Comparative Political Institution Lesson 2 2023-2024 PDF

COMPARATIVE POLITICAL INSTITUTION A.Y. 2023-2024 2° SEMESTER – LESSON - Davide Vittori Methodology: what we do and how we do it Comparative politics is essentially based on few crucial questions. Why we compare? Previous class Methodology What we compare? The object of our research How? Which method...

COMPARATIVE POLITICAL INSTITUTION A.Y. 2023-2024 2° SEMESTER – LESSON - Davide Vittori Methodology: what we do and how we do it Comparative politics is essentially based on few crucial questions. Why we compare? Previous class Methodology What we compare? The object of our research How? Which methods do we use Very important: the “what” influences the “how”. The “why” influences the “what” and the “how”. Methods in political science… …before political science. Aristotle, Πολιτικά, Book II: A comparison of 3 regimes, Sparta, Crete and Carthage “Carthage also appears to have a good constitution, with many outstanding features as compared with those of other nations, but most nearly resembling the Spartan in some points. For these three constitutions are in a way near to one another and are widely different from the others—the Cretan, the Spartan and, thirdly, that of Carthage” [1272b] Methods in political science… Speculative, but also comparative Rulers Ideal Corrupted One Monarchy Tyranny Few Aristocracy Oligarchy Many Polity Democracy Methods in political science… Speculative and normative, but also comparative One factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn; for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, and if this is the principle of justice prevailing, the multitude must of necessity be sovereign and the decision of the majority must be final and must constitute justice, for they say that each of the citizens ought to have an equal share; so that it results that in democracies the poor are more powerful than the rich, because there are more of them and whatever is decided by the majority is sovereign. [Aristotle, Politics, Book 6, section 1317b] Methods in political science… Speculative and normative, but also comparative Methods in political science… Less speculative and much more oriented toward methods John Locke (1632-1704) comparison is the “foundation and origin of all mathematics and every demonstration and certainty”. Comparison as a testing procedure: “comparing one idea with another with regard to extension, degree, time and place of the circumstances”. Methods in political science… Positivism: we can find THE truth. We just have to find it, can’t we? With Auguste Comte (1798-1857) we find, for the first time, comparison being explicitly understood as testing, as a “moment of checking an inference empirically”. It is viewed both as the “comparison of neighbouring states in various parts of the Earth” (comparison in a spatial, synchronic sense), and as the “historic comparison of cognitive states of the same society” (comparison in a temporal, diachronic sense). Methods in political science… Social science “begins” Tocqueville (1805–1859) - Democracy in America – first case-study analysis. “A new political science is needed for a world altogether new” [Intro]. “Comparative”. Durkheim (1858-1917) – Suicide method of concomitant variations. Starting from aggregate data to find recurrent patterns. Weber (1864-1920) - The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism – comparativist, even though not explicit as in Tocqueville. Methods in political science… Social sciences “begin” Social sciences – as autonomous disciplines History: not a mechanical evolution from one stage to another one (Marx would disagree with it). Science is guided by theory. Theory can be “tested” empirically. Causal explanations - Mill How do political scientists usually find their “what?” 1. Interest in the issue; WHAT? CONCEPTS 2. Relevance of the theme; MOST RELEVANT FIRST STEPS 3. Knowledge of the literature; 4. Empirically precise formulation; 5. Empirical testability of the formulation. SECOND STEPS WHAT? In order to translate the issues I have in mind a potential “what”, I need concepts (which you’ll hopefully get to know in these classes). CONCEPTS: are the only way to translate phenomena in the real world into “abstract” ideas. Word Table Meaning: definition a piece of furniture with a flat top and one or more legs Real world phenomenon WHAT? CONCEPTS In order to translate the issues I have in mind a potential “what”, I need concepts (which you’ll hopefully get to know in these classes). CONCEPTS: are the only way to translate phenomena in the real world into “abstract” ideas. Populism Leaders and parties make claim against the “elite”, “people” vs. “elite” Populism is a thin-centered ideology that considers society to be ultimately separated into two homogenous and antagonistic groups, ‘the pure people’ and the ‘corrupt elite,’ and which argues that politics should be an expression of the volonté generale (Mudde 2004). WHAT? CONCEPTS Concepts are socially constructed: the need for intension changes from culture to culture. INUIT: several words to indicate what we know as «snow». Why? The same for concepts we are familiar with: And complex phenomena: democracy. The democratic method is that institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote (Schumpeter 1942). WHAT? CONCEPTS Sartori’s rule for identifying a concept -Of any empirical concept (i.e. testable proposition) always, and separately, check (1) whether it is ambiguous, that is, how the meaning relates to the term; and (2) whether it is vague, that is, how the meaning relates to the referent; -Otherwise social science is meaningless… WHAT? CONCEPTS Always check (1) whether the key terms are defined; (2) whether the meaning declared by their definition is unambiguous; and (3) whether the declared meaning remains, throughout the argument, unchanged. Several concepts, especially in politics, are not directly observable or empirical; e.g. populism, democracy, racism. WHAT? DEFINITION We need definitions to find what they are and from definitions we abstract the concept that we then measure. Operationalization is the process of determining how an empirical concept can be measured or only empirically detected. “An operational definition incorporates the specification of the field of empirical referents of the concept. That is, it states how we propose to label, detect, measure or otherwise identify a particular empirical concept. But not all concepts lend themselves to an operational definition. When such an operation is more complex, we can resort to one or more indicators”. It’s the basis of social science. We need definitions to find what they are and from definitions we abstract the concept that we then measure. WHAT? MINIMAL DEFINITION A minimal definition – or denotative definition in Sartori’s terminology (2009: 107) – should set boundaries of a concept “sorting out the membership of any given denotatum and […] deciding the cut-off point vis-à-vis marginal entities”. Veeeeery, difficult right? Well, it depends! The basic idea is that we find a “common ground” that makes different manifestations of the same phenomenon comparable. E.g. the table: flat top and legs. Common features. WHAT? MINIMAL DEFINITION EXAMPLE Dahl, R.A. (1971), Poliarchy. Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press). A regime should be considered democratic if it has at least the following: a) universal male and female suffrage; b) free, competitive, periodic and fair elections; c) more than one political party; d) different and alternative sources of information. Translate the definition into testable operationalization: - How do we asses what is “universal”? what does “competitive” or even “periodic” means? How do we count parties? Methodology – From what to how. Once we identify the object of our research… What to compare is a crucial question that relates to the object of our research, but also to the dimensions that we want to compare. We can identify two dimensions of comparison: a spatial-horizontal domain; example? a temporal-longitudinal span; example? When we compare, we can use two basic methods: Comparing to find causes: basic approach to comparative politics 1. Method of agreement: Two or more instances of an event (effect) are compared to see what they have in common. That commonality is identified as the cause. 2. Method of difference: Two or more instances of an event (effect) are compared to see what they all do not have in common. If they have all but one thing in common, that one thing is identified as the cause. + 1. Joint method of agreement and difference: A combination of the methods of agreement and difference, the joint method looks for a single commonality among two or more instances of an event, and the joint method looks for a common absence of that possible cause. 2. Method of residues: all known causes of a complex set of events are subtracted. What is leftover is said to be the cause. Method of agreement: example Suppose your family went out together for a buffet dinner, but when you got home all of you started feeling sick and experienced stomach aches. How do you determine the cause of the illness? Suppose you draw up a table of the food taken by each family member: What’s the cause of the illness? Source: https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/sci/mill.php https://methods.sagepub.com/reference/ency c-of-case-study-research/n205.xml Member / Food taken Oyster Beef Salad Noodles Fallen ill? Mum Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Dad Yes No No Yes Yes Sister Yes Yes No No Yes You Yes No Yes No Yes Method of difference: example Suppose your family went out together for a buffet dinner, but when you got home all of you started feeling sick and experienced stomach aches. How do you determine the cause of the illness? Suppose you draw up a table of the food taken by each family member: Which is the cause of the illness? Source: https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/sci/mill.php https://methods.sagepub.com/reference/encyc-of-casestudy-research/n206.xml Member / Food taken Oyster Beef Salad Noodles Fallen ill? Mum Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Dad Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Sister Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes You Yes Yes No Yes No Joint method (agreement + difference): example https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/sci/mill.php Member / Food taken Oyster Beef Salad Noodles Fallen ill? Mum Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Dad Yes Yes No Yes Yes Sister Yes Yes Yes No Yes You Yes No No Yes No Two examples related Political system to politics Parties Coalition GVT Outcome Presidential Four Conservative Soc-dem Liberal Green High environmental standard Presidential Four Conservative Soc-dem Liberal Radical-right Low environmental standard Political system Parties Coalition GVT Outcome Proportional Four Conservative Radical-left Soc-dem Green High environmental standard Presidential Three Liberal Radical-right Green High environmental standard Which are the main problems related to the two methods Mill’s methods can only reveal evidence of probable causes; they provide no real explanatory power. Discovering instances of causation is an important step in understanding the world—but it is only part of what we need. We also need to understand how and why particular instances of causation function as they do. Answers to these questions take us beyond being able to identify cause-effect relationships. We must develop theories and hypotheses—the basis of scientific reasoning. https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/978 0199383405/student/ch14/guide/ Research in political science In political science, our point of departure is the theory, which of course derives from the observation of reality (virtuous cycle). E.g. Aristotle and the types of governments: from observation to theory. Theories provide a framework for understanding political dynamics, but for theories to be “true” or accepted among other scholars, you need always an empirical “validation” of your theory. Empirical research is essential to ground these theories in real-world observations. Research in political science Empirical research allows political scientists to move beyond speculation, providing a solid foundation for what? Analyses and policy recommendations: remember, political scientists (and social scientists in general) might have an important impact in shaping our societies. Research in political science Political systems are influenced by a myriad of factors such as historical context, socio-economic conditions, cultural norms, and international relations. Empirical research helps unravel these complexities by systematically studying and analyzing real-world data. For individuals it is even more complex? Research in political science The method you use depends on a variety of factors: - The research question (the most important) - The time and the budget - Your own expertise and knowledge - Your own inclination - The task (and the readership…). Qualitative research – a brief overview Qualitative research involves exploring and understanding complex phenomena through in-depth examination of non-numeric data. Involves non-numeric data such as text, images, or narratives. Focuses on understanding the context, meaning, and nuances of political phenomena. Research Design: Qualitative research – a brief overview Flexible and adaptable research design (openended questions and unstructured interviews) Data Analysis: interpretative analysis. Emphasizes patterns, themes, and context. Sampling: Small sample sizes with a focus on depth rather than breadth. Pros and cons? Qualitative Analysis Case-oriented: meaning that we start from the cases we detect in the real world to get to the cause of a particular phenomenon, i.e. illness or highenvironmental protection. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS Low generalization – high knowledge Single-case study (or Small-N cases): one or very few cases analysed in depth. Typical of pre-behavioural revolution. Yet, sometimes important even after the behavioural revolution. E.g. “States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China” (1979). Theda Skocpol (1947 - ). Casestudies Focused on one single case. In-depth analysis We cannot provide predictions or generate laws from single-case. Nor the evidence of a single-case can be transferred to similar cases without analysing them. Yet, they might be important for us to know and to make inferences about the case we study. (1) Atheoretical case studies; (2) Interpretative case studies; (3) Hypothesis-generating case studies; (4) Theory-confirming case studies; (5) Theory-infirming case studies; (6) Deviant case studies. Atheoretical Case Study Example: A detailed examination of a specific election campaign without explicitly applying any existing political theory. This case study might focus on the day-to-day events, strategies, and outcomes of the campaign without attempting to fit the findings into a broader theoretical framework. I want to describe what is going on in the European elections’ electoral campaign in Italy. Interpretative Case Study Example: Analyzing the historical context and cultural nuances surrounding a particular protest movement. This case study aims to understand the meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their actions within the broader socio-political environment. I want to study the movement Friday for Future in Italy and analyse what conception of climate change the young people have. HypothesisGenerating Case Study Example: I want to know whether conceptions of climate change between young and adult people. Through in-depth exploration, the case study may identify patterns or correlations that suggest potential hypotheses for further research. I want to study the movement Friday for Future in Italy and analyse whether conceptions of climate change based on the age of the protestors. TheoryConfirming Case Study Example: Examining instances where the application of a democratic governance model correlates with increased protection of human rights. This case study would provide evidence supporting existing democratic theory regarding the positive impact of democratic institutions on human rights. There are a lot of evidence that democratic countries perform better when it comes to human rights respect. I use a democratic country (e.g. Italy) to see if this is the case. TheoryInfirming Case Study Example: Exploring a case where a nation's economic growth does not lead to an increase in political stability, contrary to expectations based on mainstream economic theories. This case study challenges conventional assumptions and prompts a re-evaluation of existing theories. There are a lot of evidence that nation's economic growth does not lead to an increase in political stability. I use a politically stable country to prove that it is not the case. Deviant Case Study Example: Investigating a political party that successfully implements environmentally friendly policies despite traditionally being associated with conservative ideologies. This deviant case challenges the notion that conservative parties are universally resistant to environmental initiatives and prompts a reexamination of party platforms. Quantitative research – a brief overview Quantitative research involves systematic collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and statistical significance. Nature of Data: Involves numeric data, often obtained through surveys, experiments, or statistical sources. Aims for precision and statistical reliability: correlation and causation Quantitative research – a brief overview Quantitative research involves systematic collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and statistical significance. Nature of Data: Involves numeric data, often obtained through surveys, experiments, or statistical sources. Aims for precision and statistical reliability: correlation and causation Quantitative research – a brief overview Quantitative research involves systematic collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and statistical significance. Nature of Data: Involves numeric data, often obtained through surveys, experiments, or statistical sources. Aims for precision and statistical reliability: correlation and causation Quantitative analysis So far, we looked at examples where we study one or very few units. Political science is now mainly focused on analysis with a lot (!) of units. Medium (Comparative) or Large-N (Statistical or quasi-experimental) analysis. Variable oriented cases: establishing generalized relationships between variables. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS Medium-N analysis – from a few to up to 50. Large-N analysis – more than 50 In both cases, statistical analysis Medium and Large-N analysis They are possible only when large dataset are available. Large dataset are: costly (yet, in our times…), timeconsuming (yet, in our times…), difficult to handle (yet, in our times…). State agencies were the first collectors of large data, that sociologist used for the purpose of analysing specific phenomena in the society. Now, almost everyone can scrap big data from the web. Statistical techniques…once upon a time, there was a pen and a basic calculator. Large Dataset: examples https://www.vdem.net/en/ Large Dataset: examples https://www.chesdata.eu/ Medium and Large-N analysis Software (free and not free) for statistical analysis. Beautiful plots Highly-advanced statistical analysis – Durkheim data can be analysed in three minutes. YET: are we losing our theoretical roots? Summing Up 2 Summing Up 3