Specialized Fields of Civil Engineering PDF

# Specialized Fields of Civil Engineering ## Structural Engineering - Structural engineering is a technical specialty that deals with the analysis and design of constructed structures. - Structures include spacecraft, deep sea submarines, micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), bridges, and tall...

# Specialized Fields of Civil Engineering ## Structural Engineering - Structural engineering is a technical specialty that deals with the analysis and design of constructed structures. - Structures include spacecraft, deep sea submarines, micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), bridges, and tall buildings. - Structures are subject to many "loads" that come from the environment such as: - **dead load:** the weight of the structure - **live load:** the weight of things moving on the structure - **event-driven load:** loads from earthquakes, hurricanes, etc. - Structural design aims at providing a structure with sufficient resistance against load while minimizing cost. ### Earthquake Engineering - The suddenness of earthquakes and the damage they cause in a matter of seconds inspired the study of earthquake effects on structures. - Earthquake ground motion creates vertical and horizontal forces that change drastically within a short duration. - The fundamental approach in earthquake engineering is not to design a structure to withstand every earthquake, but to design a structure that will not inflict injury to human lives at a reasonable cost. ### Wind Engineering - Strong wind caused by hurricanes, tornadoes, or storms creates time-varying and multi-directional effects on structures. - Strong wind can push against one part of a structure, while creating a partial vacuum on another part. - Unlike earthquakes, strong winds occur frequently in some areas. - Design against wind-related effects falls under wind engineering and aims to protect human lives at a reasonable cost. ### Structural Reliability - Loads that a structure must withstand during its lifespan are often "random," meaning they are difficult to predict precisely. - The resistance provided by the size and materials of structural components are also random. - Applying probability and statistics to load-resistance analysis is the methodology of structural reliability. - Structural reliability helps develop design codes and specifications that provide acceptable levels of safety against all loads. ## Fire Engineering - In the event of a fire in a building, high temperatures can cause structural materials to lose strength and fail under the weight of the building. - Fire engineering deals with applying protective materials to structural components like steel beams and columns. - This aims to ensure that occupants have enough time to escape and firefighters can arrive. - The research in fire engineering provides data to be incorporated into design and construction codes and specifications. ## Bridge Engineering - Bridge engineers specialize in designing and constructing bridges. - Bridge designs can be categorized according to materials and types. - Bridge design is closely integrated with construction. - The construction process can influence the designer's choice of bridge type. ## Dam Engineering - Designing dams requires a detailed study of geological characteristics and the mechanical properties of the foundation before the dam type is selected. - For some dams, it is necessary to ensure the dam material is placed in a way that minimizes seepage of water. - Dam engineers design details on how to divert water during construction and specify maintenance and operations procedures after construction. ## Building Engineering - Because building design is frequent in urban centers, structural engineers often become building design specialists. - Building engineers design structures like stadiums and large dome structures. ## Forensic Engineering - Forensic engineering is the study of the causes of engineering events, usually disasters or failures. - In structural engineering, forensic engineering involves investigating structural failures. - Most forensic engineers have investigated past failures and are often called upon to investigate new events. - Major disasters often lead to the assembly of experts to study the cause of the disaster and provide recommendations to prevent future disasters. - In the context of civil engineering, most structures are built from steel, reinforced concrete, and timber. - Steel structure design, reinforced-concrete structure design, and timber structure design are the three main design disciplines. ## Geotechnical Engineering - Most civil engineering structures are earthbound, meaning they sit on soil or rock directly or on constructed foundations. - Geotechnical engineering deals with soil and rock as supporting materials for structures. - Geotechnical engineers design various foundation types that work between the structure and the ground. - Geotechnical engineers' work also covers the stability of soil or rock slopes, which can cause loss of life or damage property. ### Engineering Geology - While geology is a basic science concerned with macroscopic earth structures, engineering geology provides geological data pertinent to constructed structures. - One example is the mapping of active seismic faults to avoid when planning human habitat development, or building roadways or power plants. - Understanding geological formations and rock types helps geotechnical engineers assess a site's suitability for human activities. ### Soil Mechanics - While soil might not seem like an engineering material, it is the foundation for most constructed structures. - Soil mechanics studies the mechanics of various soil types and their strength at different moisture levels to provide the scientific base for engineering design formulas and codes. ### Rock Mechanics - The properties of rock become relevant when used as a foundation for structures such as: - high-rise buildings - large dams - Rock mechanics also examines the stability of mountain slopes and tunnels. - It is a crucial part of understanding earthquake occurrences. ### Foundation Engineering - A foundation acts as an interface between a structure and its supporting soil. - Common foundation practices for single-family homes include: - strip footing - concrete slab - Foundation engineering studies types of foundations and their applications. - Techniques include shallow and deep piles. - Building bridges over water may require the use of deep caissons on which piers are constructed. - To stabilize excavated slopes, retaining walls and slope-protection vegetation are used. ### Soil Improvement - When a site has weak soil, several techniques can be used to improve soil properties. - These techniques include: - replacing material through excavation - injecting special material (grouts) - Another technique involves placing geo-synthetic fabrics or textiles in horizontal layers to strengthen the soil or limit permeability. - Soil improvement is essential for the design of landfills and hazardous material deposit sites. ## Tunnel Engineering - Tunnel engineering is necessary to build roadways, special storage spaces, etc. - Tunnel engineering involves: - determining the route - selecting tunneling machines - analyzing and designing the tunnel structure. - Geotechnical engineers play a critical role in tunnel design, even though their work is less visible than that of structural engineers. ## Environmental Engineering - Environmental engineering applies engineering means to protect human health and preserve the natural environment. - Environmental engineers manage and develop water, air, and land resources. - The application of environmental engineering relies on fundamental sciences of chemistry, biology, ecology, and health sciences. - Environmental engineering projects are often planned and implemented under acts like: - Clean Water Act - Safe Drinking Water Act - Clean Air Act. ### Water Treatment and Supply - Before water is consumed, it must be collected from either underground or aboveground sources. - Source control is essential for water supply. - Except for a few municipalities with source water from deep aquifers, water must be treated to remove contaminants. - Treatment processes include removing: - pathogenic Bacteria - heavy metals - pesticide residues - suspended solids - disinfecting using chemicals or UV radiation - The effluent water must meet quality requirements dictated by the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act. - Industrial plants require special treatment for their water and the discharge is regulated. ### Wastewater Treatment and Disposal - In a modern municipality, household wastewater is collected underground and transported to a treatment plant. - Wastewater treatment involves: - primary treatment - secondary treatment - tertiary advanced treatment - **Primary treatment:** removes suspended solids through sedimentation. - **Secondary treatment:** removes dissolved organic wastes using biochemical decomposition and sedimentation. - For municipal wastewater, the Federal Clean Water Act requires secondary treatment, which removes 85% of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total suspended solids (TSS). - In some cases, additional treatment is required. - The outcomes of treatment are solid sludge, which can be used for landfill or fertilizer, and effluent water, which can be used for irrigation, groundwater recharge, or directly discharged into rivers, streams, lakes, or seas. - Rainfall can significantly impact wastewater collection and treatment. - Large amounts of rainfall often require rainwater runoff is separated or diverted to avoid overwhelming the treatment plant. - Industrial plants often require special treatment for the removal of heavy metals or hazardous chemicals before discharge. ## Air Pollution - Environmental engineers monitor, analyze, and assess air quality. - Air pollution comes from natural and human activities. - Volcanic eruptions are a major natural source, but human-induced pollution is more common in urban areas. - Pollution sources in urban areas include: - automobile emissions - industrial plant emission - other faraway sources. - Monitoring small particles like soot is as important as monitoring gases. - Plume analysis traces plant emissions in the atmosphere to assess their environmental impact. - Sand storms are another form of air pollution. - Monitoring sand storms can help identify sources and create policies for conservation or revegetation. ## Solid Waste Disposal - Solid wastes from domestic, commercial, and industrial sources are collected, separated, recycled, and disposed of in landfills and special disposal sites. - Environmental engineers, working with other civil engineers, select, design, and construct sanitary landfill sites. - Water percolating through sanitary landfills is intercepted, collected, and treated to prevent hazardous materials from seeping into groundwater. - Some solid waste can be burned in incinerating plants. ## Nuclear Waste Disposal - Nuclear waste comes from used fuel rods in nuclear power plants. - Long-term exposure to low-level radiation is hazardous to human health. - Disposal options are limited. - The main approach is to store waste in areas far from human habitat to ensure no leakage to the environment. - Leakage to groundwater would have disastrous consequences. ## Noise Pollution - Human activities in modern municipalities often generate high levels of sound that are harmful to the well-being of residents. - Noise barriers help shield neighborhoods from highway traffic noises. - Power plants and air-conditioning plants on large campuses can create high levels of noise that need containment and shielding. - Environmental engineers monitor noise levels and implement mitigation strategies. ## Environmental Impact Assessment - Environmental engineers assess the impacts of new developments on human health and the environment. - This includes assessing the impacts of: - new industrial plants - commercial establishments - new developments - Engineering assessments often require studying factors like: - noise - traffic - water consumption - power requirements - air pollution - Environmental engineering draws knowledge from health sciences, biology, and chemistry and is significantly impacted by state and national environmental laws. ## Water Resources Engineering - Water resources engineering focuses on the efficient use of water in areas such as: - agriculture - industry - domestic - recreation - environmental needs - Work includes: - finding and preserving water sources - understanding water movement in nature - engineering water transport - managing erosive effects of water - Some core specialties are: - water resources systems engineering - hydraulic engineering - coastal engineering - ocean engineering ### Water Resources System Engineering - Understanding water circulation and managing sources requires a systems approach. - The design of water supply for a city or region requires knowledge of water sources and their quality and quantity. - System analysis plays a key role in water resource management. - Designing and operating multipurpose reservoirs and river systems are crucial. ### Hydraulic Engineering - Hydraulic engineers design artificial waterways such as canals, channels, and aqueducts. - They also design and construct dams, levees, canal locks, and other water-regulating devices. - Hydraulic engineers work on flood prevention and control including: - assessing potential rainfall quantity - predicting water levels - mitigating flooding hazards - Hydraulic engineering is also fundamental to hydraulic power generation. - Dams play a significant role in hydropower generation. ### Coastal Engineering - Water movement in oceans and lakes can cause erosion on shorelines. - Coastal engineering ensures the preservation of wetlands and other natural habitats. - Using artificial barriers like breakwaters or dikes can reduce the impact of waves and help restore shorelines. ### Ocean Engineering - Ocean engineering specializes in understanding and mitigating the effects of ocean currents and waves on structures. - The design of offshore platforms for oil exploration and production requires ocean engineers to estimate the forces from waves and currents. - This information helps structural engineers build platforms that can withstand those forces. - Other structures include offshore wind farms and pipelines. - Naval architecture, which encompasses structural, ocean, mechanical, and electrical disciplines, is responsible for ship design and is not considered part of civil engineering. ## Transportation Engineering - Transportation engineering deals with the efficient transport of people and goods. - With advances in new modes of transportation, transportation engineering is constantly evolving. - Air travel introduced new fields like airport design and air traffic control. - Transportation engineering includes: - transportation planning - transportation systems engineering - highway engineering - railway engineering - port and harbor engineering - airport engineering - traffic engineering. ### Transportation Planning - Transportation infrastructure is often funded or approved by the government. - Transportation planning considers policy and political aspects, cost, financing, and projected performance of transportation systems. - Inter-modal transportation, which involves combining different modes of travel (e.g., sea-land-air), is a key focus. ### Transportation System Engineering - This field deals with the efficient management and operation of transportation systems. - Techniques include: - cost-effectiveness assessment - performance modeling - traffic simulation - environmental impact analysis. ### Highway Engineering - Highway engineering focuses on planning, designing, constructing, and maintaining highways. - Key areas include: - designing highways - constructing highway pavements - designing highway interchanges - operating highways - collecting tolls - Key aspects of highway operation include: - high-occupancy lanes - networked signals - warn travelers of road conditions ### Railway Engineering - Railway engineering focuses on planning, designing, constructing, and maintaining rail systems. - The field has gained renewed attention with the advancement of: - high-speed rail - light-rail systems - magnetic levitation systems. - Railways remain a cost-effective way to transport goods. - New tools in electronic signal design and communication technology are improving railway efficiency and safety. ### Port and Harbor Engineering - Ports require careful engineering even in naturally favorable conditions. - Key areas include: - ensuring safe navigation for ships - efficient loading and unloading - dredging navigation channels - building breakwaters to tame ocean waves. ### Airport Engineering - Building a new airport requires: - extensive planning - studying demand - analyzing costs and investment returns - Airport planning considers regional air traffic demands and the impact on the environment. - Site selection involves studying: - topography - wind patterns - bird movements - Airport construction affects local infrastructure and traffic patterns. - Designers consider the impacts of: - noise pollution - new land traffic generated by travelers - The design of airport infrastructure, such as runways, terminals, and signals, falls under other civil engineering specialties. ### Traffic Engineering - Traffic engineering is a specialized field within transportation engineering. - The main aim of traffic engineering is the management of traffic flow. - Traffic engineers use projected and monitored traffic patterns and volume: - design automated - centrally controlled street signals - These tools help modulate traffic, improve safety, and increase speed. - Common tools used in traffic control include: - weight sensors for triggering left-turn signals - ramp-entry signals for freeways during rush hours. ### Intelligent Transportation Systems - New and emerging electronic and computer technologies are improving the performance of transportation systems. - Examples include: - high-speed automated highway travel by automobiles in groups - centrally-controlled traffic monitoring and management systems - fully automated automobiles - transportation engineering with emerging technologies. - The advances in new technologies are constantly influencing transportation engineering. ## Construction Engineering - Construction engineering transforms design details into physical realities. - Multiple areas of expertise are involved, including: - human resource management - financial resource management - construction processes - schedule design and control - construction machinery - electric and mechanical facilities - legal, health, and safety issues - risk management. - Construction firms may specialize in designing and building: - buildings - bridges - dams - highways - airports - ports, and harbors. ### Construction Processes - The construction process depends on the structure's type and the materials being used. - Construction processes require expertise in areas like: - geotechnical engineering - structural engineering - construction materials - site surveying - The construction of a multi-story building usually begins with the placement of foundations. - The erection process varies depending on whether the building is made of concrete or steel. - Construction scheduling is critical to determine the daily activities to be performed. - The construction schedule needs to account for the critical phases of the project and their impact on its duration. ### Electric and Mechanical Facilities - Most construction projects require installing electric and mechanical facilities. - Knowledge of common facilities and their integration into the main structure is crucial. ### Construction Machinery - Construction machinery is a vital part of any construction project. - A wide range of machinery is used, including: - conveyer belts - bulldozers - scrapers - excavators - loaders - graders - compactors - cranes - pipe-layers - Understanding the capabilities of each machine is essential for planning the types and quantity needed for a project. ### Financial and Cost Management - Financial management is central to construction from the bidding process through execution. - Key aspects include: - bidding - cost estimating - cash flow management - Bidding is the competitive process where potential contractors vie for the contract. - Cost estimating is done at the beginning of a project and updated throughout. - Cash flow management is crucial to maintain a project during challenging financial periods. ### Contracts and Specifications - A contract is a legal document specifying the responsibilities of the contractor and the owner. - Specifications outline the details and requirements that the contractor must adhere to. - Specifications are usually based on established construction practices but may include special requirements. - These legal documents must be agreed upon by both parties. ### Health and Safety Issues - Health and safety of construction workers and the public are governed by the government. - The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) enforces regulations regarding construction. - Construction engineers and managers are responsible for familiarizing themselves with the regulations and ensuring compliance.. ### Legal Issues and Risk Management - Potential legal liabilities of a construction project include: - negative cash flow - missed milestones - construction mistakes - accidents resulting in injury or death. - Risk management focuses on preventing these issues and managing them when they occur. - Legal and ethical guidelines should be followed at all times. ## Geomatics (Surveying Engineering) - Geomatics is an expanded technical area of what was known as surveying or surveying engineering. - It applies the science of measurement to gather spatial data on land and sea and natural and constructed objects. - Application areas include: - legal documentation for property transactions - route location for construction - data collection for resource analysis - utilization - Key technical areas include: - plane surveying - geodetic surveying - aerial photography and satellite imaging - route location ### Plane Surveying - The earth's surface is a sphere, but for small areas, it can be treated as a plane. - Plane surveying simplifies the process of measuring and locating points or routes. - Optical instruments are used in conjunction with basic mathematics. - Techniques are developed to minimize measurement errors. ### Route Location - Route location, vital for highway or railway construction, involves: - designing straight lines - curves on horizontal and vertical planes - The goal is to minimize costs and adapt to changing topography. - Points are transformed from computer files to physical locations. ### Land Surveying - Land surveying focuses on measuring and documenting property lines, streets, alleys, subdivisions, and lots. - The resulting map, called a plat, serves as the legal document for ownership transactions. ### Geodetic Surveying - Geodetic surveying accounts for the curvature of the earth in calculations. - Advanced mathematical tools, such as spherical geometry and curvilinear coordinate systems, are employed. - Techniques like aerial photography, satellite imaging, and the Global Positioning System (GPS) are used. - Geodetic surveying is essential when constructing structures that span a large area, like bridges, tunnels, and long spans. ### Aerial Photography and Satellite Imaging - Advances in optical and electronic technologies have led to improved image quality, measurement resolution, and accuracy. - Applications include: - mapping ground features - real estate information generation - agricultural resource evaluation - Digital photography and computer automation enhance efficiency and reduce time requirements. ### Geographical Information System (GIS) - Surveying engineering provides the foundation for GIS. - GIS collects various data in a single database for easy retrieval and application. - Data includes: - population data - infrastructure - demographic distribution - educational and recreational resources - crime rate. - GIS is a growing example of how information technology is being applied to surveying engineering. ## Urban Planning - Urban planning integrates land use planning, infrastructure planning, and public policy to guide the development and renewal of urban areas. - Successful urban planning requires knowledge from various fields, including: - social sciences - economics - architecture - engineering - Educational programs for urban planners can be found in Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science programs. - The application of civil engineering to urban planning focuses on physical aspects, such as: - street patterns - park and recreational areas - industrial and residential areas - transportation systems - infrastructure management.