Branches of Philosophy PDF

**UNIT 2** **BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY** After addressing the question "what is philosophy?", let us now discuss the major branches of philosophy. Philosophy is normally divided into four major branches, namely: Metaphysics, Epistemology, Logic, and Ethics. [The first major branch of philosophy is M...

**UNIT 2** **BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY** After addressing the question "what is philosophy?", let us now discuss the major branches of philosophy. Philosophy is normally divided into four major branches, namely: Metaphysics, Epistemology, Logic, and Ethics. [The first major branch of philosophy is Metaphysic.] **Metaphysics** comes from the two Greek words ***meta***, - means **"beyond"** and ***physika***, - means "**physic**". Thus, metaphysics, in Greek, means "beyond physics" (Artigas, 1990). Hence, etymologically speaking, metaphysics means the study of things **beyond** the **physical**, that is, concepts or things that cannot be experienced, such as the concepts of **God**, **freedom**, and **soul** (Inductivo, 2013). Metaphysics is commonly understood as the foundation of philosophy. In fact, Aristotle calls it the "**first philosophy**". Originally, the Greek word ***metaphysika***, which literally means "**beyond/after physics"**, actually designated that part of Aristotle's works, which came after those chapters that dealt with physics. However, it was misappropriated later by the Medieval commentators on classical texts as that which is beyond the physical. Thus, over time, metaphysics has been understood as the study of that which **exists beyond the physical.** **Ontology** is derived from the two Greek words ***onto***, which means "**being**" or "that which is", that is, everything that **exists**; and ***logos***, which means "**knowledge**" or "**study**". (Note, however, that the term *logos* in ancient Greek scholarship have different connotations. For example, Heraclitus, a Greek philosopher of the late 6^th^ century BCE, understands *Logos* as reason or the underlying principle of all that is.) Ontology, therefore, is the specific branch of philosophy that studies beings in their **ultimate causes, reasons, and principles through the aid of reason alone**. In other words, Ontology studies the first principles or the **essence of all things** **(Artigas, 1990).** Some of the basic questions in ontology are: - - - - - **Cosmology**, from the Ancient Greek words ***kosmos***, which means the "**world**" and ***logos***, meaning "**study**", is the specific sub-branch of philosophy that studies the **world** (or **universe**), including its **origin, dynamics, and characteristics, as well as the laws that govern its order** **(Artigas, 1990).** Some of the basic questions in cosmology are: - - - - -  **Psychology** comes from the two Greek words ***psyche***, which means "**soul**" (but loosely understood as **mind**) and ***logos***, **study**. Thus, psychology is the specific sub-branch of philosophy that studies the **soul** or **mind**. Broadly construed, though, psychology is the study of the **nature** and **dynamics of the human person as a whole, with emphasis on the way the person's mind functions and the way she behaves** **(Artigas, 1990).** Some of the questions in psychology are: - - - - - **Theodicy** (Natural **theology**) is derived from the Greek word ***theos***, which means **God**. The word theodicy was coined by the famous **18^th^ century** German philosopher **Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz** in his **1710** work titled ***Théodicée*.** Broadly construed, theodicy is the study of **God**. But specifically, theodicy is concerned with the **justification of the goodness of God in the face of the existence of evil in the world** **(Artigas, 1990).** Some of the questions in theodicy are: - - - - - [The second major branch of philosophy is Epistemology].  **Epistemology** comes from the two Greek words **episteme**, which means **knowledge**, and logos which means **study** (Meer, Hualda, & & Bamba, 2004). It is formally defined as the study of the **nature and scope of knowledge and justified belief.** Specifically, it analyzes the nature of **knowledge** and how it relates to similar notions, such as **truth, belief, and justification.** Some of the basic questions in epistemology are: - - - - - [The third major branch of philosophy is **Logic**]. Logic comes from the Greek word **logos** -- meaning "**word**" or "**discourse**". Logos has different meanings. It is defined as the **science of correct thinking or the study of the principles and criteria of a valid argument.** More specifically, logic attempts to distinguish **sound or good reasoning from unsound or bad reasoning** **(Villasoto, Dollantas, & Limqueco, 2013).** Some of the basic questions in logic are: - - - - - [Now, on the fourth major branch of philosophy is **Ethics**]. The study and practice of philosophy is valuable for many reasons, not least because it helps to foster independent thinking. And being an independent thinker seems especially valuable when it comes to dealing with ethical questions, such as: *How should I live my life? What kind of person should I be?* (Brady, 2015) When man began to wonder about the right thing to do, another exciting field of philosophy came to life. Philosophers called it ethics. The term ethics is derived from the Greek word *ethos*, which originally means custom or character, a characteristic or habitual way of doing things or action that is properly derived from one's character (Pasco, 2018). Ethics, in ancient Greece, was concerned with the development of a virtuous and moral character. The Greeks believed that developing character would lead one not only to **knowing** *the right thing to do***,** but to actually **doing** *the right thing or* **living** *the right way of life* (Articulo, 2003). Broadly construed, ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies the rightness or wrongness of a human action. In particular, this branch of philosophy is concerned with questions of how human persons ought to act, and the search for a definition of a right conduct and the good life. It is for this reason that the attempt to seek the "good" through the aid of reason is the traditional goal of ethicists (Albert, Denise & Peterfreund 1984, p. 1-2). It must be noted, however, that there is no single, absolute definition of ethics. This is because ethics as a discipline is constantly evolving as a result of a change in socio-cultural and political context. For example, in the Greek tradition, ethics was conceived as relating to the concept of the "good life". Thus, the ethical inquiry during this time was directed toward discovering the nature of happiness. In fact, Aristotle's *Nicomachean Ethics* does not only present a theory of happiness but also provides ways in which happiness is attained. Now, centuries later, a quite different orientation was introduced by the Judeo-Christian tradition. In this ethical tradition, the ideals of righteousness before God and the love of God and neighbor, not the happy or pleasant life, constitute the substance of ethics (Adamson, 2014). Indeed, if we make an effort to reconcile these views, we are faced with the difficult task of defining the relationship between **"doing what is right"** and "being happy". Again, it is for this reason that we cannot have an absolute definition of ethics. The least that we can do, in my opinion, is to describe the nature and dynamics of ethics based on a specific time and context. Indeed, we could say simply that ethics is a study of methods and principles used to distinguished good from bad, right from wrongs actions. It is also important to note that ethics is not the same with morality, although many philosophers believe that the two terms can be used interchangeably. This is because the former denotes the theory of right action and the greater good, while the latter indicates practice, that is, the rightness or wrongness of a human action. In other words, ethics undertakes the systematic study (that is, questioning and critical examination) of the underlying principles of morality. Hence, it is interested primarily in the illustration of a more general problem and the examination of underlying assumptions and the critical evaluation of moral principles. Morality, on the other hand, is more prescriptive in nature. It tells us what we ought to do and exhorts us to follow the right way. According to Terrance McConnell (1994), "morality is characterized as an 'end-governed rational enterprise' whose object is to equip people with a body of norms (rules and values) that make for peaceful and collectively satisfying coexistence by facilitating their living together and interacting in a way that is productive for the realization of the general benefit". For example, a religious leader may ask her followers to be good at all times. In this way, a moralist may want to keep alive the values she considers to be worthwhile and to improve the moral quality of the community where she belongs. Hence, morality, at the very least, aims to guide one's action by reason and gives equal weight to the interests of each individual affected by one's decision. Indeed, this gives us a picture of what it really means to be a morally upright person. Based on the brief discussion above, we may conclude that ethics is the science of morals, while morality is the practice of ethics. **Types of Ethics** During the mid-20^th^ century, according to Sumner (1967), a "certain theory in the methodology of ethics has gradually become more and more widely accepted, at least by British and American moral philosophers". According to this position, there are two ways of doing ethical inquiry, namely, **normative ethics** and **metaethics**.  On the one hand, normative ethics is prescriptive in nature as it seeks to set norms or standards that regulate right and wrong or good and bad conduct.  This may involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others. Hence, normative ethics normally attempts to develop guidelines or theories that tell us how we ought to behave. For example, Immanuel Kant's claim that an act is morally right if it is done for the sake of duty is an example of a normative ethics. Metaethics, on the other hand, is descriptive in nature. According to Sumner (1967), "metaethics is allegedly constituted, at least in part, by questions of the meanings of the various ethical terms and functions of ethical utterances." Hence, if a normative ethical inquiry is evaluative and prescriptive, metaethics is analytical and descriptive. Put simply, metaethics is a type of ethical inquiry that aims to understand the nature and dynamics of ethical principles. It asks questions about the nature and origin of moral facts, as well as the way in which we learn and acquire moral beliefs. Thus, for example, if normative ethics urges us to do good at all times, metaethics asks the question "What is good?" For sure, if a moral philosopher attempts to address the questions "What is good?", "What is justice?", "Why should I be moral?", then that moral philosopher is doing metaethics. Hence, when Plato proposed an answer to the question "Why should I be moral", Plato was doing metaethics―indeed, Plato raised a metaethical question. In the course of the development of ethics, **applied ethics** became its third major type. As its name suggests, applied ethics is the actual application of ethical or moral theories for the purpose of deciding which ethical or moral actions are appropriate in a given situation. For this reason, casuists (that is, the adherents of applied ethics) are concerned with individual moral problems, such as abortion or euthanasia, and attempt to resolve the conflicting issues that surround these particular moral problems. Casuists may also act on some occasions in an advisory capacity, such as guiding individuals in their choice of actions. For example, they may attempt to resolve the conflicting duties of a mother suffering from ectopic pregnancy who has no other option than to abort the fetus. Applied ethics is usually divided into different fields. For example, we may talk about **business ethics**, which deals with ethical behavior in the corporate world; **biomedical** and **environmental ethics**, which deal with issues relating to health, welfare, and the responsibility we have towards people and our environment; and **social ethics**, which deals with the principles and guidelines that regulate corporate welfare within societies. Finally, the difference between the three major types of ethics can be illustrated in the following situation: *A police officer shoots a terrorist who is about to blow up a crowded shopping mall*. The act of the police officer is morally wrong according to **metaethics** because it is always wrong to kill. As is well known, killing in itself is intrinsically wrong. However, if the police officer does not shoot the terrorist, many innocent people will die or get injured. Though the police officer's act may be wrong, the adherents of **normative ethics** may say that it is the right thing to do in this particular situation because not doing so will result in the death of so many people. Hence, the action might be morally correct. Finally, the **applied ethics** may say that the police officer is just doing his best to fulfill his duty, that is, to protect as many innocent lives as possible. **Conclusion:** The discussion presents the nature of philosophy, as a whole, and its branches. Thus philosophy leads the learners to develop their critical skills since the course guides them to see themselves and their fellow's beings as persons. "Doing what is right" and "avoiding evil deeds" is absolute what ethics wanted to say to us. Indeed, we could say simply that ethics is a study of methods and principles used to distinguished good from bad, right from wrong actions. This gives us a picture of what it really means to be a morally upright person. We may conclude also that ethics is the science of morals, while morality is the practice of ethics.