‎⁨لغه⁩.pdf

Ch9 Semantic semantic the study of the meaning of words and sentence semantic considers with a object general or convention. Semantic roles agent subject (action) theme object description experience feeling proposition state. (feel enjoy see know no near) source, from Goal (to) instrument with locat...

Ch9 Semantic semantic the study of the meaning of words and sentence semantic considers with a object general or convention. Semantic roles agent subject (action) theme object description experience feeling proposition state. (feel enjoy see know no near) source, from Goal (to) instrument with location( on. semantics future meaning: 1- conceptual. It is the literal meaning use of word it is dictionary meaning. (ex) Needles as a sharp steel tool 2- associative meaning Association or connotation meaning example needle pain blood illness lexical relation 1- synonymy: same meaning large/ big broad wide 2- antonymy opposite meaning male female dead/ alive ‫ انواع‬antonym 1- gradable 2-and non-gradable 1-gradable less of the others warm / cold 2- none gradable negative ‫معاكس كامل‬ Dead /a live ‫طريقة الفرق بينهما‬ Gradable: ‫ يصبح المعنى صحيح‬very ‫يمكن اضافة‬ (Very warm) ‫ او اضافة‬er , est (warmer , warmest ) ‫ اما في‬non gradable ‫ ال يمكن اضافتهم لكن يمكن اضافة‬not Not dead ‫ اذا‬dead 3- hyponymy : ‫(جزء من كل )كلمة متضمنة باخري‬ red white are hyponymy of the words color (red kind of color color supper ordinate white red co_ hyponymy. 4- prototypes ‫ الكلمة االصلية‬robin /bird chair is a prototype furniture. 5-homophones ‫ نفس الصوت‬Right /write, too /to /two, flower/ flour. 6- homonyms. ( ‫كلمة واحدة مختلف المعاني (معني مختلف المعنى متشابهة الكتابة‬ Bank ‫ مصرف‬bank ‫ضفة‬ bat ‫ مضرب‬bat ‫خفاش‬ 7- polysemy: )‫كلمة واحدة مختلفة المعاني (اكثر من معنى يكون له صبة في المعاني االخرى‬ head ‫ مدير‬head ‫ راس‬foot person /mouth 8- metonymy: ‫ الكناية كلمة مكان كلمة اخرى‬container /content bottle , water whole part relation car , wheel representative symbol king , crown 9- collection : ‫ترابط او استخدام كلمتين بجانب بعض‬. salt and pepper Hammer , nail table , chair. Ch 10 pragmatics pragmatics the study of speaker meaning communication more than said invisible meaning subjective hidden or indirect meanings ‫دراسه عالمات واالشارات‬. Sign e.x Heated attendant parking ‫ترجمه الحرفيه تعني‬ ‫ الحراره‬heated ‫ حراسه‬attended ‫موقف سيارات‬. Parking ‫ تعني‬pragmatic ‫لكن في‬ ‫موقف مزود بالتدفئة ورجل يهتم بالسيارات‬. baby and toddler for sale ‫ترجمه حرفيه تعني االطفال والرضع للبيع‬ ‫ لكن في‬pragmatic ‫( اي مالبس‬clothes ). Pragmatic is the study of context and meaning not what saying. * context : two context linguistic context or co-text.: word is the set of their words used in the same phrase or sentence homonyms. ‫نفس اللفظ معنى مختلف حسب السياق الجملة‬ )‫(تفهم المعنى من الجملة‬ Bank side of river, ‫ضفة‬ / bank ) fundamental institution ‫مؤسسة مالية‬ She has to get to the bank to withdraw some cash.)‫المعنى مؤسسة مالية ( مصرف‬ 2- physical context : location of the action (building) ‫موقع الحدث‬ ‫ مثال اذا راينا كلمة‬bank ‫على بناية نعرف المقصد مصرف وليس ضفة‬ * deixis : pointing via language ‫اشارة إلى‬ 1- person deixis : (him , them , those ) 2- spatial deixis: ( here , there , near , this, that ) 3- Temporal deixis : ( now , then , last week , tomorrow, today) Reference: assumed That they use afford to refer to people or thing. ‫الفعل الذي يقوم به المتحدث باستخدام اللغة اشاره الى شيء او شخص‬. We can use proper noun. Chomsky Jennifer or other noun writer friend cat pronoun. He she it if we are not sure about the name of the thing we can refer to it by the description. e. x That blue one. Inferenced : any additional information used by the listener to the connect What it said to the most meant. ‫أي معلومات إضافية يستخدمها المستمع ليربط ما قاله المتكلم وبين الشيء الذي يريد توصيله‬. e.x where is the fresh Salad sitting? ‫اي اين يجلس الشخص الذي طلب السلطه وليس السلطه‬. He is sitting by the door. Anaphora : Back The first mission is called antecedent. e.x I found a book (antecedent) yesterday the book about English grammar. It (anaphora ) was very useful. Cataphora : forward ‫البداية يكون الضمير‬ presupposition : assumption by as speaker. e.x your brother is waiting outside ‫افترض ان عندو اخ‬ ‫‪I used to regret marrying him but I don't regret marrying now‬‬ ‫‪The preposition I married him‬‬ ‫الفعل الذي يقوم به المتحدث اثناء الكالم (يجب عند القول يصبح فعل وليس قول ‪speech acts :‬‬ ‫فقط)‬ ‫‪I will be at here at 6:00.‬‬ ‫‪.‬يجب الوصول ايضا وليس فقط القول‬ ‫? ‪requesting :Can you pass the salt‬‬ ‫‪commanding : pass the salt‬‬ ‫?‪question : Do you know how to pass the salt‬‬ ‫‪information : Salt is essential in my diet.‬‬ ‫‪promising : I will pass the salt immediately.‬‬ ‫‪Direct and indirect speech act‬‬ ‫تستخدمها بصورة معينة مثل صيغة استفهام تتطابق مباشرة مع الوظيفة ‪direct speech act‬‬ ‫مثل صيغة السؤال إذا أردنا أن نسأل سؤال فن نقوم بسؤال مباشرة إذا أردنا الطلب نطلب مباشرة‬ ‫‪e.x go away comment‬‬ ‫‪what’s the time? Question‬‬ ‫اردنا سوال فقمنا بسوال‬ ‫استخدامها يكون أكثر مهذب يستخدم صيغة معينة لكن ‪Indirect speech act : gentle‬‬ ‫وظيفة ال تطابق معها ( ال ترتبط مع الوظيفة مثال نستخدم صيغة السؤال لكن القصد هو األمر‬ ‫استخدمنا تقديم معلومة للطلب ‪e.x You left the door open.‬‬ ‫التاديب ‪politeness‬‬ ‫تستخدم الكالم لالحترام وعدم التقليل لي من شأن اآلخرين‬ ‫كل شيء يمثل تهديد لشخص اآلخر لصورة الذاتية للشخص اآلخر ‪face threatening act‬‬ ‫‪ e.x give me that paper‬أمر‬ ‫نستخدم مع السلطات العليا المدير مع ) ‪( Direct speech act‬يستخدم في هذا الكالم مباشر‬ ‫الموظفين أو االستاذ مع طالب‬ face saving act : ‫ نستخدمها لتقليل تهديد الشخص نستخدم‬indirect could you pass me that salt face : ‫ويحاول شخص حمايتها‬ ‫( صورة الفردية الذاتية أمام األشخاص اآلخرين‬ politeness ‫) نفس‬ negative face act: ‫الرغبة ان يكون مستقل وال يميز او يفرز عليه شيء‬. Independent free from imposition I’m sorry to bother you. I know you are busy. ‫اعطاء مقدمات إلظهار منظر جيد‬ Positive face act: ‫الرغبة في أن يكون متصل‬ belong , comment , to be member of a group. ‫يكون مع أشخاص(كروب ) ليس مستقل‬ Let's do this together you and I have the same problem, so…. positive face act connected ‫الرغبة في ان يكون متصل باألشخاص في مجموعة‬ e.x let’s do this together you and I have the same problem. Ch 11 Discourse analysis The study of language beyond the sentence in text and conversation or )‫دراسة اللغة خارج الجملة في النصوص ومحادثات (الجملة ما وراء اللغة‬ analyzing with the idea behind the sentence ‫تحليل الفكرة بعد الجملة‬ e.x in my childhood I remember the people life it was very simple. most the people was farmer. ‫على الرغم من وجود الكثير من األخطاء هنا لكن افتهم من‬ ‫ عدم وجود حروف الجر أو أخطاء قواعد أو إمالئية لكن نفهم نفهم المعنى هذا ما يسمى‬.‫المعنى‬ ‫ ب‬discourse analysis Cohesion ties and connection that exit within the text. ‫الروابط والصالت‬ ‫الموجودة داخل النص‬ Cohesion refers to the grammatical or lexical relationship between different element of text. e.x My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could, That car would be worth a fortune nowadays, However, he sold it to help Pay for my college education, sometimes I think I’d ruther have the convertible. ‫نفس الشخص ونفس الشيء اذا اكو تماسك لغوي‬. The connections exist between 1- people and thing, father, he he , I My, it 2-Connection between Phrase, Lincoln convertible that car, The convertible 3. Terms describe Money: bought , saving, Pay Penny, worth a fortune, sold 4- terms describe time. nowadays, sometimes once. 5- Connectors : however. How we interpret discourse in our mind Cohesion deal with the construction of the text while coherence deals with the meaning beyond the structure of the text Cohesion ‫يتعامل مع بناء جملة أو بناء النص‬ Coherence ‫أتعامل مع المعنى الموجود في النص حسب فهم القارئ‬ it people who make sense of what they read and hear e.x her that is the telephone Him I’m in the bath He ok ‫من الخطاب افتهمنا ليس من المعن‬n Conversation Analysis : The study of turn taking in conversation ‫ ( عادة المحادثة تكون مع شخصين او اكثر ال يمكن لشخص‬.‫هو دراسة المشاركة في الحديث‬ )‫واحد‬. Or A conversation is an a activity in which two or more People take turns at speaking. usually, only one Person speaks at a time and there tends to be an avoidance of silence between speaking turns, if more than one Participant tries to talk at the same time, one of them usually stop. ‫الدور في المحادثة الكالم بواسطة شخص واحد وتنتهي قبل المتكلم الثاني الكالم‬ Completion point ‫طرق تساعد المتحدث الثاني على اخذ دوره في الكالم‬. Though a number of ways By asking a question, or Pausing at th end of a Phrase or sentence. ‫ وقوف في نهاية العبارة او جملة‬، ‫ طرح سوال‬، ‫من خالل عدة طرق‬. other Participant can indicate they want to take the speaking turn , also in a number of ways. 1- making short repeated sound 2- body Shift 3-or facial expression to signal that they have to say Speech event. Speech event: we have to take account of a number of criteria , for example we have to a specify the roles of speaker and hearer and their relationship whether they are friend, men, Women, Strange, young, old etc All of these factor will have an influence on What said and how it is said, we have to describe What the topic of conversation is and in What setting it take place ‫هناك قواعد خاصة بين المستمع والمتكلم وعالقتهم سواء هم اصدقاء غرباء صغار كبار ويحب‬ ‫اخذ بعين االعتبار ثقافة المكان‬. Turn taking ‫ كيف تاخذ دورك في الخطاب و بدون توقف الخذ بدور تجنب‬Completion point Don’t asking questions , don’t pausing. one strategy of turn taking" keep the turn is to avoid having those two markers occur together. Don't Pause at the end of the sentence to make your sentence run on by using connectors Place your Pauses at points where the message is clearly in complete ; and Preferable "fill" the pause with a hesitation marker such as ( er, em ,uh,ah) the co-operative Principle Make your conversational contribution Such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged Paul Grice (1975) Here are the (Four maxims) 1- The Quantity maxims: make your Contribution as informative as is required, but not more or less than is required ‫يجب أن تكون مساهمتنا في محادثة تقدم معلومات كما هي مطلوبة ليس أقل أو أكثر‬ 2- The quality Maxim don't say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack adequate evidence. ‫يجب أن نقول كالم غير مضبوط او غلط وليس‬ ‫إثبات انه هو صحيح‬ The relation maxim be relevant ‫معلومات الزم تكون لها صلة في الموضوع‬ manner maxim be clear , brief and, orderly. ‫األسلوب واضح مختصر ومرتبه‬ Hedges ‫ أساليب تحوط في الكالم عند قول كالم غير متأكدين منه يستخدم مع هذه‬Quality maxim A word or phrase used to indicate that you are not sure that what are you saying Is sufficiently correct or complete. We can use the words (sort of kind of ) as a hedges on the accuracy of your statements as in the description e.x his hair kind of long. As far as I know, ‫تعابير تستخدم في بداية الجملة‬ now correct me if I am wrong but I am not absolutely sure but… Implicatures ‫المعاني اإلضافية التي نقلها المتحدث التمسك في مبدأ المشاركة في النصوص‬ An additional meaning conveyed by speaker and hearing to the cooperative Or Speakers imply Something that is not said e.x carol : are you coming to the party tonight? Lara : I have got an exam tomorrow. Lara’s statement is not an answer to Carlos ‘s question Lara did not yes or no Lara’s answerer implies implication and additional conveyed meaning concerning the party tonight. Background knowledge. ‫معلومات عامة المسبقة الموجودة في ذاكرتنا عن طريقها نستطيع أن نتخيل أو نخمن األشياء أو‬ ‫ المواقف الموجوده في النص‬Information that is not in a text but is used from memory by a reader to understand the text. e.x John was on his way to school last Friday. most of the people who are asked to read presume that John is probably a schoolboy. He was really worried about the math lesson Last week he had been unable to control the class It was in fire for the teacher to leave him in charge After all, it is not a normal part of janitor’s duties ‫الجملة الثالثة أعتقد أن أنه مدرس‬ ‫في الجملة الرابعة اكتشفنا ليس هو مدرس‬ ‫في الجملة الخامسة عرفنا انه الحارس‬ Schema ‫لألشياء‬ A conventional knowledge structure in memory for specific thing such as a supermarket food is a displayed on shelves arranged in aisles et cetera background knowledge ‫تمتلك‬ We have many schemas that are used in the interpretation of what we experience and what hear or read about. for example we have schema a classroom that it means we know what inside classroom. Script ‫ أفعال مرافقة مع‬Scheme ‫ نفس‬schema ‫لكن مع حركة‬ A conventional Knowledge structure in memory for the series of action involved in event such as going to the dentist A script is essentially a dynamic scheme e.x Trying not to be out of the office for long, Suzy went into the nearest place, sat down and ordered an avocado sandwich. It was quite crowded, but the service was fast, so she left a good tip. Back in the office, things were not going well. ‫في المثال لم نقول جميع التفاصيل عند الذهاب إلى أي مكان عند فتح‬ ‫الباب عند البحث عن الطاولة فارغة أو عند طلب الحساب والدفع جميعها موجودة لكن لم نذكرها‬ ‫في المثال ألننا نعرف ماذا يحدث في من ذاكرتنا وبدون ذكرها في النص عرفناه وفهمنا‬ Ch 13 First language acquisition ) ‫اكتساب اللغة األولى ( لغة األم‬. ‫ استخدمنا‬acquisition ‫ الن لغة مكتسبة مو تعليمية لحتى استخدام‬learning Acquisition: the gradual develop language by using it naturally in communicative situation. ‫التطور التدريجي للقدرة على استخدام لغة االولى او الثانية فطريا او طبيعيا في المواقف‬ ‫التواصلية‬. There is an innate predisposition in the human infant to acquire language by itself, however, this inborn language capacity is not enough. There must be interaction with other language users in older to develop a language. FLA: is remarkable for the speed ‫سرعة اكتساب اللغة‬. * Basic Requirements ‫متطلبات الكتساب اللغة‬ 1- A child who does not hear or is not Allowed to use language will learn no language 2- language is also culturally transmitted a child learns the language to which she /he is exposed and she/ he does not necessarily genetically inherit the language of his/her Parents. 3- The child must be Physically capable of sending and receiving sound Signals in a language. (deaf infants) 4- The crucial requirement appears to be the opportunity to interact with others via language. * Input it’s the sample language to which the child is exposed it is usually a simplified language that is called caregiver language. Caregiver speech: speech addressed to Young children by the adults or older children who are looking after them. Child directed speech ‫االسم الثاني‬caregiver Or Motherese Caregiver or motherese is characterized by: 1- frequent use of question 2- Exaggerated intonation 3-Extra loudness 4- slower tempo 5- Simple sentence structure A lot of repetition 7- longer pauses. * the acquisition schedule 1- children develop language at roughly the same time a long much the same schedule. ‫يطور األطفال اللغة في نفس الوقت تقريبًا وبنفس الجدول الزمني‬ 2- The language acquisition schedule has the same basis as the biologically determined development of motor Skills and the maturation of infant’s brains. 3- We can Know Whether a child is playing attention by the way he / she is increasing and decreasing his sucking behavior At three month of age, a child develops a Variety of crying Patterns as Well as smiles to a talking face. At one month age , a child can be able to distinguish between [Pa] and[ba]. ‫في عمر ثالث اشهر راح يطور العديد من نمط البكاء وايضا يبتسم في وجه االشخاص الذين‬ ‫يتحدثون اليه‬ ‫ في عمر الشهر الواحد الطفل يكون قادرا على التفريق بين‬pa ‫ و‬ba * Cooing The earliest use of speech like sounds by an infant in the first few months. During the first months of life, the child gradually becomes Capable of Producing sequences of vowel. Like sounds, Particularly high vowels Like [i] [u]. By four months of age, the developing ability to bring the back of the tongue in to regular contact with the back Palate allows the infant to create sounds Similar to the Velar consonants K] and [g]. by five month of age, the child able to recognize the vowels [i] and [a] and discriminate between syllables like [ba] and [ga]. * babbling The use of syllable sequences (ba-ba) and combinations (ma-ga) by young children in their first Year. Between six and eight month, the child is sitting up and Producing a number of consonants and Vowel, As well as combinations of ba ba- ba - ba-ba and ga-ga -ga-ga. There are recognizable intonation Pattern to the consonants and Vowel combination. ‫يميز او يفهم بين العديد من (الحروف الصحيحة ) والعلة‬. As well Various combination as in ba-ba and da-da ‫ايضا يربط مقاطع‬ -Nasal Sounds also became more common and certain repeated syllable Sequences such as mama-and dada As children begin to full themselves into standing Position, during the tenth and eleventh month they become capable of using their Vocalization to express emotions and emphasis. This late babbling stage is characterized by more complex syllable combinations. As Well as a lot of sound Play and attempted imitations. Cooing 1 - 5 month first Few month [i] [u) four month (K] [g] babbling 6_ 11 months 6-8 month ba-ba-ba -ba ga-ga ga-ga 10-11 months ma-da - ga-ba * The one Word stage The Period in L1 acquisition when children can produce single terms for objects. Between twelve and eighteen months Children begin to Produce a Variety of recognizable single unit Utterances , such as milk, cookie cat and spoon. "However, the concept of the one word stage is misleading because sometime a child may utter a phrase as in instead of " What's that" [ʌs æ] it is appropriate to say it is a single unit stage. Linguists sometimes call it holophrastic (a single from functioning as a Phrase or sentence in the early Speech of young children). children Can understand five times as many than they Produce ‫الفهم عند‬ ‫االطفال يكون خمس اضعاف الكلمات التي يستخدمها‬. * Two Word Stage a Period beginning at around 18-20 months when children produce two terms together as an utterance (baby chair l g), By this age, a child's Vocabulary moves beyond 5o Words. Mommy eat, cat bad, will usually have appeared. At this stage the child Produces utterances. and receives feedback (i.e ,takes part in interactions). * telegraphic Speech Strings of Words (lexical morpheme Without (inflectional morphemes) in phrases (daddy go bye bye) Produced by two -Year. old children. between two and two and half Years old, the child begins producing a large number of utterances. in this age, a child develops his synthetic capacity and the ordering of the Words is often correct. Some inflectional morpheme are utilized by the child in accordant with the contexts as in in and on. By this age of two and a half the child's (Vocabulary) ( expands rapid) The child also begins to initiate talk while increased Physical activity including running and jumping. By the age of three, the number of words has grown to hundreds of words and the pronunciation is comparable to that of adults. The acquisition process:- As the Linguistic repertoire of the child increases. it is often assumed that the child is being taught the language. This idea is not really supported by What the child actually does. for the Vast mat rite of child Len, no one provides any instruction on how to speak the language A more accurate view would have the children actively constructing. from what is said to them, Possible Ways of using the language. The child's linguistic production appears to be mostly a matter of trying out construction and testing whether they work or not. * Learning through imitation A child does not acquire language through the Process of imitation although they may repeat single words or Phrases, but not the sentence structures. e.x ‫اخبر طفل اعادة هذه الجملة‬ The owl who eats candy runs fast. ‫الطفل يكرر الجملة هكذا‬ Owl eat a candy and he run fast. The adults correction of the child's language production is mostly not effective enough to formulate a change in acquisition. once factor that seems to be important in the child's acquisition Process is the actual use of sounds and word combinations, either in interaction with others or in word play. (developing morphology) By the age of two and half years old. the child goes beyond telegraphic Speech by incorporating inflections in his utterance. 1- The First to appear is the (ing) form in expression ing‫ يظهر‬inflection ‫اول‬ Like cat sitting , mummy eating The next stage is the marking of regular plurals with the -s from as in cats and dogs. 2- The acquisition of the plural markers is accompanied by the process of overgeneralization:. in L1 acquisition using an inflectional morpheme on more words than is usual in the language (e.g. two Poets). (man, mans ‫هو‬ ‫خطا‬ 3- At the same stage, some children develop irregular Plurals (such as men) (man, men). Then they apply the overgeneralization rule by saying two feets, and three mens. 4- No long after, the Possessive [S] occurs in expressions Like, mam’s car or dad's book. "at about Same time, different Variations of the verb to be begin to be used, as in (are and Was). 5- irregular past tense forms (went and Came) appear before ed inflection in child's speech. 6- regular Past ed being appearing in the child's speech, the irregular farm may disappear for a while replaced overgeneralization. (goed, comed) 7- Finally the regular-s marker on third Person singular present tense verbs appears. -s occurs with full verbs first (comes, looks). then with auxiliaries verb (does, has). * Developing Syntax similar evidences of a child’s imitation of adults is non-presents at this stage of development. e.x A child was asked to repeat a sentence uttered by an adult, such as (the owl Who eats candy runs fast). The child repeated the sentence by Saying (owl eat candy and he run fast ). Hence, the child understand the utterance by expressing it in his/her own. student indicate that, approximately. there are(3 stages) that a child goes through when acquiring the formation of negatives and question. Stage one, 18 - 26 Months Stage two 12 - 30 Mouths. Stage three 21 - 40 months. Two structure to be acquired. Negative question. (Forming questions) Stage one. 18-26 months to Simply add a wh- form (where who to the beginning of an expression As in (where kitty?). utter an expression with arise intonation. As in doggie? Stage two (22.30) 2. More complex expressions are formed As in (what book name?). The rising intonation strategy Presents As in (see my doggie?). more Wh-form come into use Stage three 24- 40 months The required Movement of the auxiliary in English question becomes evident in the child’s speech , as in (I can have )(to )(can I have ). ‫عملية تحويل الفعل لمساعد في تحويل الجملة إلى سؤال تكون واضحة في كالم الطفل‬ Some kids may prefer to use WH question, especially with negative As in ( why can’t kitty came). Although many grammatical mistakes persist , question formed in this state are comparable to that of adults. as in in (did I caugh it and what do you do? ‫على الرغم من األخطاء القواعد الموجودة عملية تكوين السؤال تكون مشابه العملية تكوين سؤال‬ ‫البالغين‬ Forming negative Stage one This simple strategy of putting no or not at the beginning as in ( no fall) and (not teddy bear) The additional negative forms don’t and can’t appear as well as no and not increasingly used in front of the verb rather than at the beginning of the sentence As in (he no bitty you )and (you can’t go ). Stage three In this stage the child incorporates other auxiliary forms such as didn’t and won’t while the typically stage one disappear A very late as acquisition is the negative form isn’t with the result that some stage two forms ( with not instate of isn’t ) continue to be used for a quire long time. As in (she won’t let go and I didn’t caught it Developing semantics During the holophrastic stage many children use their limited vocabulary to refer to large number of unrelated objects referred to a joke sometimes children use bowl to refer to cats and horses This is called Overextensions Overextensions in L1 acquisition, using a word to refer to more object that is usually in the language( ball to the moon) The development in child is used of what is usually a process of overextension initially followed by a gradual process of narrowing down the application of each terms as more words are learned By this the age of five, the child has completed the great part of basic language acquisition process according to some the child is then in a good position to start learning second language One interesting future of the young children semantics is the way certain lexical middle level term in hyponyms. Ch14 Second language acquisition/ learning Some children grow up in a social environment where more than one language is used and are able to acquire a second language in circumstances similar to those of first language acquisition. Those fortunate individuals are bilingual However, most of us are not exposed to a second language until much later. our ability to use a second languages even after years of study. rarely matches ability in our first language. * second language learning Learning in a foreign language setting (EFL): learning a language that is not generally spoken in the surrounding community, Learning in a second language. setting (ESL)learning a language that is spoken in the surrounding community. Example (ETL: Japanese student learning English in Japan ESL: Japanese student learning English in USA Both situations can be referred to as Second language learning. acquisition and learning Acquisition : The gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations With others who know that language. learning A more conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the features of language, such as vocabulary and grammar in an institutional setting. E.x students learning math in school * Acquisition Barriers : The second language (L2) is usually encountered during teenage or adult Years in a few hours each week of school. very few adults seem to reach native-like Proficiency in using an L2. e.X (written not spoken L2 Joseph Conrad, a Polish writer who was excellent when writing in English but not in speaking. He is regarded as one of the greatest novelists in English. After the critical Period has Passed around the time of Puberty, it becomes Very difficult to acquire a language full. In L2 Easier to learn: Grammar and vocabulary. (written language). Difficult pronunciation , communicative. It has been shown, that students in their early teens are quicker and more effective learners than seven- Years- olds. optimum age 10-16 years (Affective factors) many L2 learners have feelings of unwillingness or embarrass ment t in attempting to produce the differ sounds of a language. - This type of emotional reaction or affect may also be caused by dull text books, unpleasant class room Surrounding or an exhausting schedule of study and/or work teenagers are topically much more self- conscious than younger children. These negative feelings or experiences are affective factors that can create a barrier to acquisition. i.e if we are stressed, uncomfortable self conscious or unmotivated then we are unlikely to learn any thing , children on the other hand, are not affected by these barrier * Focus on Method There are different method used that aim at fostering L2 learning , among which are. 1-The Grammar translation method 2- The Audio- Lingual Method 3- communicative Approaches 1-The Grammar translation method A traditional approach that used vocabulary lists and grammar rules to define the target language. memorization is encouraged Written language rather than spoken language is emphasized. it was mainly used to teach dead language such as Latin. The negative part is that student do Well in exam but face difficulty when using the language in everyday Conversation. 2- The audio Lingual Metho A mind twentieth century approach to language teaching. with repetitive drills used to develop fluent spoken language as a set of habits. Focuses on Spoken Language and systematic presentation of the structures of the L2 * moving from the simple to the complex this approach indicates that the fluent use of language is essentially a set of habits that could be developed with lots of practice Much of the Practice involves hours spent in a language laboratory repeating oral drills. The fault in this method is that the drills bear no resemblance to actual interaction, very being boring. Communicative approaches Approaches to a language teaching that are based on learning through using language rather than learning about language. These methods came- against the belief that consciously learning the grammar rules of a language will necessarily result in an ability to use the language. instead , functions of a language (what it is used for ) Should be emphasized rather than forms of the language (correct grammar or phonological structures). е.x A class to focus on the function of asking in different social settings rather than forms of Past tense etc..) * Focus on the Learner Transfer Recently , focus has shifted from the teacher, textbook and method to the learner and acquisition process. e. x - Errors were seen negatively before but are now sacra’s a natural Part of the learning process. - Some errors may be due to transfer - Also called cross linguistic influence. Transfer, using sound, expression and structure forms L1 While performing L2. There are two types of transfer. 1. Positive transfern when the L1 and L2 has Similar features then learners can benefit from such similarities. 2- Negative transfers. When the (L1 features that are different forms L2 which can make the learner’s attempt to use L2 a failure. interlanguage The language produced by L2 learners contains a large number errors that have no connection to the forms of L1 and L2 This system is called (interlanguage) Interlanguage:, the interim system of L2 learners, Which has some features of the L1 and L2 plus some that are independent of the L1 and the L2 fossilization. is the process where by an interlanguage, containing many non-second language features, stops developing toward more accurate from the second language. focused on the learner motivation. motivation is a factor that helps student learn. There are two types of motivation 1 instrumental motivation Learning a language in order to achieve another goal such as completing a school graduations regiment or being. able to read scientific Publications, but not really for social purposes 2 - integrative motivation wanting to learn L2 for social Purposes, in order to take part in the social) life of a community using that language. * Input and output input: is the language that the learner is exposed to. foreigner talk is a way of using a language with non-native speakers that is simpler in structure and vocabulary. Negotiated input is L2 material that the learner can acquire in interaction through request for clarification, while active attention is being focused on what is said. out put - the language Produced by an acquired /learner, in contrast to input. Communicative competence. the general ability to use language accurately appropriate and flexible. 1. Grammatical competence the ability to use words and structures accurately. 2. Sociolinguistic competence the ability to use language appropriately according to the social context. e.x can I have some water? rathen than give me some water !" according to social context 3 Strategic competence- the ability to use language to organize effective messages and to overcome Potential communication problems. 4- communicative strategy, a way of overcoming a gap between communicative intent and a limited ability to express that intent. * Applied Linguistics) in attempting to investigate the Complex nature of L2 learning, we have to appeal to ideas not only from Linguistic analysis, but from other fields such as communication student, education Psychology, and sociology, This large-scale attempt is offten described as applied Linguistics. of Practical issues ite involving language in general and Second language learning in Particular. Applied Linguistics, the stud of a large range Ch18 * regional variation in Language 1 linguistic geography, the study of language variation based on where different Varieties of the language are use. if we just look at EngLish. We find widespread Variation in the way it is spoken in different countries such as Australia, Britain and the USA, we can also find range of varieties in diffrent Part of those Countries Standard languages the variety of a language treated as the official language and used in Public broadcasting publishing , and education. it is the variety we normally try to teach to those who want to leary English as a second language or foreign language, it is more easily described in terms of the written language [ i.e Vocabulary, spelling, grammar) Than spoken language. * Accent and Dialect. Accent ‫ هو جزء من‬Dialect. Accent: aspects of Pronunciation that identify where a speaker is from, regionally, or socially, (in contrast to dialect). the sentence (you don't Know what you're talking a bout )will generally "Look" the same whether spoken with an American accent or a Scottish accent. Both speakers will be using forms associated with Standard English but have diffrent pronunciation. Dialect: aspects of the grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of a variety of a language , in contrast to accent). * Accent aspect of pronunciation * Dialect aspect of the grammar Pronunciation, Vocabulary. Accent ‫جوانب النطق‬ Dialect ‫جوانب القواعد والنطق والمفردات‬ * Diactology Despite occasional difficulties, there is a general impression of mutual intelligibility among many speakers of different dialects of English. This is one of the criteria used in the study of dialects, or dialectology. Dialectology the study of the dialects). to distinguish between two different dialects of the same language (whose speakers can usually understand each other). and two different languages (whose speakers can’t usually understand each others). it is important to recognize, from a linguistic point of view, that none of the varieties of a language is inherently "better" than any other. There are simple different. from a social Point of view, however some varieties do become more prestigious. in fact, the variety that develops as the Standard language has usually been one socially prestigious dialect , orginally associated with center of economic and Political Power (e.g London for British English and Paris for French. * Regional dialect, A dialect spoken in a Specific geographic area that may aries from, and is reinforced by, that areas integrity. for example , a Basten dialect is maintained because large number of Bostonians and their descendants remain in the Basten area. NORMS : non-mobile, older rural , male speaker selected as informants in dialect surveys. Because it was believed that they were less likely to have influences from outside that region in their speech One unfortunate consequence of using such criteria is that the resulting direct description tends to be more accurate of a period well before the time of investigation. Isogloss and dialect boundary ‫ لدراسة اللهجات المختصين استخدم مصطلح‬Isogloss ‫( وهو الخط المتقطع‬broken line) ‫التي يفصل منطقة بعصر لغوي معين عن منطقة أخرى‬ Paper bag ‫شمال‬ Paper sack ‫جنوب‬ ‫كلمتين نفس المعنى (الكيس ورقي) التي يستخدمه لحمل األغراض من السوبر ماركت حدد‬ ‫ الموقع التييستخدم‬Piper bag ‫ وأخرى تستخدم‬paper sack ‫ وفصل بينهما بخط‬isogloss One of the aims of survey of this type is 1- To find a number of significant different in the speech of the living area 2- able to charge where to boundaries are. Isogloss: a line on separating two in which particular linguistic future is significantly different, use in the study of dialect. DialectBoundary: a line representing a set of a Isogloss used to separate one dialect area from another. * The dialect continuum Isogloss and dialect boundaries don’t have sharp breaks from one region to the next they exist along a coutinum, speakers who move back and forth across this border, using diffrent varieties with Some case, may be describes bi dialectal. bidialectical being a capable of speaking to dialects. Dialect continuum the gradual merging of one regional variety of a language in to another bilingualism the state of having two language. bilingual a term used to describe a native speaker of two language or country with two official language, in contrast to monolingual. for example : Canada, is an officially bilingual country, with both French and English as official languages monolingual having or being able to use, only one language, in contrast to bilingual. * diglossia diglossia a situation where there is a " high or special variety of language used in formal situation (e.g classical arabica. and a " low" variety used locally and informally ( eg Lebanese Arabic). * language Planning language Planning: choosing and developing an official language or languages for use in government and education. 1. selection: choosing and official language 2- Codification. Basic grammar, dictionaries, and written models used to establish the standard variety. 3. Elaboration- The Standard variety being developed for use in all aspects of social life and the appearance of a body of Literary work written in the standard 4/ implantation: Government encourages use of the standard. 5- Acceptances when a substantial majority of the population have come to use the standard as the national language, not only social, but also national identity. Pidgin : pidgin is variety of a language that developed for a particular purpose such as trade. but which has no native speakers. pidgin is a variety of a language that is a contact language which developed from Some Practical Purpose, such as trading among a group of people who had a lot of contact but who did not know each others language. The origin of the term “Pidgin” is thought to be from a Chinese version of the English word “ business Pidgin Lexifier (language is the main source of words in pidgin A pidgin ; is described as an " English Pidgin if English is the lexifier language that is, the main source of word adopted in the pidgin. The English Pidgin are characterized by an absence of any complex grammatical morphology and limited vocabulary. e.x Plural-s and passive-s are very rare in the English pidgin. creole creole : a Variety of a language that developed from a pidgin and is used as a first language by a population of native speakers. Creole A language that begins as a Pidgin and eventually become the native language of a speech community. Creole have large number of native speakers and are not restricted at all in their uses. creolization: is the process of development from Pidgin to a creole in contrast to decreolization. * The Post creole continuum post creole continuum,. the range of varieties that evolves in communities Where a Creole is spoken , usually as a result of derealization. decreolization. the Process where by a creole is used with fewer distinct creole features as it becomes more like a standard variety, in, contrast to creolization. Ch 19 Social Variation in language ‫درسنا في الفصل السابق العالقة بين اللغة والمنطقة الجغرافية التي ينتمي إليها بينما في هذا‬ ‫الفصل ندرس اللغة مع المجتمع (طبقات المجتمع) الطبقة االجتماعية التي ينتمي إليها‬ ‫الشخص‬. Sociolinguistics. a group of People Who Share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of the language Is the study of relationships between language and society. This is a broad area of investigation that developed through the interaction of linguistics with a number of other academic disciplines. It has strong connection with anthropology and with sociology , and also social philosophy. * Social Dialect Regional dialects: tended to concentrate on the speech of people in rural area. Social dialect (sociolect) is concerned with speakers in town and city. cities in the social study of dialect, it is social class that is mainly used to define groups of speakers as having Something in common. social variable: class Linguistic variable Pronunciation and words. * Two main groups are identified in society 1- middle class those who have more years of educations and perform non manual work. 2- Working class, those who have fewer years of education and perform Manuel Work of some Kind. When we talk about working class Speech, we mean social dialect. The term 'upper and lower are used to subdivide the groups mainly on an economic basis , making upper middle-class speech. another type of social dialect (sociolect) social dialect (sociolect) a variety of a language with feathes that differ according to the social status (e.g middle class or Working class) of the speaker. Social dialect) only certain features of language use are treated as relevant in the analysis of social dialect These features are pronunciation words or structures That are regularly used in one form by working- class speakers and in another form by middle class speakers. * education and Occupation Although the unique circumstances of every life result in each of us having an individual way of speaking a personal dialect / idiolect. we generality tend to sound like others with whom we share similar educational background and/or occupation. idiolect: is the Personal dialect of an individual speaker. Education and occupation in the 1960, sociolinguist william Labor combined element from Place of occupation and socio- economic status by looking at Pronunciation differences among sales People in three New York city department stores. ‫قام الباحث بإجراء اختبار ليعرف اختالف اللفظ بين الناس حسب الحالة االجتماعية‬ ، ‫واالقتصادية أو الوظيفية التي يقوم بها في ثالث مدن مختلفة في ثالث متاجر مختلفة‬ ‫المتجر االول كان بضائع رخيصة والزبائن كانو من العاملين والثاني كان متوسطة الثمن‬ ‫ والزبائن كانو من طبقة متوسطة اما متجر الثالث كان الثمن غالي والزبائن من‬upper middle class ‫ وسال االشخاص سوال محدد اين احذيه النساء‬Where are the woman shoes ‫ وأراد اجابة محددة‬fourth floor ‫ لمعرفة طريقة لفظ حرف‬r Post Vocal is /r/ after vowel. /0/ /u/‫بعد حرف العلة‬ The middle class always pronunciation the Post vocal is/r/ and working class does not pronunciation or reading the Post vocal is/r/. Social marker social marked is a Linguistic feature that marks the speaker as a member of a Particular social group. that is , when you have post Vocal feature occur frequently in your speech or (not) marks you as a member of particular social groups, while you realize that or not. the final pronunciation of ing with[n] Eng rather than (n) and the end of the words such as sitting and thinking ‫[ يلفظون‬sittin and thinkin) [h] = dripping which makes that words at and hat sound the same it occurs at the beginning of words. ‫[ الطبقة العاملة ال بلفظون انك يلفظون بصوت‬n] ‫ وايضا ال يلفظون حوف‬h ‫في بداية‬ ‫الكلمة‬. speech style and style shift Speech style is a way of speaking that is either formal /careful or informal /casual. Formal /careful style is when we pay more attention to how we are speaking Informal casual style is when we pay less attention to our speaking Style Shifting is a change from former to informal by individual or vice versa * Prestige In discussing style shifting we introduced the idea of prestige From as a way of explaining the direction in which certain individuals change their speech. when that language and social variation change is in the direction of a formal that is more frequent in the speech of those. Perceived to have higher social status we are dealing with over prestige, or status that is generally recognized as "better" or more positively valued in the larger community. over prestige is a status that is generally recognized as " better" or more Positively valued in the larger community. certain groups do not exhibit style shift to another group. for example mainly lower working class speakers do not change their speech style casual to careful as radically as lower- middle class speakers, because lower working class speakers valued the features that mark them as a member their own social group. Cover Prestige the status of a speech style or feature as having positive valle but which is “’hidden” or not Valued similarly among the large community, in contrast the over prestige. * Register Register is conventional way of using language that is appropriate in special context, which may be situation (in church), occupational (among lawyers), or typical (taking about language jargon ‫ جزء من‬register Jargon is a specific technical Vocabulary associated with a specific activity or topic as part of register ‫ الكلمات المستخدمة في‬register jargon helps to maintain connection among those who see themselves as" insiders" in some Way and to exclude"Out side" like speech of doctor. * Slang and taboo terms slang : Words or Phrases used instead of more conversation forms by those who are typically outside established higher status groups (e.g bucks for dollars). Slang or colloquial speech taboo terms. Words or Phrases that are avoided in formal speech, but are used in swearing, for example (f *** * AAE AAE : African American English. Also Known as Black English or Ebonics. AE E is a variety used by many (not all) African Americans in many different regions of the uSA AAVE : African American vernacular English. vernacular language Vernacular a social dialed with low prestige spoken by a lower- status group with masked differences from the Standard language. The words ending in two consonants (Left, hand) are often pronounced as if there is only one ( lef, han) (think, that) = tink- dat). Possessive- s and third Person singular s are not Pronounced use double negativelation don’t include the auxiliary Verb. Ch20 language and culture We learn when we become member group culture is socially acquired Knowledge. We use the term ‘culture to refer to all the ideas and associations about the nature of things and people culture (Socially acquired knowledge ) is a kind of Knowledge that we acquire without conscious awareness, we develop our awarencess of knowledge, and hence for culture, any after having developed language. Categories) Although there is a lot of variation among all the individual "dogs" in our experience:, we can use the word dog to talk about any one of them as a member of the category. is a group of words with certain features in common observing the differences in the numbers of basic colors terms in language, we can say that there are conceptual distinctions that are lexicalized in one language and not in another, the colors of spectrum have different terms in different countries. Kinship Terms Kinship terms are used to refer to people who are members of the same family which indicate their relation ship with others. In Some language the equivalent of the word father is used not only for "family parents' but also for" male Parent's brother" in English we use the word uncle for this other type of individual we have lexicalized the the distinction between the two concepts, yes we also use the same word (uncle) For" female Parent's brother That distinction isn't Lexicalized in English. Lexicalized is expressed as a single word Time and Concept! we can think of time (i.e some thing abstract,' will not physical existence) in amounts, using noun Phrases, in the same was as " two People or seven books " (ie something Physical ) In another World view, time may not be e treated in this way in the Hopi language. Spoken in Arizona , there were traditionally no terms equivalent to most of our time words and phrase two hours, thirty minutes Linguistic Relativity Linguistic relativity): the idea that to some extent we think about the world using categories provided by our language. is the weak version ). The structure of our language must have an influence on how we Perceive the world. The idea simple capture the fact that we not only talk, but also think about the word using categories provided by our language. Linguistic determinism Linguistic determinism is the idea that we can only think in the categories Provided by our first language (it is the strong version) linguistic determinism means" language determines through. Ex/ English speakers use only one word for "snow while Eskimos use different words for “Snow" so, the category system inherited in the language determine how the speaker interprets and articulates experience. The sapir-whorf hypothesis the general idea that differences languages structure cause people to view the world differently from the names of two American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf. in the grammar of Hopi, there is a distinction between "animate " and " inanimate" and among the set of entities categorized as “animate are clouds and Stones Whorf claimed that the Hopi believe that clouds and stones are living in entities and that it is a their language that leads them to believe this English does not mark in its grammar that clouds and stone are "animate" so English speakers do not see the world in the same way as the Hopi in Whorf's words " we dissect nature along lines laid down by our native Language. Against the sapir, Whore hypothesis following Sampson (1980), let us imagine a tribe with a language in which six differences are marked grammatically, so that the terms used for females, such as girl and women have special markings: In the language, we find that these, feminine mark in are also used with the words for stone and door They use the expressions la femmel the woma la Pierre (the Stone) and la Porte (the door) it is the tribe that lives in franch, should we condude that french speakers believe tha stone and door are female' in the same way as women while the HoPi language has a linguistic classification for the word stone, it does not mean that Hopi truck drivers worry about killing living creatures if they drive over some stone. Snow Returning to snow ) in cold Place Inuit , and their language, Inuktitut. according to martin (1986), the Inuit of west Greenland have only two basic words for "snow " (qanik” " snow in the air ," and a put "Snow on the ground" ). the inuit are able to create, from these two basic elements, a large number of common expressions for different snow related phenomena Some expressions will occur frequently in the context of habitual experiences, but it is the human who is thinking about the experience and determining what will be expressed not the language. Non lexicalized categories: English speakers can create phrases and other complex expressions , by manipulating language to refer to fresh snow , These may be categorised of snow for English speakers, but they are non lexicalized "not expressed as a single word. English speakers can make a distinction using lexicalized categories: EX/ it is like slush more than snow outside. And also by indicating special reference using non lexicalized distinction: EX/ We decorate the window with Same fake Plastic snow ‫اشارة الى شي واحد هو ثلج مزيف بثالث كلمات‬. fake Plastic snow We inherit a language used to reports know ledge, so we would expect that the language to influence the organization of our knowledge in some way.However. we also inherit the ability to manipulate and be creative with that language in oreler to express our perception. Cognitive categories cognitive categories as a way of analyzing cognition or how people think, We can look at language structure for clue , not for cause. in the Yaga language, spoken in peru. the set of entities with “ animate” as a feature includes the moon, rocks and pineapples. as well as people. Entities are treated as valued objects, so that their cultural interpretation of the concept having special importance in life rether than "rather than the concept" having life." as in the cultural interpretation of most English speakers. classifiers classifier are grammatical markers that indicate the type or class of noun. in swahili (spoken in east Africa) , different prefixes are used as classifiers on nouns for human (Wa). non human (mi), and artefacts (Vi -). as in watoto (children) mimea (Plants)and visu(knives ). Wa ‫ بشري‬/ mi ‫ غير بشري‬/ vi ) ‫ شي من صنع االنسان (التحف‬wata to ‫ لالطفال‬mimea ‫ للنباتات‬visu ‫للسكاكين‬ There is a distinction in English between thing treated as cantabile Shirt- word, chair) and those treated as non- count able (clothes, information, furniture) it is ungrammatical.in English use a language or the plural with a non countable noun (ie a clothes, an information Social category Social categories are categories in which group members are defined by social ,connection Words, such as "uncle', grandfather, aunt" discussed earlier, provide example of social categories, these are categories of social: organization that we can used to say how we are connected or related to others we can use those words as a means of social categorization, That is, making individuals as members of a group defined by social connection. Address Terms Social categorists ‫هو جزء من‬ address terms is a word or Phrase for people being talk to or writing to, By claiming the kind of closeness in relationship associate with a family member, the speakers choice of address term is an attempt to create solidarity ‫عبارات التي يخاطب اشخاص اخرين سواء تحدث او رسائل مثال شخص في شارع خاطب احد‬ ‫ يقول‬brother ‫ يشير فقط للشخص من العائلة لكن هنا استخدم هذه الكلمة‬solidarity there are two terms to use address term- 1- An equal relation 2. An unequal relation ships. 1- An equal relation: being in the same social status, we address the addressee by first name or by nickname, like, Jennifer , Jenny. 2- An unequal relation ship being in the higher status we address the addressee by title plus last name, lake Professor Doctor or doctor Agassa The T/V distinction, as in the French pronouns tu (close) quel vaus (distant). older English usage (thou, you), these forms could be used to mark a powerful relationship the higher status or more powerful speakers could use tu or thou to a lower status addressee, but not vire vice versa only the Woman's address term include information about their social, These address terms continue to function as Social categories labels identifying women , women were identifying, Socially through their relationship to a man either as a wife or as daughter. ex : mrs, Dexter smith → indicates that she is a wife a particular man Gender Gender there are three uses of genders which are. 1- biological /natural gender is the distinction between sexes 'male and female ' of each species 2- grammatical gender is the distinction between masculine and feminine which used to classify in language 3- Social gender is the distinction we make when we use words like man and woman to classify individuals in term of that social roles Gender words Gender Wolds There are some words used only by men and some used by woman. There are others examples used to talk about men and Women which seem to imply that the words for the men are normal and the words for women special addition pairs like hero, heroine, actor, actress, illustrate the derivational of terms for the women’s role from the man's This type of difference is decreased in Contemporary American English EX/Police man ‫ → للرجال‬Police office ‫للنساء والرجال‬ Fireman ‫ للرجال‬- Firefighters ‫للنساء والرجال‬ Gander structure ‫ هناك اختالفات بين الرجال والنساء من حيث‬structure 1- Woman are more likely to use the higher Prestige forms 2. 32% of men use double negative Want none. 3-woman are more sensitive to how others Judge them, the are more care of social status That is woman are care of socialization 4- man are not care of socialization, because men are strong, tough and independent. 5- non standard speech that associated with working -class is Perferred by men. Gender speech 1- men is typically speaking in a lower pitch rang (80 - 120 Hertz) 2- women are speaking in rapid vibration in vocal folds that making sound higher (120-400 ) Hertz 3- Women often use hedges "Kind of" sort of' and tag question. 4-women speech are inviting agreement with an idea rather than asserting the Idea. 5. men tend to use assertive forms and strong language 6- Women often use indirect speech rather than direct speech. Same genre talk 1- Boys socialize in large group often in competitive activities, establishing and maintaining hierarchal relation ship. for example, I'm the Spider-Man and you have to follow me. 2- Girls Socialize in smaller groups, more often in co- operative activities, establish in reciprocal relationship and exchange role for example , you can be the doctor and now i’ll be the ill there are differences in the way each group approach interaction with other. Gendered interaction Back channels are words like " yeah" and sound like hmm used by a listener while someone else is speaking. 1- interaction among men appear to be organize in hierarchal way. 2- men generally take longer turn of speaking 3. men are more likely to interrupt women. 4. women Produce more back channels as indicators of listening and paying more attention. 5. The absence of back Channels from men makes women think that the men are not paying attention to them.