics may be covered within one volume of a periodical than in a book due to the shorter length of periodical articles.  They exist for every field and every interest, providing access to a variety of hard-to- find information. 3. Pamphlets These are documents with 50 pages or less. They are treated as pamphlets. They are filed in steel cabinets located in the reading rooms according to their subject areas.. In Bowen University Library, they are identified by the "PH" barcode and "PAM" preceding the call mark and can only be used within the library, they cannot be borrowed. An example is a pamphlet titled “essentials of investment in fish farming” the call number will appear thus: PAM SH 51.A96 2003. 4. Special Collections These are documents published by federal, state and government parastatals and materials published by other organizations like Universities, World Banks, research institutes, etc. Their arrangements and location are different from other library materials. They can be identified by the "GP" (government publication) barcode, "BDSC" preceding the call mark, meaning "Bowen Documentation and Special Collection" and abbreviations such as CTA (Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation), WHO (World Health Organization), FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), etc. Any call number with any of the above is a special collection and they are located in the Research section of the library. 5. Reference Materials These are authoritative works that provide specific answers or information. There are many types of reference sources, including atlases, dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesauri, almanacs, manuals, biographies, and handbooks, among others. Each type is available either in print, on CD-ROMs and the Internet. References are a good information source for an overview of a subject area as well as for facts, figures, addresses, statistics, definitions and dates. They cannot be borrowed out of the library, but can only be used in the library. There are many types of reference sources, including dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesauri, directories, almanacs, and handbooks. But in broader terms, reference works can also include materials such as bibliographies, atlases, gazetteers, manuals, or statistical sources. 9 Entries in reference sources are usually arranged either in alphabetical order, classified order, chronological, order or as databases. When arranged alphabetically, entries are by first letters of the topic or a person’s last name and this may be supported by an index and cross-references between related topics or people; when arranged by classified order, entries are divided into categories by topic, geographical region, group identity or some other principle requiring the use of an index to find references to specific topics; when arranged chronologically, entries are organized by date. Often in electronic databases, entries may be in reverse-chronological order, that is the most recent date or information is listed first. In electronic databases, each record contains fields which may be searched. These fields in a database for books include author, title and subject and may also include the date or notes about the book. Unsearchable fields include the publisher or place of publication. In Bowen University Library, they are identified by the "R" barcode and "Ref" preceding the call mark and can only be used within the library, they cannot be borrowed out. Characteristics of Reference Sources: i. They are authoritative works that can be referred to for specific answers or information. ii. They are used to define a given topic and can provide background or introductory information on a topic. iii. They suggest ways of finding materials on a topic or provide statistical or tabular data, as well as technical instruction. iv. They are consulted for information and cannot be read from cover to cover e.g. dictionaries, encyclopedia. These provide factual and detailed information which answer specific query. v. Reference books cannot be checked out of the library because they are usually referred to for particular pieces of information. The writing style used in these works is informative. Categories of Reference Sources Reference sources are categorized into two namely: i. The general and ii. The subject specific The general reference collections include general language dictionaries such as Oxford English Dictionary, general encyclopedias such as Encyclopedia Britannica, books in print and other general reference sources. The subject specific reference sources are subject related. They are shelved in the library extension according to their classes in which they belong. Types of Reference Sources There are two types of reference sources: a. Those which contain the information needed like handbooks, dictionaries, etc. b. Those which tell the user where the information can be found like Information Access Tools e.g. indexes, bibliographies, etc. 10 There are two main formats of reference sources namely: 1. The electronic format, and 2. The print format. The print format are the conventional books. They can have a single copy of several volumes depending on the extent of coverage and the style of presentation e.g. World Book Encyclopedia has 22 volumes, Encyclopedia Britannica has 29 volumes. Example of Reference Sources Reference sources answer different types of questions. The common example of reference sources and the kind of information contained in each are as follows:  Abstracts – Abstracts summarize the contents of a large work, such as a book or an article. Abstracts can be used to give a researcher a general idea of the contents of a work itself. If one reads an abstract and decides that the work will be useful, then the actual work itself can be retrieved for use.  Almanacs – Almanac, a general reference source, is an annual compendium of practical dates, facts and statistics, current and/or retrospective, often arranged in tables to facilitate comparison. It also includes information regarding individual people, nations, specific events, and other types of information. It contains useful facts about a wide range of topics which includes learning about countries of the world, government, historical events and many other topics. It contains very basic information about its entries, and there is a notable absence of overly creative language throughout. Also, almanacs are a good source of brief information, and often contain citations for their sources of information. Additionally, they can be utilized for biographical or directory information. General almanacs include entries pertaining to many different subjects and topics. Examples include World Almanac and Book of Facts, The New York Times Almanac, etc., while specific almanacs cover specific subject areas or academic disciplines e.g. Almanac of American Politics, etc.  Bibliographies – The term bibliography means a “list of books”. It however, assists in providing information about a book or other work such as film or recordings, including author, publisher, and place of publication. One may choose to utilize a bibliography when attempting to locate relevant works about a particular topic, subject, or author. They can also be used as a verification tool of checking citation information.  Biographical Sources – A biographical source is one in which information is given about individual people. They may contain very brief information about an entry, or offer more detailed and complete information about the history of someone’s life. Most often, the individuals listed have made some significant contribution to warrant their inclusion in the source. One may choose to use a biographical source when wishing to find information about a specific person in a certain filed. Example includes Who’s who in Africa, McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography, etc.  Dictionaries – Dictionary was derived from ‘dictionarius’ which means ‘a collection of words’ (Gates, 1994). Dictionaries include alphabetically arranged information 11  about words or phrases, either generally, such as in Webster’s New World College Dictionary, French Dictionaries, Oxford English Dictionaries or in a more specific sense, such as A Dictionary of 1,000 Best Films, McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. They may offer information such as spelling or definitions. We have General Dictionaries, Subject Dictionaries and Special Purpose Dictionaries. General Dictionaries gives the common usage definition and some can go as far as describing their origin, and special meanings, giving the correct spelling and pronunciation, and also provide examples of how to use them with the appropriate social connotations. They may give synonyms, antonyms, illustrative quotation, map and places, biographical facts, geographical and historical information. Examples include Concise Oxford Dictionary, Oxford English Dictionary (Has 22 vols.). Subject Dictionaries give definitions and usage of technical, medical, or subject specific works for specific fields. Examples are Dictionary of Computer, Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, etc. Special Purpose Dictionaries are used in particular circumstances or situations, not for a specific subject e.g. for quotations, acronyms, antonyms, etc. Examples: English-French Dictionary, Fowler’s Modern English Usage, etc.  Directories – Directories include information about people or organizations arranged alphabetically. Entries include information such as addresses, and affiliations for people, and other information for organizations, such as finances, officers, and purposes of the organizations. Directories are often used to find specific information about people or organizations, information about a company’s services or products, individuals in particular organization responsible for different tasks, and biographical information or the history of an organization. Special Purpose Directories include research directories which list research works either ongoing or completed in a particular area for a given period of time. Examples include Telephone Directory, Directory of Research Grants, Who’s who in the United Kingdom Information World, Directory of Lawyers, Financial Aid for Research and Creative Activities Abroad.  Encyclopedias – These are a numbered set of books containing authoritative summary information about a variety of topics in short essay forms, usually arranged alphabetically by headword or classified in some manner. Headwords and texts are usually revised periodically for publication in a new edition. Any indexes are usually located at the end of the last volume in multi volume encyclopedias. Encyclopedias are 2 categories namely – the general encyclopedia and the subject encyclopedia. The General Encyclopedias cover nearly all subjects in a broad overview with the scope and detail related to type and level of expected user. Examples include the Encyclopedia Britannica (it has 9 volumes), The World Book (22 volumes), etc. while The Subject Encyclopedias cover particular fields in a more detailed and at a higher level depending on the type and scope. Examples include 12  Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Encyclopedia of Social Work, Business Encyclopedia, etc.  Gazetteers – These are separately published dictionary of geographic names that gives the location of each entry. It is also an index of the names of places and geographic features shown in an atlas, usually printed in a separate section following the maps, with locations indicated by page number or grind coordinated or map number. Examples are the US Gazetteer, The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, etc.  Geographical Sources – These help in locating places and are needed for recreation, business, and current events. Examples include, Atlases, Maps, Gazetteers, and Travel literature. Travel Literature provides climatic information, mileage guides, geographical dictionaries, and political/geographic information on individual country. Examples of these sources are Historical Atlas of Africa, The Times Atlas of the World, Atlas of Tanzania, etc.  Government Publication – These are publications issued by local, state, national or international governments. They provide primary information on the government and cover a wide range of topics which include laws, statistics, departmental plans, annual reports, gazettes, census/population statistics, national development plans, etc. These publications are placed on the web as html or PDF files.  Guides – Guides provide information in printed handout or leaflet that explains how to use a library service, e.g. Online catalog, interlibrary loan, etc; describes important resources on a subject (World War II), in a discipline (History), or of a specific form (government documents, periodical articles, etc.), or explains how to accomplish something (cite sources in a particular bibliographical style, compile an annotated bibliography, etc.). Guides are tools that are often the best possible resources to sue for a certain task. For instance, a guide to reference books would offer entries that describe the best possible reference resources for libraries and would serve to offer assistance to a library that wishes to evaluate its reference collection. There are many different types of guide available, covering a vast array of subject areas, including guides to pamphlets, periodicals, newspapers, and government documents.  Handbooks – Handbooks are reference sources that concentrate on a specific subject area and usually focus on established information as opposed to the latest, most current developments in the filed. The use of many handbooks often requires having a basic knowledge of a subject area because they often contain information and use language that may be difficult for causal readers to comprehend. Handbooks cover a limited area of knowledge, and can be used by people interested in gaining specific in-depth knowledge about a specific topic. Handbooks are sometimes used interchangeably with manuals and guides; contain data and tables of information that are updated on an annual basis. They contain scientific data, formulas, etc. Examples: A Handbook of Management, Handbook for Teachers in Universities and Colleges, etc.  Indexes – Indexes are tools which allow a user to various access points to locate needed information. Access points can include author, title, subject or publisher, 13  among other things. Entries in an index have been carefully analyzed in order to determine which terms are most likely to be sued as access points by an index user. Also, indexes vary in scope from the general, such as Lexis Nevis Academic, to the specific, such as Criminal Justice Abstracts. An index may be used in certain situations in which one has a particular area of interest and desires works relating to that interest, or possibly an author name or title to be used to locate works.  Manuals – Manuals, much like handbooks, deal with a very specific subject matter and is narrow in scope. However, the material covered within the manual is often quite detailed and difficult to understand unless the reader possesses some type of background knowledge of the subject. Manuals, like handbooks, are often used when one needs information dealing with a specific topic or procedure on a much more focused detail-oriented level.  Statistical Sources – These focus specifically on charts and tables or statistical measures and numbers. The largest compilers and publishers of statistical information, from population data, to indicators of business and economic activity, to climate trends, are the state, national, and international government bodies. Examples are International Financial Statistics, handbook of Industrial Statistics, African Statistical Yearbook, UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, United Nations Demographic Yearbook, etc.  Yearbooks – Yearbooks are reference tools that contain information pertaining to a specific year. While a yearbook does not contain information from previous years, it does contain quite a bit of information dealing with that one particular year, often separated by characteristics such as subject area or geographic boundary. While many yearbooks are general in scope, there are also many that deal with particular topics and include statistical information. 6. Students’ Projects Projects written by final year students of the institution can also be found in the library. They are located in closed shelved (closed access) in the Research section of the library. They are identified by the "TH" barcode and can only be used within the library, they cannot be borrowed out. 7. Multimedia Items Non-print materials are located in the multimedia room in the e-library. They include electronic databases, video tapes, CDs and audio cassettes of discipline-based materials and CDs that accompany some books on the library shelves. They can be identified by "MM" barcode. a. Databases A database is a collection of information in electronic form that is organized in a manner that allows a user to easily retrieve information about its individual entries. They are usually collections of citations of articles in journal, magazines, newspapers, dissertations, reviews and abstracts. The content of databases has undergone a review process and the information is more reliable than information found on the Internet. Often databases provide access to full-text magazine and journal articles whilst some contain abstracts or brief summaries. 14  Types of Online/Specialized/Research Databases Bibliographic Databases Bibliographic databases contain records/representations of information sources. It does not include a complete text of the publication. A record typically includes the bibliographic information that enables you to retrieve or trace the information source such as a book. Some bibliographic database also gives you an abstract. e.g. OPAC  Full-Text Databases A full-text database contains a complete text of journal articles, chapters and etc. When searching full text databases you do not need to make any further effort to trace the publication. You can print or save the copy. e.g. Springer Link  Directory databases Directory databases provide factual information about or links to the information about organizations, companies, products, individuals or materials. They usually do not contain the needed information but contain links or pointers to the needed information Numeric Databases These databases provide mostly numeric data (numbers) in chart or table format. In some cases, they provide raw data (survey results, scientific studies, etc.) that can be downloaded to your computer, so that you can analyze it and create your own reports.  Multimedia Databases Quite often databases contain more than one data type, such as a combination of bibliographic records with full-text, or a directory with multimedia (audio or image files). b. Online Catalogue: This is a computerized record of books and other materials held by a library/group of libraries. It is also known as Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC). c. Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) This is a flat, round optical disk that can store vast amount of information. It can store information of various types textual, graphic, numeric, pictorial, hypermedia, etc. Video tapes 15  Other electronic formats include:  Software packages with numeric data or other types of information  Nettworked resources available over networks such as the internet. This consists of a variety of resources. Examples include the World Wide Web pages, and electronic journals.. In Bowen University Library, CD-ROMs and Videos, including those accompanying library textbooks are kept in the Multimedia room. d. Microfilm– is a reel of 16mm or 35mm film. Microfilm is often used to store journals and magazines as well as many other types of documents. e. Microfiche– is a flat sheet of images often used for government documents, company annual reports and other types of information. Libraries often store rare or out-of-print materials on microfilms or microfiches for preservation purposes. Both types of microforms may be viewed using the readers in the Microform Reading Room. 16 INFORMATION TYPES Information formats can incorporate a variety of information types. They are characterized based on the manner of presentation (Ojedokun, 2007). Although some of these have been mentioned in the course of this lecture, it is important to fully explain them. These are: oral, textual, numeric, bibliographic, graphical information, audio, and multimedia. Oral Information Oral information refers to interviews, conversations, and narration of events (eyewitness accounts) or experiences. It can be delivered in the form of radio/TV programs, audio and video presentations. Textual Information Textual information refers to documents that present facts, viewpoints, research findings, fictions, prose, poetry, etc. Texts can be delivered in the form of books, journal articles, government documents, research and technical reports. Bibliographic Information Bibliographic information consists of references or citations to other works – often to texts such as books, journal articles, government documents, and published and unpublished technical reports. Bibliographic information consists of “pointers” which help you verify the existence of textual types of information. In a text, a bibliographic reference can be displayed by having the author’s name, the date of publication, and the source of the information listed. 17 Examples of bibliographic information Numeric Information Numeric information is data in the form of numbers. They can also be collections of statistics of data collected and published by the government, such as the various district censuses available in print. Examples are: Nigeria Foreign Trade Summary (GP NBS 07 003), Annual Abstracts of Statistics 2006 (GP NBS 08 053). Graphical Information Graphical information is pictorial representations of some realities, in the form of pictures, maps, diagrams, charts, tables, 3-D models, or perhaps combinations of any of these. Graphics can be print-based or electronic. Maps and atlases, for example, often contain cutaway drawings of continents, mountain ranges, or other physical features. Graphics become much richer, of course, on computer screens, because they can often be manipulated or changed. Multimedia/Hypermedia Information Multimedia/hypermedia refer to the bringing together of other types of information – text, numeric or data, graphics, audio and video – so that the “whole is greater than the sum of its parts”. In other words, multimedia or hypermedia seeks to create a seamless whole of various streams of data for greater sensory appeals, but even more importantly, to create a more powerful way of learning and understanding complex events or phenomena. Web 18 technology is moving toward text, sound, and graphical integration in ways that traditional print materials never could. USES OF INFORMATION Recognizing that an information need exists There must be a need for information before it can be put to use. In other words, the first step in the information problem solving process is to recognize that an information need exists and to define that need. The needs and uses would be defined based on the:  Work activity (occupation)  Discipline/Field/Area of interest (intellectual)  Availability of facilities  Hierarchical position of individuals in an organization  Motivational factors for information needs  Need to take a decision  Need to seek new ideas  Need to validate the correct information  Need to make professional contributions  Need to establish priority for discovery, etc. The uses could however be affected by a variety of factors such as:  The background, motivation, professional orientation and other characteristics of the user, and  The social, political, economic, legal and regulatory systems surrounding the user. Differentiating between Information Literacy and Information Technology 19 REFERENCES Hayes, Robert (1992). The measurement of information. In Conceptions of Library and Information Science, Pertti Vakkari and Blaise Cromin (eds.) London: Taylor Graham Martin, William J. (1995). The Global Information Society. England: Aslib Gover. Ojedokun, Ayoku A. (2007). Information Literacy for Tertiary Education Students in Africa, Ibadan, Nigeria: Third World Information Services. Reitz, Joan M. (2004). Dictionary for Library and Information Science. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries unlimited. Reuben, Brent D. (1992). The Communication-information Relationship in System- theoretic Perspective. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. Stonier, Tom (1991). Towards a new theory of information. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 20 MODULE 2: ORGANIZATION OF INFORMATION Overview In order to retrieve the needed information, it is really important to know how the information is organized. Organization provides access to information or a collection. There are several ways to organize information in order to find it easily. Libraries use organization schemes to classify information according to the academic discipline or area of knowledge (class) the information fits into. In this unit, we shall define the term ‘information organization:, and discuss why information resources are organized in the library. We shall also discuss how information resources are organized in libraries and most importantly in Bowen University library. Learning Objectives At the end of this unit, students should be able to:  Define information organization  Explain why the library organizes information  Explain how information resources are organized in the library  To become familiar with how information is organized in the library.  To identify the two approaches to information organisation TOPICS  What is information organization?  Why organize information?  Information Repositories-Libraries, Archives, Museum, Documentation Centers, etc.  Definition and evolution of the library  Types of libraries  Functions of libraries  Rules of the library  Using the book  Roles of library in education  Organization of the library  Organization of University libraries collection using BUL as example (i.e. physical location and arrangement).  Services rendered in the library 21 ORGANIZATION OF INFORMATION WHAT IS INFORMATION ORGANIZATION? It is an intellectual process of arranging/grouping/classifying information items or sources i.e. books, journals, picture etc according to common characteristic (subject) into a system that will enhance speedy access and retrieval in the library. WHY ORGANIZE INFORMATION? Information is increasing everyday, for this reason it has to be organize so that others can find it, use it to take certain decisions or add to their own knowledge. However it is very important that one knows how information is organized for easy access and retrieval. We organize because we need to retrieve. Kitchens are organized so that cooking utensils are easily accessible. Offices are also organized so that records can be retrieved when needed and work can be done. Access and retrieval can only be possible when information is organized. When information is organized it can be: - used more than once - identified easily - easily accessed - retrieved easily, i.e. retrieval depends on organization - beneficial to other people Examples of sources where information is organized includes telephone book, directories, dictionaries, encyclopedias, bibliographies, indexes, catalogues, databases, etc. Libraries, archives and museums are institutions that are charged with responsibility of keeping records or information for future use. For information to be organized, it needs to be known and the only way it can be known is to get it published. Information gets published through reviews, catalogues, books in print, periodicals, web sites and other electronic publication. DEFINITION AND EVOLUTION OF LIBRARIES A library is an institution responsible or the collection, processing and storage of recorded knowledge for the purpose of reading, studying and referencing. Islam (2004) described library as a learned institution equipped with treasures of knowledge maintained, organized, and managed by trained personnel to educate the children, men and women continuously and assist in their self-improvement through an effective and prompt dissemination of information embodied in the resources. Libraries can be said to have existed for almost as long as records have been kept. A temple in the Babylonian town of Nippur, dating from the first half of the 3rd millennium BC, was found to have a number of rooms filled with clay tablets, suggesting a well-stocked archive or library. Similar collections of Assyrian clay tablets of the 2nd millennium BC were found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt. Ashurbanipal (reigned 668–c. 627 BC), the last of the great kings of Assyria, maintained an archive of some 25,000 tablets, comprising transcripts and texts systematically collected from temples throughout his kingdom. Libraries in the Western world began as archives in ancient Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. 22 These archives were record depositories kept by court scribes and religious functionaries. Two of the first libraries we know of which were recognizable as organized collections of written knowledge were at Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt and Pergamum in Hellenic Turkey. During the Middle Ages in the West librarianship and libraries were centered around monasteries. The monks were scribes and in most cases the chief scribe was placed in charge of the library. These monasteries were the only repositories of written knowledge and in a period known for its religiosity these monk librarians were accorded a high status. In the later Middle Ages the stranglehold that monasteries had on knowledge in Europe was loosened, as universities were founded in cities like Bologna and Paris, with college libraries to follow. In the 1450's the Vatican Library was becoming a sizable manuscript collection of over 1200 volumes under the patronage of Pope Nicholas V, but technical developments would soon change the definition of a large library collection. The development of movable type printing presses caused a revolution in the transmission of written knowledge and in the growth of libraries. The further development of printing led to a higher literacy rate along with the cheaper and more widely available books and sizable libraries became a status symbol among the elites of Europe. Royal libraries formed the basis of developing national libraries such as France's Bibliotheque Nationale which grew greatly during the reign of Louis XI. The beginning of libraries in America came not long after the first colonies were founded and the first library to take on a permanent status in America was the Harvard College library founded in 1638. Library history in colonial America and the early United States includes the founding of a library in Philadelphia by Ben Franklin in 1731 and ends with Thomas Jefferson selling his library to be the basis of the Library of Congress in 1814. The nineteenth century would prove to be the birth of modern libraries and librarianship. The first tax-funded public libraries were developed in New England in the 1840's and the first recorded woman to work in a library was in 1856 at the Boston Athenaeum library. Library development in Nigeria The development of library in Nigeria began in 1920 when the Lagos book club was formed. This club was formed by a group of expatriate and few Nigerians. The moving figure behind the library's creation was Sir Alan Burns, author of the 'History of Nigeria’ who was also an important figure in an expatriate book club in Lagos. Sir Alan Burns enlisted the financial support of Carnegie Foundation which contributed the bulk of the $ 6,500 used for establishing the library and the book club's books were later transferred to Lagos library. As result the Lagos Library was inaugurated in 1932. Henry Carr, a prominent Nigerian had an appreciable collection of 18,000 volumes of books. Nigerian government later bought his collections after his death in 1945. The University College Ibadan was established in 1948 and Henry Carr’s collection formed the nucleus of the University Library. Herbert Macaulay, a nationalist politician also had a library which contained documents, pamphlets, books and ephemeral materials which were very important for the history, politics and culture of the people. The British Council Library was opened in 1943 to serve as an information centre during the war as well as provide facilities for the people interested in reading. The British Council Library later established branches in Kaduna, Enugu, Ibadan and Benin City. 23 Tom Jones, a very rich Nigerian merchant directed in his will that a library should be provided from his estate for the people of Lagos. As a result of his donation for the establishment of the library a building known as Tom Jones Library came to being. The National Library of Nigeria came into existence by the National Library Act passed in September, 1964. This Act was later replaced and substituted with the National Library Decree No 29 of 1970. Libraries in Nigeria continue to develop as we have libraries in all the states as well as universities, research institutes, organizations, etc. TYPES OF LIBRARIES  National Libraries  Public Libraries  Private Libraries  Special Libraries  Academic Libraries (Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of higher learning)  School Libraries ROLES OF LIBRARIES  Custodial Role  Education Role  Research Role  Information Role  Recreation Role FUNCTIONS OF LIBRARIES Among others, libraries perform the following functions  Acquisition of information resources  Organization  Storage  Dissemination LIBRARY RULES  Silence  Comportment  Decorum  Prohibition of food items/drinks  Register in the library before borrowing books  Bags are not allowed in the reading rooms  Library items must be properly charged out  Dress code must be observed  Borrowed items are to be returned intact, as at when due, etc. 24 USING THE BOOK Library items ARE NOT TO BE:  Mutilated  Folded along the spine, at the edge or dog-eared  Marked or underlined  Torn  Stained SERVICES RENDERED IN BOWEN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY  Binding Services  Reference Services such as Referral Service; Quick Reference Question; Directional Reference Question; Inter-Library Loan; Document Delivery Service; Current Awareness Service (CAS); Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI), Database and Literature Searches etc.  Reprographic Services  Research Assistance (Advice, Guide, etc.)  User Education/Library Orientation and Instruction ROLES OF LIBRARY IN EDUCATION Library Resources and Their Role in Education Educational efforts over several years have seen the positive involvement of libraries in education by offering their referral services, information and teaching resources. Individual tutoring programs and educational classes, besides their outreach to specific people’s groups with educational handicaps taken up now by libraries, alludes to their active and enhanced involvement in education. Distribution of resource materials to institutions, including hospitals, prisons, homes for the disabled and aged, rehabilitation centers and groups with education related problems and adolescents involved in crime, unemployment and the like, makes a visible impact on their education. From the dawn of civilization to the contemporary age, the accumulation of information is a direct result of man’s insatiable pursuit of knowledge, and ever since the invention of writing paper and the advent of the computers, Libraries have taken on an aggressive role in the preservation of information written by wise men, with a vigor and enthusiasm in furthering the cause of academic research and education, and catering to the needs of millions of aspirants for information. 25 Library and Education Inextricably Tied Up 1) The library represents a structure that houses a collection of services and resources and sometimes alludes to an alternative meaning of an aggregation of useful material, published, unpublished, or audiovisual content that serves common use, be it in the field of biology, mathematics statistics or computer science. They must have certified staff for interpretation of data and explain it to those who are researching on educational inputs, information or even recreational information. In other words, they are tools in learning at all levels and an agency for selection, collection of knowledge, preserving and disseminating it to those aspiring for it. Education, on the other hand, represents a congregation of processes that enhances the positive values of a society, by imbibing knowledge, abilities and attitudes in a controlled environment like a school, leading to individual development and social competence arising from an amassing of experiences and observations. The interesting fact that comes out in this analogy is that, while the library plays the enviable part of the knowledge source and its dissemination and protects knowledge and its storage, education cannot exist on its own without a library support, and a library is redundant if it cannot pass on education. 2) A good library is like a solid rock on which people build their base for self-advancement and works for the general good of the community as a whole, and the nation in its entirety. A library is an indispensable embellishment to a school, university, museum, organization or institution, without which, any teaching institution will find it hard to impart education sans the knowledge accruing from it. A good education is imperative to impart to a human being, perfect and adequate knowledge in a rational and civic manner, withdrawing him from the realms of ignorance into the glow of enlightenment, a path of useful and factual information leading to self- education, thus leading him to enjoy intellectual self reliability that enhances his inner vision on factors like behavior, attitude, character, conduct and outlook. He will learn all aspects of knowledge, differentiate between the right and the wrong, the good and the bad, and in general, set him apart from meager men. 3) The connotation of the word,” Library”, goes far beyond the realm of just a compilation of books. It is a treasure house of information and knowledge that employs trained librarians to preserve, systematize and administer, so that they can contribute successfully to the continuing education and self improvement of men, women and children by providing meaningful assistance to identifying, extracting and disseminating proper information from the maze of material available in its resources. A research scholar will find the expertise of the scientific/ information officer on specific subjects and his ability to narrow down the search, invaluable not only in his search for facts but also on the precious time saved. In the matter of education, the library officer is best placed to guide you on the best available resources in the library, including the notations in elusive magazines and periodicals, rare books, manuscripts and microfilms, abstracts, indices and bibliography (Catalogues) which a research scholar will be hard put to find on his own. Most researchers appreciate the invaluable role of a professional librarian in advancing their quest for knowledge and the education that comes with it. 26 4) The libraries offer immeasurable scope for education and study. ORGANIZATION OF UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES AND COLLECTIONS Libraries, including University libraries, have the responsibility of organizing information for easy access, retrieval and for future use. Libraries organize information using a system of rules. The common system is classification according to content (subject) and physical organization. Classification (Subject Content) Libraries organize items by subject content. It involves grouping similar subjects together. A Classification scheme is a library tool used for arranging materials into the various subjects in the library. There are various types of classification schemes that have been developed by librarians for better organization of library materials. The most commonly used classification schemes are Library of Congress (LC) and Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) scheme. 1. Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme (DDC) DDC organizes the whole body of knowledge into ten main classes with sub-divisions. The classes were broken down from general subjects to specific subjects and he represented these using Arabic numerals and decimal points for further sub-divisions. The scheme is however not sufficient for large collections and for new bodies of knowledge that are springing up daily. Therefore, most academic and public libraries do not use it but small libraries with not so large collections do. The ten main classes are as shown below Main Class Subject represented 000-099 General works 100-199 Philosophy and related disciplines 200-299 Religion 300-399 Social Sciences 400-499 Languages 500-599 Pure Science 600-699 Applied Science (Technologies) 700-799 Arts, Fine & Decorative Arts 800-890 Literature (Belles letters) 800-999 General History, Geography & Biology 2. Library of Congress Classification Scheme (LC) The LC scheme is the most popular of all the classification schemes used in most academic libraries in the world. This is because it has great room for expansion, i.e. new subject areas can be accommodated. This scheme is what Bowen University Library uses. It uses both letters and numerals – this is called mixed notation or Alpha-numeric. The broad classes are denoted by single capital letter and further sub-divisions involve the use of numbers ranging from 1-9999 An example of mixed notation is shown below: 27  H - Social Sciences HB - Main sub-division representing Economics 172.5 - Number for Principle of Micro Economics.F72 - Author cutter number 2001 - Year of publication From the example above, the alphabet represents the general subject class H which is Social Sciences; HB is the main subdivision Economics while the number 172.5 indicates Principles of Micro Economics which is the particular topic treated in the general subject group. The cutter number, F72 represents the first 3 letters from the author’s surname (i.e. Frank, R.K. is the author of the book titled “Principle of Micro Economics”) and then we have the year of publication, 2001 Therefore the class mark for a book titled Principle of Micro Economics will be HB172.5 while the call mark is HB172.5.F72 2002. The arrangement of the books on the shelves is based on the call mark. The broad classes of the Library of Congress, scheme are outlined below: Main Class Subject represented A General works, polygraph B-BJ Philosophy, Psychology BL-BX Religion C Auxiliary Science of History D History: General, Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania E-F History: North and South America G Geography, Anthropology, Folklore, Manners and Customs Recreation H Social Science J Political Science K Law L Education M Music, Books on Music N Fine Arts P-PA General Physiology and Linguistics. Classification and Literature PA Supplement Byzantine and Modern Greek Literature PH Modern European Language PG Russian Literature PJ-PM Languages and literatures of Asia, Africa, Oceania, American India Languages, Artificial Languages P-PM Supplement Index to languages and Dialects PN, PR, PS. PZ General Literature. English and American literature PQ. Part 1 African literature in English, Juvenile literature (includes African Literature in French) PQ Part 2 Italian, Spanish, Portuguese literature PT Part 1 German Literature PT Part 2 Dutch and Scandinavian Literature Q Science R Medicine 28  S Agriculture T Technology U Military Science V Naval Science Z Bibliography, Library Science Physical Arrangement Materials are arranged on the shelves numerically by call number. A call number is made up of the library of congress number i.e. alphabet and number, cutter number, and year of publication. The cutter number is made up of the first three letters of the author’s surname or title of a book (if it is an edited work). The 3 letters of author’s surname is then converted to letter and numbers i.e. Soyinka will be converted to S69. Physical Organization Apart from subject classification, materials in the library can also be organized by their physical formats and purpose. There are two formats, they are print and non print formats. Example of print format are books, pamphlets, maps and periodicals while non print formats include audio, video, cassettes, CD-ROMs and micro formats, microfilm or microfiche. All non print materials are kept in a separate section of the library. Their location in Bowen University library would be discussed under description of library materials. All the materials discussed above can be accessed through the OPAC. To differentiate one material from another either by formats or purpose, symbols are placed before the call number, as follows: Multimedia MM Pamphlet PAM Reference REF Special collections BDSC The location of these materials is displayed on the Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) REFERENCES Katz, W. A. (1997), Introduction to Reference Work, 7th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill. Ojedokun, A.A. (2007) Information Literacy for Tertiary Education in Africa. Ibadan: Third World Information Services Limited. Ojo, S.O. et al (2003) Computing and Information Skills Fundamentals Lecture Note Series. Department of Computer Science Publication University of Botswana. Otunla, A.O. & Akanmu-Adeyemo, E.A. (2010) Use of Library, Ibadan: End Time Publishers. Payne, D. (2007). What is a Periodical? Retrieved December 2, 2009, from http://www.ocad.ca/assers/pdfmedia/dorothy+hoover+library/ what is Periodical? PDF. 29 Powell, A. (2009). Music Periodicals: how to find information in music periodicals. Retrieved on December 2, 2009 from http://lawrence.edu/library/music/muhi201how to find periodical/html Periodicals. Retrieved on December 2, 2009 from http://www.answers.com/topic/periodical. Reitz, Joan M. (2004) Dictionary for Library and Information Science. London: Library Unlimited. Rowley, J.E. (1987) Organizing Knowledge. England: Gower Publishing Company. Staffordshire University (2008). Information Services. Retrieved December 2, 2009, from http://www.staffs.ac.uk/uniservices/infoservices/library/about/collections/journals /about periodical/index.php. University Library: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (2009), Using Reference Sources; Retrieved October 29, 2009, from http://www.library.illinois.edu/ugl/howdoi/refsources.html. University of Chicago Library (2009), Reference sources; Retrieved October 29, 2009, from http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/using/how/reference.html.l. Using reference sources, Retrieved November 15, 2009 from http://www.how-to-stdy.com/study-skills/en/studying/41/using-reference-sources/ Washington University Library (2009), WSU Library Instruction: Types of Reference Resources. Retrieved October 29, (2009), from http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/usered/instrpages/reddefs/refdefs.html. What is a periodical? Information commons. Retrieved December 2, 2009, from http://www.libraries.iub.edu/index.php?pageld=1486 What is a periodical? Retrieved December 2, 2009, from http://library.mcmaster.ca/periodicals/whatist.htm 30 MODULE 3: INFORMATION ACCESS/RETRIEVAL TOOLS AND WEB SEARCHING Overview There are various access tools available for information retrieval in both print and electronic formats. These include Online Public Access Catalogue (OPACS), search engines, portals, gateways, databases, institutional repositories and library websites. The main focus of this module is to demonstrate how these tools aid in information retrieval. In this module, we shall define and explain information access tools and discuss their use in retrieving information. Learning Objectives At the end of this unit, students should be able to:  Understand the concept of information access tools  Identify and differentiate various categories of information access tool  Identify access point in OPAC and use OPAC effectively.  To retrieve accurate and relevant information based on the access tools  Understand E-Learning Topics Introduction Definition Categories of Information Access Tools  Abstracts  Indexes  Bibliographies  Library catalogues  Web Search Tools  Web Searching-definition, examples of web browsers  Search Strategy  Basic Search Tips  Search Query  Pitfalls to Avoid E-Learning INFORMATION ACCESS OR RETRIEVAL TOOLS Information access tools are finding aids designed to assist users in drawing out stored information from any information system. The main purpose is to lead users to particular types of information because it contains references to information sources. Without information access tools, many existing information would be disorganized and research would be very difficult to carry out. The format could be print or electronic. The following are categories of information access or retrieval tools: 1. Abstracts 2. Indexes 3. Bibliographies 4. Library catalogues 5. Web Search Tools A. Abstracts 31 An abstract is a brief synopsis or summary of the most important points that the author makes in the paper. It is a highly condensed version of the paper itself. The aim is to aid users to determine whether he or she will need to see the original document or not. After reading the abstract, the reader knows the main points that the authors have to make. The reader can then evaluate the significance of the paper and then decide whether or not (s)he wishes to read the full paper. Although the abstract appears first in a paper, it is generally the last part written. Only after the paper has been completed can the authors decide what should be in the abstract and what parts are supporting detail. They are usually informative and also contain bibliographic details of the original document. Examples include Annual Abstract of Statistics, Book of Abstract Pesticide Chemistry, Cowpeas, Abstracts of World Literature, Biological Abstracts, Physics Abstract, Chemical Abstract, Dissertation Abstract, Social Science Abstracts, etc. Abstracts are now available as online computer database. B. Indexes These are reference sources that point a user to the location of particular information within the document. It does not provide information sought; it only indicates where it can be found, e.g. back of the book index (it only points out page or pages where certain information can be found). An index is also a list of records in a particular subject. Example includes periodical indexes which are list of articles published in selected sets of magazine, journals or newspaper within a period of time. Examples include Education index, Humanities index, etc. Indexes are also available in online computer databases and they offer more powerful searching capabilities and enable user to cover many years with a single search. C. Bibliographies These are publications that consist of a list of books, articles and other works on a particular topic. Sometimes bibliographies are annotated, that is they include brief abstracts summarizing the important features of the works. They provide useful ways to locate the entire body of previously published literature about the person or topic and can save the user a lot of time. A bibliography gives information about the author, title, date of publication, publisher, pagination, etc. Example includes Bibliography of Science and Technology Literature, Agricultural Development in Nigeria: A Bibliography, etc. D. Library Catalogue The Library Catalogue is a database of all the information resources in the library. It is a general tool for locating or searching information resources. It will help one to identify and locate books in the collection including reference sources and periodicals. The catalogue could be a card, book or computerized catalogue often referred to as Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC). In most universities the catalogue is computerized and searchable on the Internet. It provides bibliographic description and the location of every item in the library. They are arranged in alphabetical order according to author, title, and subject for easy access. In an automated library, users can search through many access points which include keywords, author, title, subject, call mark, date of publication, ISBN, etc. Databases can also be accessible through OPAC. Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) 32 The OPAC is an online bibliographic database of all the information resources in the library. These resources include both print and electronic. The most basic function of the OPAC is the ability to browse the entire library collection. It can be used to look for something specific or general. The default mode is the basic search function, but there is also an advanced search option. The advanced search screen allows one to conduct a multiple term search while the basic search only offers one entry box. Multiple term searches are helpful if one is searching for something specific and one wants to be as precise as possible. Bowen University Library OPAC OPAC Search Options To search the database, click on Search OPAC then choose on the available search points/ access points you, the search options are: Author, Title, Keyword, Journal, ISSN/ISBN, and Call Number searches (a) Keyword Type keyword(s) or phrase(s) and click on Go to search. This type of search retrieves the largest number of results because the system searches all indexes at once. For example, the phrase CHEMISTRY will retrieve records with the words CHEMISTRY in any field, and also the words in any field in the same record. (b) Author If one knows the author’s full name, one can conduct an Author (last name first) search. Always enter the author’s last name, followed by the first name. For example, if one wants to search the Online Catalog for works by Shimmer Chinodya, one would select Author (last name first) on the drop down menu and type Chinodya Shimmer in the search box. If no matching author name is found in the catalog, the system will provide an alphabetical listing of authors nearest the spelling entered. (c) Title 33  Each information source has got a title which is also used to locate the information source using the OPAC. Select title from the drop down menu and enter all or part of the title into the search box. (d) Subject The subject refers to some form of controlled keyword. Librarians do not just assign keywords to cover certain disciplines; they use some form of agreed and standardized keywords or phrases which are known as subjects or subject headings. Enter a subject phrase or a subject word(s) in any order and select subject from the drop down menu. The system will return records which include the search term(s) in the subject headings attached to those records. If the word(s) or phrase is not found in any subject headings, the system will return an alphabetical list of subject headings nearest the spelling entered. E. Web Search Tools Web search tools help to search for information on the internet effectively using the worldwide web through a Graphical User Interface (GUI) e.g. Microsoft Office Specialist (MOS). Examples are Directories, Search Engines, Subject Gateways, Specialized Databases, and Specialized Search Engines. These search tools provide easy access to resources on the Internet. Web Search Tools Web Searching Definition and examples of Web Browser A browser is a programme used to locate, display, browse and view information on a website. When you request a web page by entering the URL in the location field of the browser, the browser contacts the web server and asks for a copy of the page. The most common browsers are Firefox, Google Chrome, Internet Explorer and Opera. 34 Search Engines- Search engines are specialized programs that assist you in locating information on the Web and the Internet. The search engine compares your entry against its database and returns a list of hits, or sites that contain the keywords. The information may consist of web pages, images, information and other types of files. Advantages of search engines 1. They provide access to a major portion of the publications available on the web. 2. They provide current materials 3. Some also use relevance ranking and offer various features to facilitate retrieval of information 4. Search engines are currently the best means of finding information from the web. Disadvantages of search engines 1. Size of the index: unless the user’s search is very specific, it may result in millions of hits. 2. There is no measure of quality: all pages are catalogued. There is the likelihood of the search engine returning hundreds of thousands of ‘irrelevant’ responses to a simple search request because of sheer number of words indexed. 3. The index is not always up to date, and sometimes, links returned by the search point to web pages which no longer exist or have changed since they were last catalogued (Ojedokun, 2007) 35 Library Gateways Gateways are websites that serve as a single point of access to collections of information sources and resources or pathways to definite Information. Portal and gateway are often used interchangeably; however gateways do not always have the same features as portals. Most of the information in these databases are not available to search engine spiders crawling the web. Each of the gateways is slightly different, but most provide access to searchable and browsable databases of internet source descriptors within their particular subject area. It is used to search for high quality information sites. Advantages of Library Gateways 1. It relieves the user the work of filtering potentially useful sources from the vast amount of information on the Internet, because, they are created by experts in the various fields, who is assumed to have identified and evaluate relevant high-quality resources. 2. The criteria used by the services for evaluation are clearly and fully defined, as these criteria are designed to assess a range of factors which affect the quality of an information source including accuracy, reliability, currency and coverage. 3. They cover the full range of internet resources, as they do not discriminate between materials according to their format. 4. There is less repetition in the search results because resources are evaluated and described at the resource level rather than individual level. 5. The services use traditional cataloguing and classification techniques, which aim to ensure accurate subject description and to facilitate retrieval of resources. Disadvantages 1. This covers a relatively small number of materials because of high level of human input. 2. The subject restricts the audience, so it has little interest to a lay person who has no high level of knowledge and understanding in the subject. Common features of a gateway Quality controlled catalogues of online resources Subject based entrances to quality assessed internet resources Classified subject keywords You can browse by subject or search by keyword Information gateways are going for online resources what librarians do for books. They are built by humans 36  Examples of Library Gateways 1. Academic information (http://www.academicinfor.net) 2. Internet Public Library (http://www.ipl.org) 3. Infomine (http://informine.ucr.edu) WorldWideScience.org is a global science gateway—accelerating scientific discovery and progress through a multilateral partnership to enable federated searching of national and international scientific databases and portals. Portals A portal is website that serves as a gateway or a main entry point ('cyber door') on the internet to a specific field-of-interest or an industry. A portal provides at least four essential services:  Search engine(s)  E-mail  Links to related sites  Personalized content. It may also provide facilities such as chat, members list, free downloads, etc. Examples of Portals 1. AOL http://www.aol.com/ 2. iGoogle http://www.google.com/ig 3. HINARI http://www.who.int/hinari/en/ 37 Web Directory A web directory is a meaningful classification of collection, or database of websites. It is a directory on the www that specializes in linking to other sites and categorizing those links (wikipedia, 2008). It is basically a subject directory. Each category may also be a listing of sub-topics. A directory may be organized topically and alphabetically within the topic. Directories are created and maintained by human editors, who review and select sites for inclusion in their directories on the basis of previously determined selection criteria. The resources listed are then annotated. However, classification of pages by subjects is not standardized, and therefore it varies according to the scope of each directory. Directories are smaller than search engines, as they index only the home page or top level pages of a site. Although, they are meant to be browsed most of them have their own search engine, and therefore can be searched. Directories are of various types: - General (this covers resources of all types) - Academic (it covers academic resources) - Commercial (which covers business related resources) and portals. Portals are directories taken over by commercial interests and then reconfigured to act as gateways to the web. Portals sites are not only link to the popular subject categories, but also offer additional services such as e-mail, current news, stock quotes, travel information and maps. A directory, when searched lists the sites that fit the searcher’s description, no matter the number of entries it contains. It does not contain detailed information about the content of the sites other than what it presumed from the subject matter. Therefore, searching a web directory required the searcher to use the broadest possible terms. Examples of web directory are: Yahoo (http://www.yahoo.com) Open Directory (http://dmoz.org) Go Directory (http://infoseek.go.com) About.com (http://about.com) Advantages of web directories 1. They are relatively easy to determine the potential relevance of materials from results displayed without having access to the materials themselves. 2. They are most effective for finding general information on popular subjects. 3. Directories deliver a higher quality of content and fewer results out of context than a search engines, as a result of hierarchical organization into browsable categories and sub-categories. Disadvantages 1. Not as comprehensive in their coverage as search engines. 38 2. Not automatically updated when sites or pages change addresses because most of them do not compute databases of their own, but merely point to them. 3. It does not discriminate between sites in terms of their quality, because those who developed them were only concerned with subject relevance of materials, and not necessarily with their quality. Directories are useful for the following: 1. For browsing and searches of a general nature especially when you requires information on popular topics. 2. When you want to see the kind f information that is available on the web in a particular field of interest. Specialized (Subject-specific) databases or portals (i.e. vertical portals) They are databases devoted to assigned subjects, created by professors, researchers, experts, governmental agencies, business interests, and other subjects’ specialists and/or individuals who have a deep interest in, and professional knowledge of, a particular field and have accumulated information and data about it. Examples 1. ERIC Clearing house (http://www.eric,ed.org) 2. Search Edu (http://www.searchedu.com) 3. Search.com (http://www.cnet.com) 4. Complete Planet (http://www.completeplanet.com 39 Search Strategy A search strategy is a plan for finding relevant information (Ojedokun, A.A. 2007). It is an important step for any information-problem solving exercise. Information search strategies involve the identification of relevant information sources, e.g. bibliographic or full text databases or the internet, etc selecting search terms or other symbols, developing search profiles, modifying profiles by interactive search strategies. It allows effective searching, leading to the identification of required information either from the library or an information system. The search preparation exercise A search preparation exercise is necessary for a good search strategy. Usually for every search made there are parameters that influence how such search should be conducted:  What is wanted? i.e. a clear and concise definition of search objectives  What is known about the search area?  What information access tools are available?  How are those access tools constructed? and  What is known about the structure of those access tools? That is can the searcher search by title, author or subject? Is Boolean operators allowed? Does it allow truncated words? And does it allow the use of wildcards? For a searcher to search for relevant information, the searcher would need to ask the following questions.  Does the topic fit within the broad subject area(s)?  Would a subject index, a general index or both suit my needs?  What type of information do I need on this topic? Is it current or historical?  Is there a subject index in print, but not electronic format that will be helpful? Boolean logic Search terms may be combined using Boolean logic, so that the most relevant results are returned. Most online catalogues and databases will have a default operator, and if you type in keywords without specifying an operator/s, it will automatically use the default. Three logical commands/operators are available in most search software – OR, AND, NOT. Some databases uses other operators, check the Help facilities. (i) OR The Boolean OR command can be used in the search statement to expand retrieval by including synonyms and closely related terms. OR: Returns results that contain either of the words you enter. This may be given as an “any of the words” option (ii) AND The AND command is used to narrow search results. Each time another concept is added using "and" the search becomes more specific. AND: Returns results that contain all the words you enter. This may be given as an “all of the words” option (iii) NOT. The NOT command is used to exclude unwanted records from search results. It is useful for differentiating two unrelated uses of the same keyword. 40 In the diagrams below, the box represents all data in the database, whilst circles “a” and “b” represent articles that include keyword “a” and “b”, respectively. Retrieved results are shown in the shaded area. Basic Search Tips The tips below will work with most search tools in their basic search options. However, it is important to be familiar with the features of the search tool the user have chosen to use. Explore their search tips, help, and advanced search strategies. Many of the search engines have other interesting features, including regional or country specific searching: and other current information, etc.  The plus (+) and minus (-) signs work the same way as the operators AND and NOT respectively in some search.  Use the plus (+) and minus (-) signs in front of words to force their inclusion and/or exclusion in searches. Use no space between the sign and the keyword e.g. + AIDS-HIV  Use double quotation marks (“ “) around phrases to ensure they are searched exactly as it is, with words side by side in the same order e.g. “south africa”. Do not put quotation marks around a single word.  Type your most important keywords first in the string.  Type keywords and phrases in lower case to find both lower and upper case version e.g. Nigeria retrieves both nigeria and Nigeria, ghana retrieves both Ghana and Ghana. Typing in upper case will usually return only the exact match.  Use truncation and wildcards (*) to retrieve variations in spelling and word form e.g. comp* will retrieve computer, computing, computation, etc.  Combine phrases with keywords, using the double quotes and the plus (+) and/or minus (-) signs e.g. + “lung cancer” +bronchitis-smoking. When you use a keyword with a + sign, you must also put the + sign in front of the phrase. However when searching for a phrase alone, you do not need to put the + sign.  When searching a document for keywords(s), use the “find” command on that page. 41   Know the default setting your search engine uses (OR or AND). This will have an effect on how you configure your search statement because, if you do not use any signs (+- “ “or AND, OR, and NOT), the search engine will default to its own settings.  Know whether or not your search engine maintains a stop word list. If it does, don’t use known stop words in your search statement. Consider also trying your search on another search engine that does not recognize stop words. Examples of stop words include: a, an, and, as, at, of, on, the, or, into, to be, etc.  Always use CAPS when typing Boolean operators in your search statements. Most search engines require that the operators (AND, OR, and NOT) be capitalized e.g. “eating disorder” AND (bulimia OR anorexia). The search engines that do no